第一篇：外文翻譯英文文獻(xiàn)中英版ZigBee：無(wú)線技術(shù)_低功耗傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò) 2

ZigBee：無(wú)線技術(shù)，低功耗傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)

加里萊格

美國(guó)東部時(shí)間2004年5月6日上午12:00

技師（工程師）們?cè)诎l(fā)掘無(wú)線傳感器的潛在應(yīng)用方面從未感到任何困難。例如，在家庭安全系統(tǒng)方面，無(wú)線傳感器相對(duì)于有線傳感器更易安裝。而在有線傳感器的裝置通常占無(wú)線傳感器安裝的費(fèi)用80%的工業(yè)環(huán)境方面同樣正確（適用）。而且相比于有線傳感器的不切實(shí)際甚至是不肯能而言，無(wú)線傳感器更具應(yīng)用性。雖然，無(wú)線傳感器需要消耗更多能量，也就是說(shuō)所需電池的數(shù)量會(huì)隨之增加或改變過(guò)于頻繁。再加上對(duì)無(wú)線傳感器由空氣傳送的數(shù)據(jù)可靠性的懷疑論，所以無(wú)線傳感器看起來(lái)并不是那么吸引人。

一個(gè)低功率無(wú)線技術(shù)被稱為ZigBee，它是無(wú)線傳感器方程重寫(xiě)，但是。一個(gè)安全的網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)，對(duì)最近通過(guò)的IEEE 802.15.4無(wú)線標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（圖1）的頂部游戲機(jī)，ZigBee的承諾，把無(wú)線傳感器的一切從工廠自動(dòng)化系統(tǒng)到家庭安全系統(tǒng)，消費(fèi)電子產(chǎn)品。與802.15.4的合作下，ZigBee提供具有電池壽命可比普通小型電池的長(zhǎng)幾年。ZigBee設(shè)備預(yù)計(jì)也便宜，有人估計(jì)銷售價(jià)格最終不到3美元每節(jié)點(diǎn)。由于價(jià)格低，他們應(yīng)該是一個(gè)自然適應(yīng)于在光線如無(wú)線交換機(jī)，無(wú)線自動(dòng)調(diào)溫器，煙霧探測(cè)器和家用產(chǎn)品。

（圖1）

雖然還沒(méi)有正式的規(guī)范的ZigBee存在（由ZigBee聯(lián)盟是一個(gè)貿(mào)易集團(tuán)，批準(zhǔn)應(yīng)該在今年年底），但ZigBee的前景似乎一片光明。技術(shù)研究公司In-Stat/MDR在它所謂的“謹(jǐn)慎進(jìn)取”的預(yù)測(cè)中預(yù)測(cè)，802.15.4節(jié)點(diǎn)和芯片銷售將從今天基本上為零，增加到2010年的165萬(wàn)臺(tái)。不是所有這些單位都將與ZigBee結(jié)合，但大多數(shù)可能會(huì)。世界研究公司預(yù)測(cè)的到2010年射頻模塊無(wú)線傳感器出貨量4.65億美量，其中77％是ZigBee的相關(guān)。

從某種意義上說(shuō)，ZigBee的光明前途在很大程度上是由于其較低的數(shù)據(jù)速率20 kbps到250 kbps的，用于取決于頻段頻率（圖2），比標(biāo)稱1 Mbps的藍(lán)牙和54的802.11g Mbps的WiFi功能，或文件和音頻，藍(lán)牙一樣。對(duì)于發(fā)送傳感器的讀數(shù)，這是典型的數(shù)萬(wàn)字節(jié)數(shù)，高帶寬是沒(méi)有必要，ZigBee的低帶寬有助于它實(shí)現(xiàn)其目標(biāo)和魯棒性的低功耗，低成本。

由于ZigBee應(yīng)用的是低帶寬要求，ZigBee節(jié)點(diǎn)大部分時(shí)間可以睡眠模式，從而節(jié)省電池電源，然后醒來(lái)，快速發(fā)送數(shù)據(jù)，回去睡眠模式。而且，由于ZigBee可以從睡眠模式過(guò)渡到15毫秒或更少主動(dòng)模式下，即使是睡眠節(jié)點(diǎn)也可以達(dá)到適當(dāng)?shù)牡脱舆t。有人扳動(dòng)支持ZigBee的無(wú)線光開(kāi)關(guān)，例如，將不會(huì)是一個(gè)喚醒延遲知道前燈亮起。與此相反，支持藍(lán)牙喚醒延遲通常大約三秒鐘。

一個(gè)ZigBee的功耗節(jié)省很大一部分來(lái)自802.15.4無(wú)線電技術(shù)，它本身是為低功耗設(shè)計(jì)的。802.15.4采用DSSS（直接序列擴(kuò)頻）技術(shù)，例如，因?yàn)椋ㄌl擴(kuò)頻）另類醫(yī)療及社會(huì)科學(xué)院將在保持一樣使用它的頻率過(guò)大的權(quán)力同步。

ZigBee節(jié)點(diǎn)，使用802.15.4，是幾個(gè)不同的溝通方式之一，然而，某些方面比別人擁有更多的使用權(quán)力。因此，ZigBee的用戶不一定能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)上的任何方式選擇和他們?nèi)匀黄谕嗄甑碾姵貕勖荶igBee的標(biāo)志。事實(shí)上，一些技術(shù)專家打算用小型無(wú)線傳感器創(chuàng)建大的網(wǎng)絡(luò)，即使功率ZigBee的電池需求很大。

一個(gè)ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)節(jié)點(diǎn)可以消耗額外的功率，例如，如果它試圖避免與其他節(jié)點(diǎn)的傳輸或與其他無(wú)線電源傳輸重疊的傳輸。那么在ZigBee 802.15.4無(wú)線電的使用實(shí)現(xiàn)CSMA / CA（載波偵聽(tīng)多址接入沖突避免）技術(shù)，與ZigBee節(jié)點(diǎn)使用CSMA / CA是基本上采取了聽(tīng)先于談話的方式，看是否有無(wú)線電通信已經(jīng)展開(kāi)。但是，正如所指出的Venkat Bahl，傳感器營(yíng)銷公司恩貝爾公司副總裁兼ZigBee聯(lián)盟的副主席，這不是一個(gè)首選的方法。“有聽(tīng)意見(jiàn)的權(quán)力，”Bahl說(shuō)，“我們不喜歡這樣做?！?/p>

ZigBee和802.15.4通訊的另一個(gè)選擇是指路明燈模式，通常睡覺(jué)模式醒來(lái)網(wǎng)絡(luò)節(jié)點(diǎn)定期接收同步“燈塔”從網(wǎng)絡(luò)的控制節(jié)點(diǎn)。但是，對(duì)于一個(gè)燈塔聽(tīng)廢物力量，也因?yàn)闀r(shí)間的不確定性，特別是支配節(jié)點(diǎn)打開(kāi)，以免錯(cuò)過(guò)早期一盞明燈。

爭(zhēng)議中的通信

為了盡可能節(jié)省電力ZigBee采用一種簡(jiǎn)單交際策略,talk-when-ready發(fā)送數(shù)據(jù)時(shí),數(shù)據(jù)準(zhǔn)備派遣然后就等著自動(dòng)確認(rèn)。根據(jù)鮑勃Heile,兩ZigBee聯(lián)盟主席和電子802.15,talk-when-ready是“開(kāi)門(mén)見(jiàn)山地”計(jì)劃,但卻是一種很電力有效率?！拔覀?cè)趶V泛的分析,導(dǎo)致了最好的節(jié)能策略從各種環(huán)境安靜喧鬧的,”Heile說(shuō)?！拔覀儼l(fā)現(xiàn),手了,好,我們?cè)诎l(fā)送才離開(kāi)那包東西和承認(rèn)它。如果你不想讓他ack訊息,它只表示你慘敗,所以重發(fā)給你。你有更好的電源管理，并確定它是否安靜，然后再談?wù)??！?/p>

幸運(yùn)的是，這種當(dāng)面策略導(dǎo)致RF干擾非常小。這主要是因?yàn)閆igBee節(jié)點(diǎn)具有非常低的占空比，只偶爾傳輸發(fā)送少量的數(shù)據(jù)。其他ZigBee節(jié)點(diǎn)，以及WiWave的，而ZigBee系統(tǒng)保持在至少數(shù)個(gè)月。

通過(guò)提供互操作性，但ZigBee的補(bǔ)充能力，專利產(chǎn)品不能。舉例說(shuō)，Ember的義巴爾，互操作性允許照明系統(tǒng)的ZigBee節(jié)點(diǎn)的工作，在一個(gè)空調(diào)系統(tǒng)的ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)，反之亦然?！帮w利浦照明是真的對(duì)這個(gè)很興奮，”義巴爾說(shuō)，“因?yàn)樵瓉?lái)從一到建筑物的自動(dòng)化系統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施骨干鎮(zhèn)流器生產(chǎn)廠家他們?！?/p>

不用說(shuō)，主要的半導(dǎo)體公司很多，尤其是那些在嵌入式系統(tǒng)公司中大都熱切期待ZigBee的投入并且大規(guī)模進(jìn)入市場(chǎng)。飛思卡爾半導(dǎo)體（直到最近，摩托羅拉半導(dǎo)體產(chǎn)品部稱）已經(jīng)提供ZigBee-ready技術(shù)來(lái)選擇客戶。其他半導(dǎo)體公司，包括AMI，愛(ài)特梅爾，微芯片，飛利浦，瑞薩，都是ZigBee聯(lián)盟的成員。

ZigBee可能是緩慢滲透到無(wú)線傳感器的工業(yè)市場(chǎng)，但是。據(jù)對(duì)世界市場(chǎng)研究公司，它會(huì)需要五至七年來(lái)說(shuō)服客戶在工業(yè)上的可靠性，耐用性，以及無(wú)線傳感器系統(tǒng)的安全。并顯著預(yù)測(cè)在整個(gè)世界中ZigBee將長(zhǎng)期在工業(yè)制造上有增長(zhǎng)，因此。到2010年，公司項(xiàng)目，射頻模塊，應(yīng)用于工業(yè)監(jiān)控和控制得將達(dá)到1.65億臺(tái)，同比增長(zhǎng)190萬(wàn)元，在世界性預(yù)測(cè)中，在2004年。大約75％的將基于ZigBee和802.15.4。

最終，ZigBee的可進(jìn)入各種廣泛的應(yīng)用。家用電器，它可以幫助監(jiān)測(cè)和控制能源消耗。在汽車應(yīng)用中，它可以提供輪胎壓力監(jiān)測(cè)和遠(yuǎn)程無(wú)鑰匙進(jìn)入系統(tǒng)。也可用于ZigBee的醫(yī)療設(shè)備中，甚至在計(jì)算機(jī)外圍設(shè)備，如無(wú)線鍵盤(pán)或鼠標(biāo)。

值得關(guān)注的是越來(lái)越多，雖然，ZigBee的可能變成一種適合所有的技術(shù)的尺寸，并不很適合任何應(yīng)用程序。一些持懷疑態(tài)度，例如，企圖使ZigBee無(wú)所不包的可能使ZigBee協(xié)議棧太大，ZigBee的雙重目標(biāo)是非常低功耗和非常低的成本。如果出現(xiàn)這種情況，那么ZigBee的低功耗，低數(shù)據(jù)速率利基窄，如果它是，將被證明是過(guò)于寬泛的。然后，也許我們會(huì)需要另一種無(wú)線標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，以配合我們已經(jīng)有的蓬勃發(fā)展的人數(shù)。

加里萊格是一家位于波士頓的自由撰稿人。他擁有電子工程學(xué)士學(xué)位，曾任編輯，EDN雜志執(zhí)行編輯

ZigBee: Wireless Technology for Low-Power Sensor Networks Gary Legg

5/6/2004 12:00 AM EDT

Technologists have never had trouble coming up with potential applications for wireless sensors.In a home security system, for example, wireless sensors would be much easier to install than sensors that need wiring.The same is true in industrial environments, where wiring typically accounts for 80% of the cost of sensor installations.And then there are applications for sensors where wiring isn't practical or even possible.The problem, though, is that most wireless sensors use too much power, which means that their batteries either have to be very large or get changed far too often.Add to that some skepticism about the reliability of sensor data that's sent through the air, and wireless sensors simply haven't looked very appealing.A low-power wireless technology called ZigBee is rewriting the wireless sensor equation, however.A secure network technology that rides on top of the recently ratified IEEE 802.15.4 radio standard(Figure 1), ZigBee promises to put wireless sensors in everything from factory automation systems to home security systems to consumer electronics.In conjunction with 802.15.4, ZigBee offers battery life of up to several years for common small batteries.ZigBee devices are also expected to be cheap, eventually selling for less than $3 per node by some estimates.With prices that low, they should be a natural fit even in household products like wireless light switches, wireless thermostats, and smoke detectors.Figure 1: ZigBee adds network, security, and application-services layers to the PHY and MAC layers of the IEEE 811.15.4 radio Although no formal specification for ZigBee yet exists(approval by the ZigBee Alliance, a trade group, should come late this year), the outlook for ZigBee appears bright.Technology research firm In-Stat/MDR, in what it calls a “cautious aggressive” forecast, predicts that sales of 802.15.4 nodes and chipsets will increase from essentially zero today to 165 million units by 2010.Not all of these units will be coupled with ZigBee, but most probably will be.Research firm ON World predicts shipments of 465 million wireless sensor RF modules by 2010, with 77% of them being ZigBee-related.In a sense, ZigBee's bright future is largely due to its low data rates—20 kbps to 250 kbps, depending on the frequency band used(Figure 2)—compared to a nominal 1 Mbps for Bluetooth and 54 Mbps for Wi-Fi's 802.11g technology.But ZigBee won't be sending email and large documents, as Wi-Fi does, or documents and audio, as Bluetooth does.For sending sensor readings, which are typically a few tens of bytes, high bandwidth isn't necessary, and ZigBee's low bandwidth helps it fulfill its goals of low power, low cost, and robustness.Figure 2: ZigBee's data rates range from 20 kbps to 250 kbps, depending on the frequency used Because of ZigBee applications' low bandwidth requirements, a ZigBee node can sleep most of the time, thus saving battery power, and then wake up, send data quickly, and go back to sleep.And, because ZigBee can transition from sleep mode to active mode in 15 msec or less, even a sleeping node can achieve suitably low latency.Someone flipping a ZigBee-enabled wireless light switch, for example, would not be aware of a wake-up delay before the light turns on.In contrast, wake-up delays for Bluetooth are typically around three seconds.A big part of ZigBee's power savings come from the radio technology of 802.15.4, which itself was designed for low power.802.15.4 uses DSSS(direct-sequence spread spectrum)technology, for example, because the alternative FHSS(frequency-hopping spread spectrum)would have used too much power just in keeping its frequency hops synchronized.ZigBee nodes, using 802.15.4, can communicate in any of several different ways, however, and some ways use more power than others.Consequently, ZigBee users can't necessarily implement a sensor network any way they choose and still expect the multiple-year battery life that is ZigBee's hallmark.In fact, some technologists who are planning very large networks of very small wireless sensors say that even ZigBee is too power hungry for their uses.A ZigBee network node can consume extra power, for example, if it tries to keep its transmissions from overlapping with other nodes' transmissions or with transmissions from other radio sources.The 802.15.4 radio used by ZigBee implements CSMA/CA(carrier sense multiple access collision avoidance)technology, and a ZigBee node that uses CSMA/CA is essentially taking a listen-before-talk approach to see if any radio traffic is already underway.But, as noted by Venkat Bahl, marketing vice president for sensor company Ember Corp.and vice chairman of the ZigBee Alliance, that's not a preferred approach.“Having to listen burns power,” says Bahl, “and we don't like to do that.” Another ZigBee and 802.15.4 communications option is the beacon mode, in which normally sleeping network slave nodes wake up periodically to receive a synchronizing “beacon” from the network's control node.But listening for a beacon wastes power, too, particularly because timing uncertainties force nodes to turn on early to avoid missing a beacon.In-Your-Face Communication To save as much power as possible, ZigBee employs a talk-when-ready communication strategy, simply sending data when it has data ready to send and then waiting for an automatic acknowledgement.According to Bob Heile, who is chairman of both the ZigBee Alliance and IEEE 802.15, talk-when-ready is an “in-your-face” scheme, but one that's very power efficient.“We did an extensive analysis that led to the best power-saving strategy in various kinds of environments from quiet to noisy,” Heile says.“We discovered that, hands down, we were better off just sending the packet and acknowledging it.If you don't get an ack, it just means you got clobbered, so send it again.You wind up having much better power management than if you listen and determine if it's quiet before you talk.”

Fortunately, this in-your-face strategy leads to very little RF interference.That's largely because ZigBee nodes have very low duty cycles, transmitting only occasionally and sending only small amounts of data.Other ZigBee nodes, as well as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth modules, can easily deal with such small, infrequent bursts.ZigBee's talk-when-ready scheme doesn't suit all purposes, however.For example, in a network of thousands of tiny sensors dropped into a war zone to monitor enemy troop movements, the power savings provided still might not be enough.With each network node sending data periodically—and with transmissions repeated numerous times through other nearby nodes of a mesh network configuration in order to reach a network controller—large numbers of packet collisions and retransmissions could waste power and significantly shorten sensor node battery life.If the sensor batteries are very small and power-limited, that's especially problematic.Although contention for airwave access isn't generally a problem for ZigBee, it can be.Sensor-network company Dust Networks, in fact, says contention issues are keeping the company from turning to ZigBee—for now, at least—even though Dust remains a member of the ZigBee Alliance.“Each ZigBee device needs to contend for airspace with its neighbors,” says Dust director of product management Robert Shear, “so there's inevitably some contention and some inefficiency.” To avoid ZigBee's access contention, Dust uses contention-free TDMA(time division multiple access)technology.ZigBee, through the 802.15.4 MAC layer, provides guaranteed time slots in a scheme that somewhat resembles TDMA, but only as part of an optional “superframe” that's more complex and less power-efficient than TDMA.ZigBee has still more power-saving tricks up its sleeve, however.For example, it reduces power consumption in ZigBee components by providing for power-saving reduced-function devices(RFDs)in addition to more capable full-function devices(FFDs).Each ZigBee network needs at least one FFD as a controller, but most network nodes can be RFDs(Figure 3).RFDs can talk only with FFDs, not to other RFDs, but they contain less circuitry than FFDs, and little or no power-consuming memory.Figure 3: ZigBee networks can contain as many as 65,536 nodes in a variety of configurations ZigBee conserves still more power by reducing the need for associated processing.Simple 8-bit processors like an 8051 can handle ZigBee chores easily, and ZigBee protocol stacks occupy very little memory.An FFD stack, for example, needs about 32 kbytes, and an RFD stack needs only about 4 kbytes.Those numbers compare with about 250 kbytes for the far more complex Bluetooth technology.From ZigBee's relatively simple implementations, cost savings naturally accrue.RFDs, of course, reduce ZigBee component costs by omitting memory and other circuitry, and simple 8-bit processors and small protocol stacks help keep system costs down.Often, an application's main processor can easily bear the small additional load of ZigBee processing, making a separate processor for ZigBee functions unnecessary.But the main strategy for keeping ZigBee prices low is to have big markets and high volumes.The ZigBee Alliance, by making ZigBee an open standard and by vigorously promoting interoperability among ZigBee devices, expects that ZigBee will be very big in applications such as home and building automation.The alliance is currently working on interoperability procedures for those particular applications, which it expects to complete later this year along with ZigBee Specification 1.0.One reason for optimism about ZigBee adoption for home automation and security is its ease of use.ZigBee networks are self-forming, making it easy even for consumers to set them up.“In the residential space, there's no configuration involved,” says the ZigBee Alliance's Heile.“You take something out of the box, put the batteries in, and maybe do something as simple as button-press security—bring two devices close together, push the buttons until the green lights come on, and you're done.” ZigBee networks can also self-form in commercial and industrial settings, but professional installers will have tools that provide additional control, particularly for security.ZigBee security is flexible, says Heile, to give both consumer and professional users what they need.“You don't have to have 128-bit public-key encryption for a smoke detector,” he says, “but if I'm in a high-rise office complex, that's exactly the level of security I'm going to have for my fluorescent light fixtures.If you're in a high-rise building on Fifth Avenue, you don't want someone going down the street and turning your lights off.” Proprietary Competition Competition for ZigBee comes almost entirely from proprietary technologies.Sensor company Dust, as noted, is sticking with its own technology, and Ember, although pushing strongly into the ZigBee arena, plans to keep offering its proprietary EmberNet as well.In addition, Zensys is providing its Z-Wave technology to customers.Sylvania, for example, is already using Z-Wave for lighting control, while ZigBee systems remain at least several months away.By offering interoperability, however, ZigBee adds capabilities that proprietary products can't.For example, says Ember's Bahl, interoperability allows the ZigBee nodes of a lighting system to work with the ZigBee network of an HVAC system, or vice versa.“Philips Lighting is really excited about this,” Bahl, says, “because it turns them from a ballast manufacturer into the infrastructure backbone of a building-automation system.” Needless to say, many of the major semiconductor companies, and especially those that are big in embedded systems, are eagerly anticipating ZigBee's entry into mass markets.Freescale Semiconductor(until recently known as Motorola's Semiconductor Products Sector)is already providing ZigBee-ready technology to select customers.Other semiconductor companies, including AMI, Atmel, Microchip, Philips, and Renesas, are members of the ZigBee Alliance.ZigBee will likely be slow to penetrate the industrial market for wireless sensors, however.According to market research firm ON World, it will take five to seven years to convince industrial customers of the reliability, robustness, and security of wireless-sensor systems.ON World does predict significant long-term growth of ZigBee in industry, though.By 2010, the company projects, RF modules used in industrial monitoring and control will reach 165 million units, up from 1.9 million in 2004.About 75% of those, ON World predicts, will be based on ZigBee and 802.15.4.Eventually, ZigBee could go into a wide variety of applications.In household appliances, it could help monitor and control energy consumption.In automotive applications, it could provide tire-pressure monitoring and remote keyless entry.ZigBee could also be used in medical devices or even in computer peripherals, such as wireless keyboards or mice.Concern is increasing, though, that ZigBee could turn into a one-size-fits-all technology that doesn't fit any application particularly well.Some skeptics, for example, worry that an attempt to make ZigBee all-encompassing could make the ZigBee protocol stack too large for ZigBee's twin goals of very low power consumption and very low cost.If that happens, then ZigBee's low-power, low-data-rate niche—narrow as it is—will have proven to be too broad.And then, perhaps, we'll need yet another wireless standard to go with the burgeoning number we already have.About the Author Gary Legg is a Boston-based freelance writer.He holds a BSEE degree and is a former editor and executive editor of EDN magazine.He can be reached at gary@garylegg.com.

第二篇：物聯(lián)網(wǎng)簡(jiǎn)介及基于ZigBee的無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)

物聯(lián)網(wǎng)簡(jiǎn)介及基于ZigBee的無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)

摘 要

物聯(lián)網(wǎng)，是繼計(jì)算機(jī)、互聯(lián)網(wǎng)與移動(dòng)通信網(wǎng)之后的又一次信息產(chǎn)業(yè)浪潮，是一個(gè)全新的技術(shù)領(lǐng)域，給IT和通信帶來(lái)了廣闊的新市場(chǎng)。積極發(fā)展物聯(lián)網(wǎng)技術(shù)，盡快擴(kuò)展其應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域，盡快使其投入到生產(chǎn)、生活中去，將具有重要意義。

ZigBee無(wú)線通信技術(shù)是一種新興的短距離無(wú)線通信技術(shù)，具有低功耗、低速率、低時(shí)延等特性，具有強(qiáng)大的組網(wǎng)能力與超大的網(wǎng)絡(luò)容量，可以廣泛應(yīng)用在消費(fèi)電子品、家居與樓宇自動(dòng)化、工業(yè)控制、醫(yī)療設(shè)備等領(lǐng)域。由于其獨(dú)有的特性，ZigBee無(wú)線技術(shù)也是無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)的首選技術(shù)，具有廣闊的發(fā)展前景。ZigBee協(xié)議標(biāo)準(zhǔn)采用開(kāi)放系統(tǒng)接口(051)分層結(jié)構(gòu)，其中物理層和媒體接入層由IEEE802.15.4工作小組制定，而網(wǎng)絡(luò)層，安全層和應(yīng)用框架層由ZigBee聯(lián)盟制定。

本文首先從概念、技術(shù)架構(gòu)、關(guān)鍵技術(shù)和應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域介紹了物聯(lián)網(wǎng)的相關(guān)知識(shí)，然后著重介紹了基于ZigBee的無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)，其中包括無(wú)線傳感網(wǎng)簡(jiǎn)介、ZigBee技術(shù)概述和基于ZigBee的無(wú)線組網(wǎng)技術(shù)。

關(guān)鍵詞：物聯(lián)網(wǎng)；ZigBee；無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)

物聯(lián)網(wǎng)簡(jiǎn)介

物聯(lián)網(wǎng)概念

“物聯(lián)網(wǎng)概念”是在“互聯(lián)網(wǎng)概念”的基礎(chǔ)上，將其用戶端延伸和擴(kuò)展到任何物品與物品之間，進(jìn)行信息交換和通信的一種網(wǎng)絡(luò)概念。其定義是：通過(guò)射頻識(shí)別（RFID）、紅外感應(yīng)器、全球定位系統(tǒng)、激光掃描器等信息傳感設(shè)備，按約定的協(xié)議，把任何物品與互聯(lián)網(wǎng)相連接，進(jìn)行信息交換和通信，以實(shí)現(xiàn)智能化識(shí)別、定位、跟蹤、監(jiān)控和管理的一種網(wǎng)絡(luò)概念。

最簡(jiǎn)潔明了的定義：物聯(lián)網(wǎng)(Internet of Things)是一個(gè)基于互聯(lián)網(wǎng)、傳統(tǒng)電信網(wǎng)等信息承載體，讓所有能夠被獨(dú)立尋址的普通物理對(duì)象實(shí)現(xiàn)互聯(lián)互通的網(wǎng)絡(luò)。它具有普通對(duì)象設(shè)備化、自治終端互聯(lián)化和普適服務(wù)智能化3個(gè)重要特征。

技術(shù)架構(gòu)

從技術(shù)架構(gòu)上來(lái)看，物聯(lián)網(wǎng)一般可分為三層：感知層、網(wǎng)絡(luò)層和應(yīng)用層。感知層是物聯(lián)網(wǎng)的皮膚和五官-用于識(shí)別物體，采集信息。感知層包括二維碼標(biāo)簽和識(shí)讀器、RFID標(biāo)簽和讀寫(xiě)器、攝像頭、GPS、傳感器、M2M終端、傳感器網(wǎng)關(guān)等，主要功能是識(shí)別物體、采集信息，與人體結(jié)構(gòu)中皮膚和五官的作用類似。感知層解決的是人類世界和物理世界的數(shù)據(jù)獲取問(wèn)題。它首先通過(guò)傳感器、數(shù)碼相機(jī)等設(shè)備，采集外部物理世界的數(shù)據(jù)，然后通過(guò)RFID、條碼、工業(yè)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)總線、藍(lán)牙、紅外等短距離傳輸技術(shù)傳遞數(shù)據(jù)。感知層所需要的關(guān)鍵技術(shù)包括檢測(cè)技術(shù)、短距離無(wú)線通信技術(shù)等。

網(wǎng)絡(luò)層是物聯(lián)網(wǎng)的神經(jīng)中樞和大腦-用于傳遞信息和處理信息。網(wǎng)絡(luò)層包括通信網(wǎng)與互聯(lián)網(wǎng)的融合網(wǎng)絡(luò)、網(wǎng)絡(luò)管理中心、信息中心和智能處理中心等。網(wǎng)絡(luò)層將感知層獲取的信息進(jìn)行傳遞和處理，類似于人體結(jié)構(gòu)中的神經(jīng)中樞和大腦。網(wǎng)絡(luò)層解決的是傳輸和預(yù)處理感知層所獲得數(shù)據(jù)的問(wèn)題。這些數(shù)據(jù)可以通過(guò)移動(dòng)通信網(wǎng)、互聯(lián)網(wǎng)、企業(yè)內(nèi)部網(wǎng)、各類專網(wǎng)、小型局域網(wǎng)等進(jìn)行傳輸。特別是在三網(wǎng)融合后，有線電視網(wǎng)也能承擔(dān)物聯(lián)網(wǎng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)層的功能，有利于物聯(lián)網(wǎng)的加快推進(jìn)。網(wǎng)絡(luò)層所需要的關(guān)鍵技術(shù)包括長(zhǎng)距離有線和無(wú)線通信技術(shù)、網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)等。應(yīng)用層是物聯(lián)網(wǎng)的“社會(huì)分工”-結(jié)合行業(yè)需求，實(shí)現(xiàn)廣泛智能化。應(yīng)用層是物聯(lián)網(wǎng)與行業(yè)專業(yè)技術(shù)的深度融合，結(jié)合行業(yè)需求實(shí)現(xiàn)行業(yè)智能化，這類似于人的社會(huì)分工。

應(yīng)用層解決的是信息處理和人機(jī)交互的問(wèn)題。網(wǎng)絡(luò)層傳輸而來(lái)的數(shù)據(jù)在這一層進(jìn)入各類信息系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行處理，并通過(guò)各種設(shè)備與人進(jìn)行交互。這一層也可按形態(tài)直觀地劃分為兩個(gè)子層。一個(gè)是應(yīng)用程序?qū)?，進(jìn)行數(shù)據(jù)處理，它涵蓋了國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)的每一領(lǐng)域，包括電力、醫(yī)療、銀行、交通、環(huán)保、物流、工業(yè)、農(nóng)業(yè)、城市管理、家居生活等，其功能可包括支付、監(jiān)控、安保、定位、盤(pán)點(diǎn)、預(yù)測(cè)等，可用于政府、企業(yè)、社會(huì)組織、家庭、個(gè)人等。這正是物聯(lián)網(wǎng)作為深度信息化的重要體現(xiàn)。另一個(gè)是終端設(shè)備層，提供人機(jī)接口。物聯(lián)網(wǎng)雖然是“物物相連的網(wǎng)”，但最終是要以人為本的，還是需要人的操作與控制，不過(guò)這里的人機(jī)界面已遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超出現(xiàn)時(shí)人與計(jì)算機(jī)交互的概念，而是泛指與應(yīng)用程序相連的各種設(shè)備與人的交互。圖1為物聯(lián)網(wǎng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)構(gòu)架。

圖1 物聯(lián)網(wǎng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)構(gòu)架

關(guān)鍵技術(shù)

一、感知層

? ? ? ? 傳感器技術(shù)：感知物資信息 RFID技術(shù)：智能識(shí)別

微機(jī)電系統(tǒng)（MEMS）：采集信息 GPS/GIS技術(shù)：全球定位/地理信息系統(tǒng)

二、網(wǎng)絡(luò)層

? ? ? 無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)（WSN）技術(shù)

Wi-Fi（Wireless Fidelity,無(wú)線保真技術(shù)）

通信網(wǎng)、互聯(lián)網(wǎng)、3G網(wǎng)絡(luò)、IPV6（讓世界的第一粒都擁有一個(gè)IP地址）

? GPRS網(wǎng)絡(luò)（基于GSM系統(tǒng)的無(wú)線分組交換技術(shù)，提供端到端的、廣域的無(wú)線IP連接）

?

三、應(yīng)用層

? ? ? ? ? ? 企業(yè)資源計(jì)劃（ERP：Enterprise Resource Planning）專家系統(tǒng)（Expert System)

云計(jì)算（Cloud Computing）系統(tǒng)集成（System Integrate）行業(yè)應(yīng)用（Industry Application）資源打包（Resource Package）

廣電網(wǎng)絡(luò)、NGB（下一代廣播電視網(wǎng)）

應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域

1.城市市政管理應(yīng)用 2.農(nóng)業(yè)園林 3.醫(yī)療保健 4.智能樓宇 5.交通運(yùn)輸

圖2為物聯(lián)網(wǎng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)架構(gòu)及物聯(lián)網(wǎng)應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域。

圖2 物聯(lián)網(wǎng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)架構(gòu)及物聯(lián)網(wǎng)應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域

基于ZigBee的無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)

物聯(lián)網(wǎng)組網(wǎng)采用分層的通信系統(tǒng)架構(gòu)，包括感知延伸系統(tǒng)、傳輸系統(tǒng)、業(yè)務(wù)運(yùn)營(yíng)管理系統(tǒng)和各種應(yīng)用，在不同的層次上支持不同的通信協(xié)議。

無(wú)線傳傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)簡(jiǎn)介

電系統(tǒng)（MEMS)、片上系統(tǒng)（SOC）、無(wú)線通信和低功耗嵌入式技術(shù)的飛速發(fā)展,孕育出無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)(Wireless Sensor Networks, WSN)，并以其低功耗、低成本、分布式和自組織的特點(diǎn)帶來(lái)了信息感知的一場(chǎng)變革。無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)就是由部署在監(jiān)測(cè)區(qū)域內(nèi)大量的廉價(jià)微型傳感器節(jié)點(diǎn)組成，通過(guò)無(wú)線通信方式形成的一個(gè)多跳自組織網(wǎng)絡(luò)。

無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)是大量的靜止或移動(dòng)的傳感器以自組織和多跳的方式構(gòu)成的無(wú)線網(wǎng)絡(luò)，其目的是協(xié)作地感知、采集、處理和傳輸網(wǎng)絡(luò)覆蓋地理區(qū)域內(nèi)感知對(duì)象的監(jiān)測(cè)信息，并報(bào)告給用戶。它的英文是Wireless Sensor Network, 簡(jiǎn)稱WSN。大量的傳感器節(jié)點(diǎn)將探測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)，通過(guò)匯聚節(jié)點(diǎn)經(jīng)其它網(wǎng)絡(luò)發(fā)送給了用戶。在這個(gè)定義中，傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)實(shí)現(xiàn)了數(shù)據(jù)采集、處理和傳輸?shù)娜N功能，而這正對(duì)應(yīng)著現(xiàn)代信息技術(shù)的三大基礎(chǔ)技術(shù)，即傳感器技術(shù)、計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)和通信技術(shù)。

無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)(wireless sensor networks，WSN)是當(dāng)前在國(guó)際上備受關(guān)注的、涉及多學(xué)科高度交叉、知識(shí)高度集成的前沿?zé)狳c(diǎn)研究領(lǐng)域。它綜合了傳感器、嵌入式計(jì)算、現(xiàn)代網(wǎng)絡(luò)及無(wú)線通信和分布式信息處理等技術(shù)，能夠通過(guò)各類集成化的微型傳感器協(xié)同完成對(duì)各種環(huán)境或監(jiān)測(cè)對(duì)象的信息的實(shí)時(shí)監(jiān)測(cè)、感知和采集，這些信息通過(guò)無(wú)線方式被發(fā)送，并以自組多跳的網(wǎng)絡(luò)方式傳送到用戶終端，從而實(shí)現(xiàn)物理世界、計(jì)算世界以及人類社會(huì)這三元世界的連通。

所謂無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)由大量部署在目標(biāo)區(qū)域內(nèi)的，具備感知、無(wú)線通信與計(jì)算能力的微小傳感器節(jié)點(diǎn)所構(gòu)成的分布式網(wǎng)絡(luò)系統(tǒng)。傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)節(jié)點(diǎn)的組成和功能包括如下四個(gè)基本單元：傳感單元(由傳感器和模數(shù)轉(zhuǎn)換功能模塊組成)、處理單元(由嵌入式系統(tǒng)構(gòu)成，包括CPU、存儲(chǔ)器、嵌入式操作系統(tǒng)以及節(jié)點(diǎn)應(yīng)用程序等組成)、通信單元(由無(wú)線通信模塊組成)、以及供電單元(電池、太陽(yáng)能或其他方式)。傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)可以根據(jù)當(dāng)時(shí)的情況通過(guò)自組織方式構(gòu)成動(dòng)態(tài)的網(wǎng)絡(luò)拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)。傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)節(jié)點(diǎn)間一般采用多跳的無(wú)線通信方式進(jìn)行通信。傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)可以在獨(dú)立的環(huán)境下運(yùn)行，也可以通過(guò)網(wǎng)關(guān)連接到互聯(lián)網(wǎng)，使用戶可以遠(yuǎn)程訪問(wèn)。

無(wú)線網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)按照傳輸范圍來(lái)劃分，可以分為無(wú)線廣域網(wǎng)（WWAN），無(wú)線城域網(wǎng)（WMAN），無(wú)線局域網(wǎng)（WLAN）和無(wú)線個(gè)人域網(wǎng)（WPAN）。其中的無(wú)線個(gè)人域網(wǎng)就是所謂的短距離無(wú)線網(wǎng)絡(luò)，各種短距離無(wú)線傳輸技術(shù)層出不窮：藍(lán)牙（Bluetooth）、ZigBee、Wi-Fi、無(wú)線USB，無(wú)載波通信技術(shù)（UWB）等, 其中藍(lán)牙（Bluetooth）、UWB和ZigBee是最受產(chǎn)業(yè)界關(guān)注的三種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。Bluetooth雖然成本低，成熟度高，具有多種規(guī)范，但是其傳輸距離有限，僅為10米，只能組成最多8個(gè)節(jié)點(diǎn)的星狀網(wǎng)，電池也僅能維持?jǐn)?shù)周。UWB雖然可以實(shí)現(xiàn)高達(dá)幾百M(fèi)bps的傳輸速率，但是其覆蓋距離僅為10米，這決定了它主要被用作消費(fèi)產(chǎn)品中的視頻和高速數(shù)據(jù)解決方案，目前UWB沒(méi)有網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)能力。Wi-Fi雖然傳輸速度可以達(dá)到11Mbps，傳輸距離達(dá)到100米，但是其價(jià)格相對(duì)教昂貴，且功耗大，組網(wǎng)能力差。ZigBee技術(shù)專注于低成本，低功耗和低速率的無(wú)線通信市場(chǎng)，因此非常適合應(yīng)用于物聯(lián)網(wǎng)無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)中來(lái)。

ZigBee技術(shù)概述

ZigBee技術(shù)是一種短距離、低復(fù)雜度、低功耗、低數(shù)據(jù)速率、低成本的雙向無(wú)線通信技術(shù)或無(wú)線網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)，是一組基于IEEE 802.15.4無(wú)線標(biāo)準(zhǔn)研制開(kāi)發(fā)的有關(guān)組網(wǎng)、安全和應(yīng)用軟件方面的通信技術(shù)。ZigBee協(xié)議規(guī)范使用了IEEE 802.15.4定義的物理層(PHY)和媒體介質(zhì)訪問(wèn)層(MAC)，并在此基礎(chǔ)上定義了網(wǎng)絡(luò)層(NWK)和應(yīng)用層(APL)架構(gòu)。

基于ZigBee技術(shù)的無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)應(yīng)用在ZigBee聯(lián)盟和IEEE 802.15.4組織的推動(dòng)下，結(jié)合其他無(wú)線技術(shù)可以實(shí)現(xiàn)無(wú)所不在的網(wǎng)絡(luò)。它不僅在工業(yè)、農(nóng)業(yè)、軍事、環(huán)境、醫(yī)療等傳統(tǒng)領(lǐng)域具有極高的應(yīng)用價(jià)值，而且在未來(lái)其應(yīng)用更將擴(kuò)展到涉及人類日常生活和社會(huì)生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)的所有領(lǐng)域。IEEE 802.15.4標(biāo)準(zhǔn) 1.物理層(PHY)規(guī)范

物理層定義了物理無(wú)線信道和與 MAC 層之間的接口，提供物理層數(shù)據(jù)服務(wù)和物理層管理服務(wù)。物理層數(shù)據(jù)服務(wù)是從無(wú)線物理信道上收發(fā)數(shù)據(jù)，物理層管理服務(wù)維護(hù)一個(gè)由物理層相關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)組成的數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)。物理層功能相對(duì)簡(jiǎn)單，主要是在硬件驅(qū)動(dòng)程序的基礎(chǔ)上，實(shí)現(xiàn)數(shù)據(jù)傳輸和物理信道的管理。數(shù)據(jù)傳輸包括數(shù)據(jù)的發(fā)送和接收；管理服務(wù)包括信道能量監(jiān)測(cè)(energy detect，ED)，鏈接質(zhì)量指示(Link quality indication，LQI)和空閑信道評(píng)估(clear channel assessment,CCA)等。2.媒體介質(zhì)訪問(wèn)層(MAC)規(guī)范

MAC 層提供兩種服務(wù)：MAC層數(shù)據(jù)服務(wù)和 MAC 層管理服務(wù)。前者保證 MAC 協(xié)議數(shù)據(jù)單元在物理層數(shù)據(jù)服務(wù)中的正確收發(fā)，而后者從事 MAC層的管理活動(dòng)，并維護(hù)一個(gè)信息數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)。

MAC 層的主要功能包括如下7個(gè)方面：

1.網(wǎng)絡(luò)協(xié)調(diào)者產(chǎn)生并發(fā)送信標(biāo)幀(beacon)；

2.設(shè)備與信標(biāo)同步；

3.支持RAN 網(wǎng)絡(luò)的關(guān)聯(lián)(association)和取消關(guān)聯(lián)(disassociation)操作 4.為設(shè)備的安全性提供支持；

5.信道接入方式采用免沖突載波檢測(cè)多路訪問(wèn)(CSMA-CA)機(jī)制；

6.處理和維護(hù)保護(hù)時(shí)隙(GTS)機(jī)制；

7.在兩個(gè)對(duì)等的 MAC 實(shí)體之間提供一個(gè)可靠的通信鏈路。ZigBee技術(shù)簡(jiǎn)介

ZigBee 協(xié)議標(biāo)準(zhǔn)采用分層結(jié)構(gòu)，每一層為上層提供一系列特殊的服務(wù)：數(shù)據(jù)實(shí)體提供數(shù)據(jù)傳輸服務(wù)；管理實(shí)體則提供所有其他的服務(wù)。所有的服務(wù)實(shí)體都通過(guò)服務(wù)接人點(diǎn) SAP 為上層提供接口，每個(gè) SAP 都支持一定數(shù)量的服務(wù)原語(yǔ)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)所需的功能。ZigBee 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的分層架構(gòu)是在OSI 七層模型的基礎(chǔ)上根據(jù)市場(chǎng)和應(yīng)用的實(shí)際需要定義的。其中 IEEE 802.15.4—2003 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)定義了底層協(xié)議：物理層(physical layer，PHY)和媒體訪問(wèn)控制層(medium access control sub—layer，MAC)。ZigBee 聯(lián)盟在此基礎(chǔ)上定義了網(wǎng)絡(luò)層(network layer,NWK)，應(yīng)用層(application layer，APL)架構(gòu)。在應(yīng)用層內(nèi)提供了應(yīng)用支持子層(application support sub—layer，APS)和 ZigBee 設(shè)備對(duì)象(ZigBee device object，ZDO)。應(yīng)用框架中則加入了用戶自定義的應(yīng)用對(duì)象。ZigBee 協(xié)議的體系結(jié)構(gòu)如圖3所示。

圖3 ZigBee 協(xié)議體系結(jié)構(gòu)

ZigBee 的網(wǎng)絡(luò)層采用基于 Ad Hoc 的路由協(xié)議，除了具有通用的網(wǎng)絡(luò)層功能外，還應(yīng)該與底層的 IEEE 802.15.4標(biāo)準(zhǔn)一樣功耗小，同時(shí)要實(shí)現(xiàn)網(wǎng)絡(luò)的自組織和自維護(hù)，以最大限度方便消費(fèi)者使用，降低網(wǎng)絡(luò)的維護(hù)成本。應(yīng)用支持子層把不同的應(yīng)用映射到 ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)上，主要包括安全屬性設(shè)置、業(yè)務(wù)發(fā)現(xiàn)、設(shè)備發(fā)現(xiàn)和多個(gè)業(yè)務(wù)數(shù)據(jù)流的匯聚等功能。1.網(wǎng)絡(luò)層(NWK)規(guī)范

網(wǎng)絡(luò)層負(fù)責(zé)拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)的建立和維護(hù)網(wǎng)絡(luò)連接，主要功能包括設(shè)備連接和斷開(kāi)網(wǎng)絡(luò)時(shí)所采用的機(jī)制，以及在幀信息傳輸過(guò)程中所采用的安全性機(jī)制。此外，還包括設(shè)備的路由發(fā)現(xiàn)和路由維護(hù)和轉(zhuǎn)交。并且，網(wǎng)絡(luò)層完成對(duì)一跳(one—hop)鄰居設(shè)備的發(fā)現(xiàn)和相關(guān)結(jié)點(diǎn)信息的存儲(chǔ)。一個(gè)ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器創(chuàng)建一個(gè)新網(wǎng)絡(luò)，為新加入的設(shè)備分配短地址等。并且，網(wǎng)絡(luò)層還提供一些必要的函數(shù)，確保ZigBee的 MAC 層正常工作，并且為應(yīng)用層提供合適的服務(wù)接口。2.應(yīng)用層(APL)規(guī)范

在ZigBee協(xié)議中應(yīng)用層是由應(yīng)用支持子層、ZigBee 設(shè)備配置層和用戶應(yīng)用程序來(lái)組成的。應(yīng)用層提供高級(jí)協(xié)議棧管理功能，用戶應(yīng)用程序由各制造商自己來(lái)規(guī)定，它使用應(yīng)用層來(lái)管理協(xié)議棧。3.應(yīng)用支持子層(APS)APS 子層通過(guò) ZigBee 設(shè)備對(duì)象(ZD0)和制造商定義的應(yīng)用對(duì)象所用到的一系列服務(wù)來(lái)為網(wǎng)絡(luò)層和應(yīng)用層提供接口。APS 子層所提供的服務(wù)由數(shù)據(jù)服務(wù)實(shí)體(APSDE)和管理服務(wù)實(shí)體(APSME)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)。APSDE通過(guò)數(shù)據(jù)服務(wù)實(shí)體訪問(wèn)點(diǎn)(APSDE—SAP)來(lái)提供數(shù)據(jù)傳輸服務(wù)。APSME 通過(guò)管理服務(wù)實(shí)體訪問(wèn)點(diǎn)(APSME—SAP)來(lái)提供管理服務(wù)，它還負(fù)責(zé)對(duì) APS 信息數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)(AIB)的維護(hù)工作。

基于ZigBee的無(wú)線組網(wǎng)技術(shù)

ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)體系

ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)中存在兩種功能類型的設(shè)備，三種節(jié)點(diǎn)類型，三種拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)及兩種工作模式。

● 功能類型

ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)含全功能設(shè)備FFD（Full Function Device）和精簡(jiǎn)功能設(shè)備RFD（Reduced Function Device）兩種功能類型的設(shè)備。全功能器件擁有完整的協(xié)議功能，在網(wǎng)絡(luò)中可以作為協(xié)調(diào)器（Coordinator）、路由器（Router）和普通節(jié)點(diǎn)（Device）而存在。而精簡(jiǎn)功能器件旨在實(shí)現(xiàn)最簡(jiǎn)單的協(xié)議功能而設(shè)計(jì)，只能作為普通節(jié)點(diǎn)存在于網(wǎng)絡(luò)中。全功能器件可以與精簡(jiǎn)功能器件或其他的全功能器件通信，而精簡(jiǎn)功能器件只能與全功能器件通信，精簡(jiǎn)功能器件之間不能直接通信。ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)要求至少有一個(gè)全功能設(shè)備作為網(wǎng)絡(luò)協(xié)調(diào)器。

● 節(jié)點(diǎn)類型

ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)包含三種類型的節(jié)點(diǎn)，即協(xié)調(diào)器ZC（ZigBee Coordinator）、路由器ZR（ZigBee Router）和終端設(shè)備ZE（ZigBee EndDevice），其中協(xié)調(diào)器和路由器均為全功能設(shè)備（FFD），而終端設(shè)備選用精簡(jiǎn)功能設(shè)備（RFD）。

協(xié)調(diào)器：一個(gè)ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)PAN（Personal Area Network）有且僅有一個(gè)協(xié)調(diào)器，該設(shè)備負(fù)責(zé)啟動(dòng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)，配置網(wǎng)絡(luò)成員地址，維護(hù)網(wǎng)絡(luò)，維護(hù)節(jié)點(diǎn)的綁定關(guān)系表等，需要最多的存儲(chǔ)空間和計(jì)算能力。

路由器：主要實(shí)現(xiàn)擴(kuò)展網(wǎng)絡(luò)及路由消息的功能。擴(kuò)展網(wǎng)絡(luò)，即作為網(wǎng)絡(luò)中的潛在父節(jié)點(diǎn)，允許更多的設(shè)備接入網(wǎng)絡(luò)。路由節(jié)點(diǎn)只有在樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)和網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)中存在。

終端設(shè)備：不具備成為父節(jié)點(diǎn)或路由器的能力，一般作為網(wǎng)絡(luò)的邊緣設(shè)備，負(fù)責(zé)與實(shí)際的監(jiān)控對(duì)象相連，這種設(shè)備只與自己的父節(jié)點(diǎn)主動(dòng)通訊，具體的信息路由則全部交由其父節(jié)點(diǎn)及網(wǎng)絡(luò)中具有路由功能的協(xié)調(diào)器和路由器完成。

● 拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)

ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)支持星狀網(wǎng)（Star Network），樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)（Cluster tree Network）和網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)（Mesh Network）三種網(wǎng)絡(luò)拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)如圖2-1所示，依次是星狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)，樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)和網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)，在圖4中的C表示PAN協(xié)調(diào)器，F(xiàn)表示全功能設(shè)備，R表示精簡(jiǎn)功能設(shè)備。

圖4 星狀網(wǎng)、樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)和網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)三種拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)

星形網(wǎng)（Star）是由一個(gè)ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器和一個(gè)或多個(gè)ZigBee終端節(jié)點(diǎn)組成的。ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器必須是FFD，它位于網(wǎng)絡(luò)的中心，負(fù)責(zé)發(fā)起建立和維護(hù)整個(gè)網(wǎng)絡(luò)，其它的節(jié)點(diǎn)（終端節(jié)點(diǎn)）一般為RFD，也可以為FFD，它們分布在ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器的覆蓋范圍內(nèi)，直接與ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器進(jìn)行通信。星形網(wǎng)的控制和同步都比較簡(jiǎn)單，通常用于節(jié)點(diǎn)數(shù)量較少的場(chǎng)合。星型網(wǎng)絡(luò)拓?fù)涞淖畲髢?yōu)點(diǎn)是結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單，無(wú)需其他路由信息，一切數(shù)據(jù)包均通過(guò)ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器。其缺點(diǎn)是限制了無(wú)線網(wǎng)絡(luò)的覆蓋范圍，很難實(shí)現(xiàn)高密度地?cái)U(kuò)展，最多支持兩跳網(wǎng)絡(luò)，適用于小型網(wǎng)絡(luò)。目前為止，星形拓?fù)涫亲畛Ｒ?jiàn)的網(wǎng)絡(luò)配置結(jié)構(gòu)，被大量應(yīng)用在遠(yuǎn)程監(jiān)測(cè)和控制終端設(shè)備的通信。

網(wǎng)絡(luò)協(xié)調(diào)器要為網(wǎng)絡(luò)選擇一個(gè)唯一的標(biāo)識(shí)符，所有該星型網(wǎng)絡(luò)中的設(shè)備都是用這個(gè)標(biāo)識(shí)符來(lái)規(guī)定自己的屬主關(guān)系。不同星型網(wǎng)絡(luò)之間的設(shè)備通過(guò)設(shè)置專門(mén)的網(wǎng)關(guān)完成相互通信。選擇一個(gè)標(biāo)識(shí)符后，網(wǎng)絡(luò)協(xié)調(diào)器就允許其他設(shè)備加入自己的網(wǎng)絡(luò)，并為這些設(shè)備轉(zhuǎn)發(fā)數(shù)據(jù)分組。星型網(wǎng)絡(luò)中的兩個(gè)設(shè)備如果需要互相通信，都是先把各自的數(shù)據(jù)包發(fā)送給網(wǎng)絡(luò)協(xié)調(diào)器，然后由網(wǎng)絡(luò)協(xié)調(diào)器轉(zhuǎn)發(fā)給對(duì)方。

樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)（Cluster tree Network）由一個(gè)協(xié)調(diào)器和一個(gè)或多個(gè)星狀結(jié)構(gòu)連接而成，枝干末端的葉子節(jié)點(diǎn)一般為RFD，設(shè)備除了能與自己的父節(jié)點(diǎn)或子節(jié)點(diǎn)進(jìn)行點(diǎn)對(duì)點(diǎn)直接通訊外，其他只能通過(guò)樹(shù)狀路由完成數(shù)據(jù)和控制信息的傳輸。ZigBee 協(xié)調(diào)器比網(wǎng)絡(luò)中的其它路由器具有更強(qiáng)人的處理能力和存儲(chǔ)空間。樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)的一個(gè)顯著優(yōu)點(diǎn)就是它的網(wǎng)絡(luò)覆蓋范圍較大，但隨著覆蓋范圍的增加，信息的傳輸時(shí)延也會(huì)增大。

在建立樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)時(shí)，ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器建立網(wǎng)絡(luò)后，先選擇網(wǎng)絡(luò)標(biāo)識(shí)符，將自己的短地址設(shè)置為0，然后向它鄰近的設(shè)備發(fā)送信標(biāo)，接受其他設(shè)備的連接，形成樹(shù)的第一級(jí)，此時(shí)ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器與這些設(shè)備之間形成父子關(guān)系。與ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器建立連接的設(shè)備都分配了一個(gè)16位的網(wǎng)絡(luò)短地址。如果以終端設(shè)備的身份與網(wǎng)絡(luò)連接，則ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器分配一個(gè)唯一的16位網(wǎng)絡(luò)地址；如果以路由器的身份與網(wǎng)絡(luò)連接，則協(xié)調(diào)器會(huì)為它分配一個(gè)地址塊（包含有若干16位短地址）。路由器根據(jù)它接收到的協(xié)調(diào)器信標(biāo)的信息，配置并發(fā)送它自己的信標(biāo)，允許其他的設(shè)備與自己建立連接，成為其子設(shè)備。由此可見(jiàn)，路由器轉(zhuǎn)發(fā)消息時(shí)通過(guò)計(jì)算與目標(biāo)設(shè)備的關(guān)系，從而決定向自己的父節(jié)點(diǎn)轉(zhuǎn)發(fā)還是某個(gè)子節(jié)點(diǎn)轉(zhuǎn)發(fā)。

網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)（Mesh Network）一般是由若干個(gè)FFD連接在一起組成骨干網(wǎng)，它們之間是完全的對(duì)等通信，每個(gè)節(jié)點(diǎn)都可以與它的無(wú)線通信范圍內(nèi)的其它節(jié)點(diǎn)通信，即允許網(wǎng)絡(luò)中所有具有路由功能的節(jié)點(diǎn)直接互連。但它們中也有一個(gè)會(huì)被推薦為ZigBee協(xié)調(diào)器。網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)是樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)基礎(chǔ)上實(shí)現(xiàn)的，與樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)不同的是，它是由路由器中的路由表配合來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)數(shù)據(jù)的網(wǎng)狀路由的。Mesh網(wǎng)是一種高可靠性網(wǎng)絡(luò)，具有“自恢復(fù)”能力，它可為傳輸?shù)臄?shù)據(jù)包提供多條路徑，一旦一條路徑出現(xiàn)故障，則存在另一條或多條路徑可供選擇，但正是由于兩個(gè)節(jié)點(diǎn)之間存在多條路徑，它也是一種“高冗余”的網(wǎng)絡(luò)。該拓?fù)涞膬?yōu)點(diǎn)是減少了消息延時(shí)、增強(qiáng)了可靠性，缺點(diǎn)是需要更多的存儲(chǔ)空間開(kāi)銷。

● 工作模式

ZigBee網(wǎng)絡(luò)的工作模式可以分為信標(biāo)模式和非信標(biāo)模式兩種。信標(biāo)模式可以實(shí)現(xiàn)網(wǎng)絡(luò)中所有設(shè)備的同步工作和同步休眠，以達(dá)到最大限度地節(jié)省功耗，而非信標(biāo)模式只允許ZE進(jìn)行周期性休眠，ZC和所有ZR設(shè)備長(zhǎng)期處于工作狀態(tài)。

在信標(biāo)模式下，ZC負(fù)責(zé)以一定的間隔時(shí)間（一般在15ms-4mins之間）向網(wǎng)絡(luò)廣播信標(biāo)幀，兩個(gè)信標(biāo)幀發(fā)送間隔之間有16個(gè)相同的時(shí)槽，這些時(shí)槽分為網(wǎng)絡(luò)休眠區(qū)和網(wǎng)絡(luò)活動(dòng)區(qū)兩個(gè)部分，消息只能在網(wǎng)絡(luò)活動(dòng)區(qū)的各個(gè)時(shí)槽內(nèi)發(fā)送。

非信標(biāo)模式下，ZigBee標(biāo)準(zhǔn)采用父節(jié)點(diǎn)為ZE子節(jié)點(diǎn)緩存數(shù)據(jù)，ZE主動(dòng)向其父節(jié)點(diǎn)提取數(shù)據(jù)的機(jī)制，實(shí)現(xiàn)ZE的周期性（周期可設(shè)置）休眠。網(wǎng)絡(luò)中所有的父節(jié)點(diǎn)需要為自己的ZE子節(jié)點(diǎn)緩存數(shù)據(jù)幀，所有ZE子節(jié)點(diǎn)的大多數(shù)時(shí)間都處于休眠狀態(tài)，周期性的醒來(lái)與父節(jié)點(diǎn)握手以確認(rèn)自己仍處于網(wǎng)絡(luò)中，并向父節(jié)點(diǎn)提取數(shù)據(jù)，其從休眠模式轉(zhuǎn)入數(shù)據(jù)傳輸模式一般只需要15ms。

簡(jiǎn)單的概括為：兩種設(shè)備，三種節(jié)點(diǎn)類型，三種拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)及兩種工作模式。1.全功能設(shè)備FFD，精簡(jiǎn)功能設(shè)備RFD 2.協(xié)調(diào)器，路由器，終端設(shè)備

3.星狀網(wǎng)，樹(shù)狀網(wǎng)，網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)

4.信標(biāo)模式 ,非信標(biāo)模式(信標(biāo)模式可以實(shí)現(xiàn)網(wǎng)絡(luò)中所有設(shè)備的同步工作和同步休眠，以達(dá)到最大限度地節(jié)省功耗；而非信標(biāo)模式只允許ZE進(jìn)行周期性休眠，ZC和所有ZR設(shè)備長(zhǎng)期處于工作狀態(tài))。

圖5為基于ZigBee的無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)在物聯(lián)網(wǎng)中的應(yīng)用。

圖5 基于ZigBee的無(wú)線傳感器網(wǎng)絡(luò)在物聯(lián)網(wǎng)中的應(yīng)用

第三篇：建筑項(xiàng)目招投標(biāo)外文翻譯外文文獻(xiàn)英文文獻(xiàn)

Building engineering bidding

Abstract: Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed.The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market.This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is important to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the bidding work.Because the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic.key : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasures Bidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism.Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender.Tender bidding strategy, including pricing strategies and skills.All of the strategies and skills from the numerous contractors bidding on the accumulated experience and objective

understanding of the law and of the actual situation understanding, but also with the contractor's decision-making ability and courage are closely related.Bidding documents is the general programme and play book of the bidding activity through the process of bidding.The bidding documents will specify that How to conduct each bidding work, how to dispatch bidding documents, the requirements for tenderer,how to rate and decide bidding and the procedures of bidding.Therefore, the personnel who is responsible for prepare bidding documents should first have a

general view of the bidding work, include all the requirements and arrangements into the bidding documents.If meet problems that have not been considered previously, then resolve them one by one during the preparation.The course of bidding documents preparation is also the course of making bidding scheme.In another respect, bidding documents is also the legal instruments.Besides relevant law and rules, the bidding documents are the common game rules that bidder,bidding agent and tenderer should subject to through the bidding.Bidding documents are the legal instruments that all the three bidding related parties should subject to, have legal force, therefore, the bidding documents-making personnel required to have the awareness and quality of legal in order to reflect the fair, just and legal requirement in the bidding documents.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role.But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve.This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed.The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market.This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role.But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve.This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.The practice of project bidding purpose is to market competition of openness, fairness and justice.However, due to the construction market development is not standard, management system and the experience of inadequate, architectural engineering bidding in concrete operation exist in ACTS of unfair competition, and some drawbacks.This obviously violate the bidding, the bidding process, and will lose its significance for other bidder fails to bid is unjust, disturbed the bidding(project contracting market economic order, for activities), this kind of behavior must be prohibited, only in this way can we make construction engineering competitive trading activity lawfully healthy.This subject will I learned and social practice, present situation and construction project bidding system is expounded, and the disadvantages of bidding for construction project with ACTS of unfair competition phenomenon and analysis of causes, and finally make corresponding preventive countermeasures.Construction cost management system, both theoretical discussion, but also need to practice innovation.Under the conditions of market economy, project cost management, competitive and orderly market for construction management services platform structures.In such a premise, the original scale and method of valuation is inappropriate, and this needs to be reformed and improved.The spirit of “the government's macro regulation and control, enterprise autonomy offer, the market will price” principle, to implement the implementation specification bill of quantity.Inventory Valuation bidding activities are based on market economy mechanism, based on legal, scientific, fair, open and reasonable way to determine the winning bidder of an economic activity.Bidding is bidding activities constitute two basic aspects.The bidding activity is merely that by bidding to choose the one with the work

Construction process capability, moderate cost, quality is excellent, short duration of construction enterprises, and this is the ultimate goal tender.I have participated in internships over the course of the project bidding, and completed over part of the calculation of quantities, combined with graduate experience in the design process, a brief analysis of the mode Quantities Call for Tender The meaning of risk and risk characteristics of the general construction, the lowest price sealed bidding construction method produces several risks and incentives，according to their characteristics discussed the feasibility of risk control and prevention.Comparison of engineering and engineering security risk management, insurance, similarities and differences between the two projects and benefits;construction project bidding and tendering process characteristics of human behavior is analyzed to reveal the bidder's risk appetite and behavioral characteristics with changes in the external environment change, when the default punishment is light, the bidder preference appetite for risk and default penalties, with the increase exceeds a certain value, the risk of bidders to show preference for behavior change to avoid the risk of penalties, the greater the bidder biased in favor of a more risk-averse behavior, the results of the control and prevention of risk behavior of bidders has an important and practical significance Construction Cost Management from the “quantity-one price” plan model to “price of separation volume” model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost.This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation.It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.With the construction of in-depth development of the market, the traditional fixed pricing model no longer suited to market-oriented economic development needs.In order to adapt to the current project bidding by the market needs of a project cost, we must work on the existing valuation methods and pricing model for reform, the implementation of projects bill pricing.Engineering is a list of pricing model and adapt to the market economy, allowing independent contractor pricing through market competition determine prices, with the international practice of pricing model.With the bill pricing model projects to promote, in accordance with international bidding practices is imperative.Therefore, “the lowest reasonable price of the successful bidder” My future is the most important evaluation methods.At this stage due to the implementation of projects bill pricing model and the problems mainly against China

at this stage “ in the minimum reasonable price of the principles of the successful bidder, most contractors have not yet set up their own enterprises of scale, companies unable to determine the reasonable Cost.This article is a scientific and fast set ”reasonable cost“ to study the key.First, from the project cost of the basic concept, of the engineering bill pricing model under the cost structure, to accurately predict costs of the project provided the basis, considering the average cost of the social cost to individual enterprises and the tender stage of the cost estimates.Followed through on fuzzy math and technology for smooth in-depth analysis, through ”close-degree,“ the concept of reasonable fuzzy math and exponential smoothing technologies, construction of the project cost vague prediction model, and in accordance with the relevant information and statistics Information and experience to establish a ”framework structure,“ the comparison works Construction Cost Management from the ”quantity-one price“ plan model to ”price of separation volume“ model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost.This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation.It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.A healthy bidding system should be in accordance with the ”open, fair and justice" and the principle of good faith, and establish a unified, open, competitive and orderly construction market.In view of the current problems existing in the bidding process, adopt regulations, and formulate and perfect the institution, strengthening process supervision measures, they can better regulate construction market order, prevent corruption from its source, purify construction market, promote the construction market order progressively toward standardization, institutionalized, and constantly improve the quality and level of the bidding work.建筑項(xiàng)目招投標(biāo)

摘要:目前在工程建設(shè)項(xiàng)目行業(yè)中，以工程招投標(biāo)為特征的建筑市場(chǎng)已經(jīng)形成，施工企業(yè)為創(chuàng)造良好經(jīng)濟(jì)效益，必須嚴(yán)格控制成本，加強(qiáng)成本控制管理，才能提高市場(chǎng)適應(yīng)能力和競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力。本文從降低成本、增加收入兩方面闡述對(duì)施工成本的有效控制。投標(biāo)文件的編制是投標(biāo)工作的一個(gè)重要環(huán)節(jié)，直接影響投標(biāo)工作的成敗，投標(biāo)的成敗對(duì)企業(yè)的生存和發(fā)展有著直接的影響，因此要編制出高質(zhì)量的投標(biāo)文件，提高單位的中標(biāo)率，防止無(wú)效標(biāo)及廢標(biāo)出現(xiàn)。關(guān)鍵詞：

招投標(biāo)

不正當(dāng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)

防范對(duì)策

招標(biāo)投標(biāo)是一種工程交易形式，工程招投標(biāo)的過(guò)程就是確定中標(biāo)人和工程價(jià)格的過(guò)程，而工程價(jià)格的確定，是工程招投標(biāo)工作中非常重要的一個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)，搞好招投標(biāo)工程的價(jià)格確定工作，可以有效地控制工程造價(jià)，創(chuàng)造公平、公正的市場(chǎng)環(huán)境，營(yíng)造有序競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的機(jī)制。在建筑工程招標(biāo)投標(biāo)活動(dòng)中，建筑施工企業(yè)要想在投標(biāo)中立于不敗之地，中標(biāo)得到工程，然后又要從承包工程中贏利，就需要綜合考慮各種主觀條件與客觀因素、研究投標(biāo)策略，確定投標(biāo)方法。

投標(biāo)策略包括投標(biāo)策略和作價(jià)技巧。所有的策略和技巧來(lái)自承包商的無(wú)數(shù)次投標(biāo)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)積累以及對(duì)客觀規(guī)律的認(rèn)識(shí)和對(duì)實(shí)際情況的了解，同時(shí)也與承包商的決策能力和魄力息息相關(guān)。

從招標(biāo)進(jìn)程上講，招標(biāo)文件是招標(biāo)活動(dòng)的總綱和劇本。每項(xiàng)招標(biāo)工作如何開(kāi)始，如何發(fā)出招標(biāo)文件，對(duì)投標(biāo)人有什么要求，如何評(píng)標(biāo)，如何決標(biāo)，招標(biāo)程序是什么，都在招標(biāo)文件中做出規(guī)定，所以編制招標(biāo)文件的人員首先要對(duì)本次招標(biāo)工作有一個(gè)全局性的認(rèn)識(shí)，把本次招標(biāo)的要求和安排反映到招標(biāo)文件當(dāng)中，在編制當(dāng)中也會(huì)遇到事先沒(méi)有想到的問(wèn)題，那就在編制當(dāng)中逐一解決，編制招標(biāo)文件的過(guò)程也是制定招標(biāo)方案的過(guò)程。

從另一個(gè)意義上來(lái)講，招標(biāo)文件也是法律文件，除了相關(guān)的法律法規(guī)外，在招標(biāo)的全過(guò)程中招標(biāo)人，投標(biāo)人，招標(biāo)代理機(jī)構(gòu)共同遵循的游戲規(guī)則就是招標(biāo)文件，這是參加招標(biāo)工作三方人士必須遵循的法律文件，具有法律效力，所以編制招標(biāo)文件的人員須有法律意識(shí)和素質(zhì)，在招標(biāo)文件中體現(xiàn)出公平、公正、合法的要求。

我國(guó)建筑工程招投標(biāo)法實(shí)施以及工程施工監(jiān)理制度的實(shí)踐，對(duì)規(guī)范我國(guó)建筑市場(chǎng)、提高建筑工程施工質(zhì)量，起到了積極的作用。但是在實(shí)施過(guò)程中存在不

少缺陷，需要完善、充實(shí)和提高。本工程招標(biāo)文件根據(jù)《中華人民共和國(guó)招投標(biāo)法》規(guī)定，對(duì)投標(biāo)人，投標(biāo)企業(yè)進(jìn)行嚴(yán)格把關(guān)，對(duì)競(jìng)標(biāo)者提出了專業(yè)性的要求，對(duì)工程的概況進(jìn)行了說(shuō)明。

目前在工程建設(shè)項(xiàng)目行業(yè)中，以工程招投標(biāo)為特征的建筑市場(chǎng)已經(jīng)形成，施工企業(yè)為創(chuàng)造良好經(jīng)濟(jì)效益，必須嚴(yán)格控制成本，加強(qiáng)成本控制管理，才能提高市場(chǎng)適應(yīng)能力和競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力。本文從降低成本、增加收入兩方面闡述對(duì)施工成本的有效控制。

我國(guó)建筑工程招投標(biāo)法實(shí)施以及工程施工監(jiān)理制度的實(shí)踐，對(duì)規(guī)范我國(guó)建筑市場(chǎng)、提高建筑工程施工質(zhì)量，起到了積極的作用。但是在實(shí)施過(guò)程中存在不少缺陷，需要完善、充實(shí)和提高。本工程招標(biāo)文件根據(jù)《中華人民共和國(guó)招投標(biāo)法》規(guī)定，對(duì)投標(biāo)人，投標(biāo)企業(yè)進(jìn)行嚴(yán)格把關(guān)，對(duì)競(jìng)標(biāo)者提出了專業(yè)性的要求，對(duì)工程的概況進(jìn)行了說(shuō)明。

實(shí)行工程招投標(biāo)的目的是為了市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的公開(kāi)、公平、公正。但是，由于建筑市場(chǎng)發(fā)育尚不規(guī)范，管理體制的束縛以及經(jīng)驗(yàn)不足等原因，建筑工程招標(biāo)投標(biāo)在具體操作中還存在不正當(dāng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)行為和一些弊端。這顯然違背了招投標(biāo)的目的，整個(gè)招標(biāo)投標(biāo)過(guò)程也就失去了意義，對(duì)其他未中標(biāo)的投標(biāo)人來(lái)講也是不公正的，擾亂了招投標(biāo)（工程承發(fā)包市場(chǎng)）經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)秩序，對(duì)于這類行為必須予以禁止，只有這樣，才能使建設(shè)工程競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性交易活動(dòng)依法健康運(yùn)行。因此本課題將結(jié)合本人所學(xué)及社會(huì)實(shí)踐，對(duì)目前的建設(shè)工程招投標(biāo)制度及現(xiàn)狀進(jìn)行闡述，并針對(duì)建設(shè)工程招投標(biāo)存在的弊端與不正當(dāng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)行為現(xiàn)象及產(chǎn)生原因進(jìn)行分析，最后做出相應(yīng)的防范對(duì)策研究。

造價(jià)管理體系的建設(shè)，既包括理論上的探討，又需要實(shí)踐中的創(chuàng)新。市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)條件下的工程造價(jià)管理，要為建筑市場(chǎng)有序競(jìng)爭(zhēng)搭建管理服務(wù)平臺(tái)。在這樣一個(gè)大前提下，原有的定額和計(jì)價(jià)方法是不適應(yīng)的，這就需要改革和完善。本著“政府宏觀調(diào)控、企業(yè)自主報(bào)價(jià)、市場(chǎng)形成價(jià)格”的原則，來(lái)推行實(shí)施工程量清單計(jì)價(jià)規(guī)范。清單計(jì)價(jià)模式下招投標(biāo)活動(dòng)是建立在市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)運(yùn)行機(jī)制下，依據(jù)法律程序，以科學(xué)、公正、公開(kāi)合理的方法確定中標(biāo)人的一種經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)。招投標(biāo)是構(gòu)成招標(biāo)投標(biāo)活動(dòng)中兩個(gè)最基本的環(huán)節(jié)。而招投標(biāo)活動(dòng)，無(wú)非是想通過(guò)招標(biāo)，選擇一家具有工

工程施工能力、造價(jià)適中、質(zhì)量較優(yōu)、工期較短的施工企業(yè)，這也是進(jìn)行招標(biāo)的最終目的。本人在實(shí)習(xí)過(guò)程中曾參與過(guò)多個(gè)項(xiàng)目的招投標(biāo)工作，并完成過(guò)

部分工程量清單的計(jì)算，結(jié)合畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)程中的體會(huì)，簡(jiǎn)要分析一下工程量清單計(jì)價(jià)模式下的招投標(biāo)工作。

從風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的內(nèi)涵和建設(shè)工程一般性風(fēng)險(xiǎn)特點(diǎn)出發(fā)，了建設(shè)工程最低價(jià)格密封招標(biāo)法的幾種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)及其產(chǎn)生的誘因，根據(jù)其特性探討了風(fēng)險(xiǎn)控制與防范的可行性。比較了工程擔(dān)保與工程保險(xiǎn)這兩種工程風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理異同與優(yōu)點(diǎn)；并對(duì)建設(shè)工程招投標(biāo)過(guò)程中的投標(biāo)人的行為特征進(jìn)行了分析，揭示投標(biāo)人的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)偏好行為特征隨著外部環(huán)境的改變而變化，當(dāng)違約懲罰較輕時(shí)，投標(biāo)人偏向于追求風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，而隨著違約懲罰標(biāo)準(zhǔn)加大超過(guò)某一值后，投標(biāo)人表現(xiàn)出的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行為改變?yōu)槠蛴谝?guī)避風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，懲罰標(biāo)準(zhǔn)越大投標(biāo)人行為偏向于更加規(guī)避風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，這一結(jié)果對(duì)控制和防范投標(biāo)人的行為風(fēng)險(xiǎn)具有重要的與現(xiàn)實(shí)意義。

工程造價(jià)管理由“量?jī)r(jià)合一”的計(jì)劃模式向“量?jī)r(jià)分離”的市場(chǎng)模式轉(zhuǎn)變，逐步建立市場(chǎng)形成價(jià)格為主的價(jià)格機(jī)制，把價(jià)格的決定權(quán)交給參與市場(chǎng)的各方，并最終通過(guò)市場(chǎng)來(lái)配置資源，從而真正實(shí)現(xiàn)通過(guò)市場(chǎng)機(jī)制決定工程造價(jià)。這對(duì)規(guī)范建筑市場(chǎng)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)行為和促進(jìn)工程招標(biāo)投標(biāo)機(jī)制的創(chuàng)新發(fā)揮重要作用?？梢哉f(shuō)，實(shí)行工程量清單計(jì)價(jià)是我國(guó)工程造價(jià)管理制度的一大進(jìn)步，也是在我國(guó)加入WTO后，與全球建筑業(yè)同行競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的有力工具。

隨著工程建筑市場(chǎng)的深入發(fā)展，傳統(tǒng)的定額計(jì)價(jià)模式已不適應(yīng)市場(chǎng)化經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的需要。為了適應(yīng)目前工程招投標(biāo)由市場(chǎng)形成工程造價(jià)的需要，必須對(duì)現(xiàn)行工程計(jì)價(jià)方法和計(jì)價(jià)模式進(jìn)行改革，實(shí)行工程量清單計(jì)價(jià)。工程量清單計(jì)價(jià)模式是一種與市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)相適應(yīng)的、允許承包單位自主報(bào)價(jià)、通過(guò)市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)確定價(jià)格、與國(guó)際慣例接軌的計(jì)價(jià)模式。隨著工程量清單計(jì)價(jià)模式的推廣，按國(guó)際慣例招標(biāo)投標(biāo)勢(shì)在必行。因此“最低合理價(jià)中標(biāo)”是我國(guó)今后最主要的評(píng)標(biāo)辦法?，F(xiàn)階段因?qū)嵤┕こ塘壳鍐斡?jì)價(jià)模式而出現(xiàn)的問(wèn)題主要有，針對(duì)我國(guó)現(xiàn)階段《招標(biāo)投標(biāo)法》中規(guī)定的最低合理價(jià)中標(biāo)的原則，多數(shù)承包商尚未建立自己的企業(yè)定額，無(wú)法確定企業(yè)的合理成本。本文就是以科學(xué)、快捷的確定“合理成本價(jià)”為研究的關(guān)鍵。首先從工程成本的基本概念入手，分析了工程量清單計(jì)價(jià)模式下的成本構(gòu)成，為準(zhǔn)確預(yù)測(cè)工程成本提供了基礎(chǔ)，綜合考慮了社會(huì)平均成本和企業(yè)個(gè)別成本來(lái)進(jìn)行投標(biāo)階段的成本估算。其次通過(guò)對(duì)模糊數(shù)學(xué)和指數(shù)平滑技術(shù)的深入分析，通過(guò)“貼近度”的概念，合理的將模糊數(shù)學(xué)與指數(shù)平滑技術(shù)結(jié)合起來(lái)，構(gòu)建了工程成本模糊預(yù)測(cè)技術(shù)的數(shù)學(xué)模型，并根據(jù)統(tǒng)計(jì)的有關(guān)參考資料和經(jīng)驗(yàn)建立了“框架結(jié)構(gòu)體系”的對(duì)比工程

一個(gè)健康的招投標(biāo)制度應(yīng)該是按照“公開(kāi)、公正、公平”和誠(chéng)實(shí)信用的原則，建立起統(tǒng)一、開(kāi)放、競(jìng)爭(zhēng)、有序的建筑市場(chǎng)。針對(duì)當(dāng)前招投標(biāo)過(guò)程中存在的問(wèn)題，采取完善法規(guī)、明確職責(zé)、健全機(jī)構(gòu)，強(qiáng)化過(guò)程監(jiān)督等措施，才能更好地規(guī)范建筑市場(chǎng)秩序，從源頭上遏止腐敗，凈化建筑市場(chǎng)，促進(jìn)建筑市場(chǎng)秩序逐步走向規(guī)范化，法制化的軌道，不斷提高工程招投標(biāo)工作的質(zhì)量和水平。

第四篇：交通運(yùn)輸 外文翻譯 外文文獻(xiàn) 英文文獻(xiàn) 北京運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)

附件1：外文資料翻譯譯文

北京運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)

摘要：運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)提供了與城市郊區(qū)顯著不同的服務(wù)，這通常會(huì)導(dǎo)致有關(guān)用戶選擇交通方式的不同假設(shè)。本文所提到的仿真模型，提出了評(píng)估影響運(yùn)輸服務(wù)的政策。運(yùn)輸方式被認(rèn)為是公共交通工具，包括輕型軌道交通（輕軌）和公共汽車，加上私人轎車。在三步旅行者行為仿真模型中，使用了廣義運(yùn)輸成本的概念。它提出各類交通以及對(duì)居民的出行選擇和郊區(qū)住宅社區(qū)形態(tài)量化的建議，并使用了源自于中國(guó)北京一個(gè)典型走廊的數(shù)據(jù)。

仿真結(jié)果表明：票價(jià)降低，增加公共交通的綜合能力，以及對(duì)私家車的懲罰是很有必要的，以此來(lái)提高系統(tǒng)效率和郊區(qū)的吸引力，特別是對(duì)那些低收入的人；沒(méi)有公路定價(jià)，將鼓勵(lì)中等收入居民轉(zhuǎn)向私人轎車，同時(shí),高收入者可能因?yàn)榈缆窊頂D離開(kāi)郊區(qū)；然而公共交通的改善可以吸引更多短距離和中距離的旅客，但轎車用戶對(duì)于旅行距離并不敏感。

關(guān)鍵詞：廣義成本，公共交通，擁擠定價(jià)，運(yùn)輸服務(wù)，北京

從上世紀(jì)90年代，中國(guó)大中城市已經(jīng)歷郊區(qū)化，而且這些城市的空間結(jié)構(gòu)逐步形成，在很大程度上依賴于交通運(yùn)輸?shù)倪M(jìn)步。由于人口爆炸和改造中心城市，許多郊區(qū)城鎮(zhèn)發(fā)展為住宅區(qū)，這些新發(fā)展城鎮(zhèn)的大部分居民受雇于中心城市或附近的工業(yè)區(qū)。例如，80%多回龍關(guān)郊區(qū)社區(qū)的居民在北京或發(fā)達(dá)地區(qū)中心城市工作，幾乎有一半的北京社區(qū)居民受雇于朝陽(yáng)區(qū)中央商務(wù)區(qū)。這些領(lǐng)域在交通系統(tǒng)規(guī)劃與提供經(jīng)營(yíng)效率方面對(duì)交通政策制定者和城市規(guī)劃設(shè)計(jì)師提出了新的挑戰(zhàn)。

在許多情況下，邊沿城鎮(zhèn)通過(guò)高速公路和城市軌道連接中心城市或工業(yè)園區(qū)。相比傳統(tǒng)的城市，郊區(qū)展覽更穩(wěn)定的運(yùn)輸使用模式，更加依賴公共交通，私人汽車，較少使用機(jī)動(dòng)模式（自行車，步行）。工作距離比任何單一因素對(duì)人們的交通方式的影響都大。這樣的特點(diǎn)，可以深刻影響的人口郊區(qū)化，并限制一些人移民到郊區(qū)。

本文利用西北地區(qū)的北京作為一個(gè)測(cè)試案例，分析了運(yùn)輸服務(wù)的政策，主要是費(fèi)用和服務(wù)質(zhì)量，將影響整體運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)與城市空間結(jié)構(gòu)。本文的組織如下：第二節(jié)簡(jiǎn)要回顧最近一些有關(guān)運(yùn)輸方式選擇的文獻(xiàn)，并與海城市海城走廊案件，特別是中國(guó)的現(xiàn)狀進(jìn)行比較。第三部分討論廣義運(yùn)輸成本的概念，并建立了新的概念，包括利用廣義成本和轉(zhuǎn)移成本預(yù)算的障礙。第四節(jié)在公共運(yùn)輸和駕駛之間介紹旅客運(yùn)輸方式選擇行為仿真模型，然后轉(zhuǎn)向注意中國(guó)經(jīng)驗(yàn)運(yùn)輸服務(wù)政策與海城市海城出行方式選擇。在第五節(jié)中，特別提到的情況是，利用北京的輕軌和高速公路，西北地區(qū)迅速郊區(qū)化。在第六節(jié)中，得出主要研究結(jié)果和政策啟示。

大量的研究機(jī)構(gòu)在研究運(yùn)輸方式和個(gè)體出行方式的選擇。一般來(lái)說(shuō)，有三種常見(jiàn)的方法來(lái)確定這個(gè)問(wèn)題。第一部分著重研究影響選擇決策的每個(gè)模式的特點(diǎn)，所采用的實(shí)證研究狀況用于改變結(jié)果，研究人與旅游目的等。例如，travel-to-work行為在阿克拉（加納）主要由知覺(jué)服務(wù)品質(zhì)、商業(yè)通勤車以及員工的個(gè)人情況決定，而不是通過(guò)訪問(wèn)，等待時(shí)間或車載。在英國(guó)，為了走親訪友而決定行程，經(jīng)濟(jì)因素在很大程度上解釋模式的選擇，使用私人交通工具時(shí)定性的理由往往是次要的（科恩、哈里斯，1998）。約翰松等使用瑞典上班者的圖片案例表明了靈活性和舒適性這兩個(gè)感覺(jué)影響個(gè)人的選擇模式。根據(jù)在法蘭克福，德國(guó)的實(shí)驗(yàn)領(lǐng)域研究和統(tǒng)計(jì)分析，認(rèn)為有四類人。一類人很少重視金錢(qián)和時(shí)間因素，第二種人非常重視金錢(qián)但很不重視時(shí)間，第三種人都重視，第四種人很少重視金錢(qián)但很重視時(shí)間。林坦庫(kù)等人選自來(lái)自1998年的數(shù)據(jù)，即荷蘭國(guó)家旅游調(diào)查組確認(rèn)空間配置，土地利用和交通基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，對(duì)長(zhǎng)途旅行模式比如通勤，商務(wù)和休閑旅行具有重大影響。

廣義運(yùn)輸成本的概念經(jīng)常用于評(píng)估和解釋的旅游行為。廣義旅行成本包括旅行時(shí)間，超過(guò)時(shí)間，金錢(qián)成本，停車收費(fèi)，和一些令人忽視的小費(fèi)。然而，這一概念在不同的文獻(xiàn)因?yàn)椴煌难芯磕康氖遣煌?。例如，廣義騎自行車費(fèi)用如下：旅行時(shí)間，物理需要，舒適，交通安全，自行車被盜的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，停放自行車的費(fèi)用以及維護(hù)費(fèi)用，個(gè)人安全。貨幣化的廣義概念通常是將旅行時(shí)間轉(zhuǎn)換成貨幣費(fèi)用，增加的費(fèi)用，收取的費(fèi)用，在這項(xiàng)研究中，模擬通勤出行行為，三個(gè)運(yùn)輸關(guān)于概念費(fèi)用是相通的。第一個(gè)可以被定義為預(yù)算障礙，包括經(jīng)營(yíng)費(fèi)用，養(yǎng)路費(fèi)以及停車場(chǎng)收費(fèi)。第二個(gè)是貨幣化的廣義成本和時(shí)間成本，包括經(jīng)營(yíng)費(fèi)用，以及停車費(fèi)用。用戶被假定為盡量減少個(gè)人的貨幣化成本，把自己的出行方有別于旅行時(shí)間和費(fèi)用成本。廣義貨幣化成本的公共交通是計(jì)算訪問(wèn)到火車站的時(shí)間，等候時(shí)間，這是計(jì)算的基礎(chǔ)上的進(jìn)展，等車時(shí)間，以及票價(jià)。貨幣化費(fèi)用包括旅行時(shí)間，收費(fèi)，汽車運(yùn)行成本和在工作地方的停車場(chǎng)收費(fèi)。第三個(gè)概念是確定模式轉(zhuǎn)移成本即擁擠造成不適的成本。據(jù)推測(cè)，如果乘客在車輛已遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過(guò)容量，新來(lái)的旅客會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)移到其他負(fù)擔(dān)得起的運(yùn)輸方式。

貫穿城市及鄉(xiāng)村的公路通常是不僅僅可以通私人轎車，也可以通公共汽車。介于以前的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，道路定價(jià)可以大大提高用戶的剩余地區(qū)，公共交通的費(fèi)用可以大大減少因長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的旅行而造成的擁擠，特別是，如果用戶很大程度上鐘情于公共交通。方案2表明高收入的旅客不得不放棄定期遷移到郊區(qū)的計(jì)劃，主要由于免費(fèi)使用的情況下所造成的嚴(yán)重?cái)D塞。另一組是深深影響了中等收入的旅客，她他們從公共運(yùn)輸方式換成了私家車駕駛。

公共汽車票價(jià)降低和公交線路的增加使得許多中等收入居民轉(zhuǎn)移去坐公交車，同時(shí)小汽車用戶轉(zhuǎn)移到輕軌，特別是那些短距離旅行。此外，研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，一個(gè)綜合改善公共交通服務(wù)和一些私人汽車懲罰措施的政策，有利于提高系統(tǒng)效率和郊區(qū)社區(qū)的吸引力。

這種綜合系統(tǒng)包括輕軌、公共汽車票價(jià)的降低，服務(wù)質(zhì)量的提高和公路通行費(fèi)的征收。應(yīng)該指出，輕軌已旨在增加公交扶手使公共交通更吸引用戶，從而，減少道路擁擠。根據(jù)模擬結(jié)果，輕鐵及巴士票價(jià)減少以及客容量的增加，使這一模式對(duì)于那些中低收入旅行者更有吸引力。最后的結(jié)果是，越來(lái)越多的人移民到郊區(qū)，不論是低收入到高收入階層。當(dāng)然，公共交通服務(wù)的改善需要政府補(bǔ)貼，這也是一個(gè)世界性的現(xiàn)象。每個(gè)模式的經(jīng)濟(jì)旅行距離幾乎不受不同的運(yùn)輸服務(wù)的政策影響。公共汽車是用于短距離的旅行，而中、長(zhǎng)距離者喜歡輕鐵。反之，小汽車用戶則是無(wú)所謂。結(jié)果表明，這些低收入公民因現(xiàn)有運(yùn)輸服務(wù)的政策限制遷移到郊區(qū)的經(jīng)濟(jì)房屋，包括相對(duì)高收費(fèi)的公共交通和公路，以及有限的輕軌和公交線路。當(dāng)然，所有運(yùn)輸模式對(duì)于在家工作的人在一定程度上都有影響。

城市交通在整個(gè)世界中都是是政府政策的一個(gè)主要領(lǐng)域。運(yùn)輸政策也會(huì)影響城市形態(tài)，尤其是郊區(qū)化。在北京，許多經(jīng)濟(jì)公寓是專為那些低收入居民建造準(zhǔn)備的。在重大問(wèn)題的決策之前有兩個(gè)主要的問(wèn)題。首先，從過(guò)去的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，大量在郊區(qū)社區(qū)中的永久居民都是中等或更高收入的人。而且很多的業(yè)主仍然居住在城市中心，郊區(qū)房子只用來(lái)去度假。此外，居民不斷投訴交通擁堵和相對(duì)高的收費(fèi)公路，特別是在繁忙時(shí)間。本研究的模擬結(jié)果解釋了這些現(xiàn)象并嘗試給出了相應(yīng)的政策含義。

附件2：外文原文

Transport system

Abstract Transport systems offer substantially different services in city-suburb areas;this usually leads to different assumptions about user behavior in transport mode choice.In this paper a simulation model is proposed to assess the effect of transport service policies on mode choice.The transport modes considered are public transport, including light rail transit(LRT)and bus, together with the private auto.In the three step traveler behaviour simulation model, the concept of generalised transport costs is used.Various transit incentives are proposed and their impacts on residents travel choice and suburban residential community form are quantified, using data on a typical city-suburb corridor in Beijing, China.The simulation results show that: the fare reduction and capacity increase of public transport integrated with private car disincentives is necessary to improve system efficiency and suburb community attractiveness, particularly for those low income people;without highway pricing, medium income residents will be encouraged to shift to private car while more high income persons might leave the suburb because of road congestion;public transport improvement can attract more short and medium distance travelers, but the car users are not sensitive to travel distance.Keywords: generalised cost, public transport, congestion pricing, transport service, Beijing From the middle of 1990s, metropolitans in China have been experiencing suburbanization, and the spatial structures of these cities are shaped, in large measure, by the advances of transportation.Many suburban towns were development only for residential areas because of the population explosion and renovation in central cities.Most of the residents in these new development towns are employed in the central city or near industrial parks.For example, more than 80% residents of Hui long guan suburban community in Beijing have jobs in central city or developed CBD areas.And almost half of the residents in Wangjing community are employed in CBD in Chaoyang District.These areas present new challenges for transport policy makers and urban planning designers to plan and operate efficient transportation systems.In many cases the edge towns are connected to the central city or industrial parks by high-speed highways and urban rails.Compared to traditional urban areas, the suburban towns exhibit more stable transport mode use, more reliance on public transport and private automobile, less use of non-motorized modes(bicycle, walking).Home to work distances have a stronger bearing on people’s transport mode to work than any single factor.Such characteristics can deeply influence the population suburbanization, and restrict some people from immigrating to the suburb.This paper analyses how the transport service policy, mainly fare and service quality, will impact the overall transport system performance and urban spatial structure, using the North-west area of Beijing as a test case.The paper is organized as follows.Section II briefly reviews some of the recent literatures on transport mode choice, and compares these studies with the city-suburban corrid or cases, especially the current conditions in China.Section III discusses the concept of generalised transport costs, and establishes the new concepts including budget barrier, monetized generalised cost and shift cost.Section IV presents the traveler behaviour simulation model of transport mode choice between public transport and driving.Attention is then turned to the Chinese experience of transport service policy and city-suburban travel mode choice in section V, with special reference to the case of North-west area which is a rapidly suburbanized region served by light rail and highway in Beijing.Major findings of the research and the policy implications are concluded and discussed in section Ⅵ.A substantial body of research exists on transport mode and individual travel mode choice.In general, there are three common approaches to identify this issue.The first part of researches focuses on determining the characteristics of each mode which influence the choice decision.The results change with the adopted empirical case condition, studied person and travel purpose, etc.For example, travel-to-work behavior in Accra(Ghana)is influenced mainly by perceived service quality of the commercial commuter vehicles as well as employees' personal circumstances rather than by access, waiting or in-vehicle times(Abane, 1993).For trips made to visit friends and relatives in Britain, the economic reasons largely explain mode choice, and qualitative reasons for using private transport are often secondary(Cohen and Harris, 1998).Vredin Johansson et el.used a sample of Swedish commuters to prove that both attitudes towards flexibility and comfort influencing the individual's choice of mode(Vredin Johansson, Heldt et al., 2006).Based on an experimental field study and statistical analysis conducted in Frankfurt Main, Germany, four classes of individuals were identifed.One class allocates a low importance to both monetary and time considerations, the second allocates high importance to money and low importance to time, the third allocates high importance to both, and the fourth allocates a low importance to money and a high importance to time(Davidov, Yang-Hansen etal., 2006).And Limtanakool etel.employed data from the 1998 Netherlands National Travel Survey to confirm the spatial configuration of land use and transport infrastructure has a significant impact on mode choice processes for medium and long distance trips for all purposes: commute, business, and leisure trips

Generalised transport costs is a concept frequently used forassessing and explaining travel behaviour.The generalised costs of travel include the travel time, excess time, money cost, parking charge, and the discomfort and lesser connivance.However, this concept is diverse in different literatures for varying research purposes.For example, the generalised costs of cycling are the following: travel time, physical needs, comfort, traffic safety, risk of bicycle theft, costs of parking bicycles and maintenance costs, personal security.And the concept of monetized generalised cost is usually calculated by converting travel time into monetary cost, and adding the cost of the fare charged In this study, for simulating the commuter’s travel behaviour, three transport costs related concepts are adopted in order.The first can be defined as budget barrier, including the fare or toll charged together with parking cost which all means cash payment in the trip.The second one is monetized generalized cost including fare, parking and time cost.Users are assumed to minimize individual monetized generalized trip cost and divide themselves among the travel modes that are differentiated in travel time and fare cost.The monetized generalized costs of public transport is computed as a function of the access time to the station, the waiting time which is calculated based on the line’s headway, in-vehicle travel time, and the fare.The monetized generalized cost of driving includes travel time, toll, car operation cost and parking charge in work place.The third concept is identified as mode shift cost which means discomfort cost caused by congestion.It is assumed that if the passengers in vehicle have far exceeded the capacity, the new coming passenger will shift to other affordable transport mode.The city-suburb highway is usually used not only by private auto, but the bus.Using the previous experience，road pricing can greatly increase users’ surplus in the area where the cost of public transport can be significantly reduced by decreasing congestion because of the long travel distances involved, Particularly, if a substantial portion of users are captive to public transport.The results of scenario 2 show that more high income travelers have to abandon the plan of migrating to suburb mainly owing to the serious congestion on the condition of free use.Another deeply influenced group is medium income travelers who shift from public transport modes to car driving.Bus fare reduction and bus lines increase make many medium income residents shift to bus transport, meanwhile the car users shift to light rail, particularly those who travel for short distances.Furthermore, the research finds that an integrated policy of improved public transport service and some private car disincentives is beneficial to improve system efficiency and suburb community attractiveness.The integration consists of light rail and bus fare reduction, service quality improvement and highway toll imposition.It should be pointed out that light rail has been designed to increase transit rider ship by making public transport more attractive to users and, thus, to reduce road congestion.According to the simulation result, the light rail and bus fare reduction and capacity increase makes this mode more attractive to those low and medium income travelers who are captive to bus mode before.The final outcome is that more people can migrant to the suburb, from low to high income classes.Of course, the public transport service improvement requires government subsidization, which is a worldwide phenomenon.The economic travel distance of each mode is almost not affected by different transport service policies.Bus is used more by short distance traveler, while the medium and long distance commuters prefer to light rail.On the contrary, car users are not sensitive to the travel distance, as shown in figure 3-4.The result indicates that those low income citizens are restricted from migrating to economic houses in suburb towns on account of existing transport service policies, including relatively high fare of public transport and highway, limited light rail capacity and bus lines.Of course, all transport modes have been affected to some degree by the numbers of persons working at home.Urban transportation is a major realm of government po1icy throughout the world.The transport policies also will affect the urban form deeply, especially during suburbanization.In Beijing, many economic apartments have been constructed in suburb for those low income citizens.There are two major problems before the policy makers.First, from the past experience, a large number of the permanent residents in the suburban communities are medium or even high income people.And many of the house owners still reside in central city and go to their suburban house only for holiday.In addition, the residents continually complain at the transport congestion and relative high toll of highway, particularly at peak time.The results of simulation in this study explain these phenomena and try to give some policy implications.

第五篇：市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷_外文翻譯_外文文獻(xiàn)_英文文獻(xiàn)_顧客滿意策略與顧客滿意

顧客滿意策略與顧客滿意營(yíng)銷

原文來(lái)源：《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》

自20世紀(jì)八十年代末以來(lái),顧客滿意戰(zhàn)略已日益成為各國(guó)企業(yè)占有更多的顧客份額,獲得競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)的整體經(jīng)營(yíng)手段。

一、顧客滿意策略是現(xiàn)代企業(yè)獲得顧客“貨幣選票”的法寶

隨著時(shí)代的變遷,社會(huì)物質(zhì)財(cái)富的極大充裕,顧客中的主體———消費(fèi)者的需求也先后跨越了物質(zhì)缺乏的時(shí)代、追求數(shù)量的時(shí)代、追求品質(zhì)的時(shí)代,到了20世紀(jì)八十年代末進(jìn)入了情感消費(fèi)時(shí)代。在我國(guó),隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)的高速發(fā)展,我們也已迅速跨越了物質(zhì)缺乏時(shí)代、追求數(shù)量的時(shí)代乃至追求品質(zhì)的時(shí)代,到今天也逐步邁進(jìn)情感消費(fèi)時(shí)代。在情感消費(fèi)時(shí)代,各企業(yè)的同類產(chǎn)品早已達(dá)到同時(shí)、同質(zhì)、同能、同價(jià),消費(fèi)者追求的已不再是質(zhì)量、功能和價(jià)格,而是舒適、便利、安全、安心、速度、躍動(dòng)、環(huán)保、清潔、愉快、有趣等,消費(fèi)者日益關(guān)注的是產(chǎn)品能否為自己的生活帶來(lái)活力、充實(shí)、舒適、美感和精神文化品位,以及超越消費(fèi)者期望值的售前、售中、售后服務(wù)和咨詢。也就是說(shuō),今天人們所追求的是具有“心的滿足感和充實(shí)感”的商品,是高附加值的商品和服務(wù),追求價(jià)值觀和意識(shí)多元化、個(gè)性化和無(wú)形的滿足感的時(shí)代已經(jīng)來(lái)臨。

與消費(fèi)者價(jià)值追求變化相適應(yīng)的企業(yè)間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng),也由產(chǎn)品競(jìng)爭(zhēng)、價(jià)格競(jìng)爭(zhēng)、技術(shù)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)、廣告競(jìng)爭(zhēng)、品牌競(jìng)爭(zhēng)發(fā)展到現(xiàn)今的形象競(jìng)爭(zhēng)、信譽(yù)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)、文化競(jìng)爭(zhēng)和服務(wù)競(jìng)爭(zhēng),即顧客滿意競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。這種競(jìng)爭(zhēng)是企業(yè)在廣角度、寬領(lǐng)域的時(shí)空范圍內(nèi)展開(kāi)的高層次、體現(xiàn)綜合實(shí)力的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。它包括組織創(chuàng)新力、技術(shù)創(chuàng)新力、管理創(chuàng)新力、產(chǎn)業(yè)預(yù)見(jiàn)力、產(chǎn)品研發(fā)力、員工向心力、服務(wù)顧客力、顧客親和力、同行認(rèn)同力、社會(huì)貢獻(xiàn)力、公關(guān)傳播溝通力、企業(yè)文化推動(dòng)力、環(huán)境適應(yīng)力等等。這些綜合形象力和如何合成綜合持久的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力,這就是CS策略所要解決的問(wèn)題。CS時(shí)代,企業(yè)不再以“自己為中心”,而是以“顧客為中心”；“顧客為尊”、“顧客滿意”不再是流于形式的口號(hào),而是以實(shí)實(shí)在在的行動(dòng)為基礎(chǔ)的企業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)的一門(mén)新哲學(xué)。企業(yè)不再以質(zhì)量達(dá)標(biāo),自己滿意為經(jīng)營(yíng)理念,而是以顧客滿意,贏得顧客高忠誠(chéng)度為經(jīng)營(yíng)理念。企業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)策略的焦點(diǎn)不再以爭(zhēng)取或保持市場(chǎng)占有率為主,而是以爭(zhēng)取顧客滿意為經(jīng)營(yíng)理念。因此,營(yíng)銷策略的重心不再放在競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手身上而是放在顧客身上,放在顧客現(xiàn)實(shí)的、潛在的需求上。當(dāng)企業(yè)提供的產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)達(dá)到了顧客事先的期望值,顧客就基本滿意；如果遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超越顧客的期望值,且遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)高于其他同行,顧客才真正滿意；如果企業(yè)能不斷地或長(zhǎng)久地令顧客滿意,顧客就會(huì)忠誠(chéng)。忠誠(chéng)的顧客不僅會(huì)經(jīng)常性地重復(fù)購(gòu)買(mǎi),還會(huì)購(gòu)買(mǎi)企業(yè)其它相關(guān)的產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)；忠誠(chéng)的顧客不僅會(huì)積極向別人推薦他所買(mǎi)的產(chǎn)品,而且對(duì)企業(yè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)者的促銷活動(dòng)具有免疫能力一個(gè)不滿意的顧客會(huì)將不滿意告訴16-20個(gè)人,而每一個(gè)被告知者會(huì)再傳播給12-15個(gè)人。這樣,一個(gè)不滿意者會(huì)影響到二、三百人。在互聯(lián)網(wǎng)普及的今天,其影響則更大。據(jù)美國(guó)汽車業(yè)的調(diào)查,一個(gè)滿意者會(huì)引發(fā)8筆潛在的生意,其中至少有一筆會(huì)成交。而另一項(xiàng)調(diào)查表明,企業(yè)每增加5%的忠誠(chéng)顧客,利潤(rùn)就會(huì)增長(zhǎng)25%-95%。一個(gè)企業(yè)的80%的利潤(rùn)來(lái)自20%的忠誠(chéng)顧客；而獲取一個(gè)新顧客的成本是維持一個(gè)老顧客成本的6倍。所以,美國(guó)著名學(xué)者唐·佩珀斯指出:決定一個(gè)企業(yè)成功與否的關(guān)鍵不是市場(chǎng)份額,而是在于顧客份額。

于是,企業(yè)紛紛通過(guò)廣泛細(xì)致的市場(chǎng)調(diào)研、與消費(fèi)者直接接觸、顧客信息反饋等方式來(lái)了解顧客在各方面的現(xiàn)實(shí)需求和潛在需求。依靠對(duì)企業(yè)滿意忠誠(chéng)的銷售、服務(wù)人員,定期、定量地對(duì)顧客滿意度進(jìn)行綜合測(cè)定,以便準(zhǔn)確地把握企業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)中與“顧客滿意”目標(biāo)的差距及其重點(diǎn)領(lǐng)域,從而進(jìn)一步改善企業(yè)的經(jīng)營(yíng)活動(dòng)。依靠高親和力的企業(yè)文化、高效率的人文管理和全員共同努力,不斷地向顧客提供高附加值的產(chǎn)品,高水準(zhǔn)的親情

般的服務(wù),以贏得顧客不斷變化和提升的滿意度,贏得更多的顧客份額。如海爾始終把顧客需求放在第一位,站在顧客的角度考慮產(chǎn)品開(kāi)發(fā)、設(shè)計(jì),提供個(gè)性化、人性化實(shí)用產(chǎn)品,從拉幕式彩電到最新推出的“換臺(tái)不晃眼彩電”,從小小神童洗衣機(jī)到手搓式洗衣機(jī),從小王子冰箱到“智慧眼”變頻空調(diào),從17個(gè)小時(shí)制出“邁克冷柜”到售后一條龍星級(jí)服務(wù),無(wú)一不是為滿足顧客需求而提供的令其滿意的超值產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)。又如微軟的每一種產(chǎn)品都集中了世界上最優(yōu)秀的開(kāi)發(fā)人員,推出比顧客想要的還要好的產(chǎn)品,同時(shí)形成全球化銷售的規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì),把價(jià)格降到最低。而這正是微軟20年來(lái)成功的秘決。

綜上所述,情感消費(fèi)時(shí)代,決定生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營(yíng)何種產(chǎn)品和提供什么樣服務(wù)的權(quán)力已不再屬于企業(yè),而是屬于消費(fèi)者,衡量企業(yè)效率以及存在價(jià)值的決定權(quán)轉(zhuǎn)移到了顧客手中,企業(yè)應(yīng)盡量迎合顧客,超值滿足顧客,以盡可能地從顧客那里獲得“貨幣選票”。而CS策略正是獲取這種選票的制勝法寶。

二、顧客滿意營(yíng)銷策略的主要步驟

第一,在企業(yè)文化層面上確立以顧客為中心,顧客利益至上,以顧客滿意為目標(biāo)的經(jīng)營(yíng)理念。

CS理論中的顧客指的是內(nèi)部員工和外部顧客(包括經(jīng)銷商、批發(fā)商、代理商、最終消費(fèi)者和原材料供應(yīng)商、合作者等),顧客滿意包括員工和外部顧客的滿意,顧客忠誠(chéng)亦然。企業(yè)成功的機(jī)制在于顧客滿意與忠誠(chéng),員工是顧客滿意和忠誠(chéng)的關(guān)鍵人員。員工對(duì)企業(yè)的滿意度和忠誠(chéng)度是顧客對(duì)企業(yè)產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)滿意度和忠誠(chéng)度的基礎(chǔ),顧客滿意度和忠誠(chéng)度是員工行為的必然結(jié)果。沒(méi)有員工的滿意與忠誠(chéng),就不可能創(chuàng)造出令顧客滿意的產(chǎn)品和提供超值服務(wù),顧客自然就不滿意不忠誠(chéng),離企業(yè)而去。當(dāng)員工滿意與忠誠(chéng)時(shí)就會(huì)在與顧客接觸中以極大的熱情投入自己的智力資本,創(chuàng)造性地為顧客服務(wù),并能及時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)顧客需求動(dòng)向,及時(shí)提升產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)的附加值,緊緊抓住顧客的心,令其滿意。聯(lián)邦快遞發(fā)現(xiàn),當(dāng)內(nèi)部員工滿意率提高到85%時(shí),他們的顧客滿意率高達(dá)95%,且企業(yè)的利潤(rùn)也就十分樂(lè)觀。在這里員工的態(tài)度決定著一切。

因此,企業(yè)必須將顧客滿意的經(jīng)營(yíng)理念滲透于員工的頭腦中,體現(xiàn)在管理中,對(duì)員工忠誠(chéng),以他們研發(fā)產(chǎn)品、制造產(chǎn)品、提供營(yíng)銷服務(wù)令顧客滿意。如九頭鳥(niǎo)”,員工得到的教育是一切以顧客為中心是企業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)的最高原則。顧客是恩人,是朋友,是老師,是顧客給了我們工作的機(jī)會(huì),工作的價(jià)值,工作的樂(lè)趣和工作的意義。我們應(yīng)該發(fā)自內(nèi)心地真誠(chéng)地感謝顧客,顧客的滿意就是我們的工作目標(biāo),為顧客創(chuàng)造最有價(jià)值的產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)是我們的最高目標(biāo)。在此原則指導(dǎo)下,寧愿讓自己吃虧不能讓顧客吃虧已成為“九頭鳥(niǎo)”員工的行為準(zhǔn)則。讓顧客感到在“九頭鳥(niǎo)”消費(fèi)是一種享受,是一種物超所值的享受。顧客在付出成本后,對(duì)自己的消費(fèi)有一個(gè)期望值,而消費(fèi)者最后得到的消費(fèi)在其心中也會(huì)有一個(gè)評(píng)價(jià)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)來(lái)衡量,如果物超所值,他以后就會(huì)再來(lái),如物有所值,他以后可能會(huì)再來(lái)；否則,消費(fèi)者將不會(huì)再來(lái)。所以,“九頭鳥(niǎo)”的目的就是為消費(fèi)者提供物超所值的產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)。有如此經(jīng)營(yíng)理念及其指導(dǎo)下的令顧客滿意營(yíng)銷,“九頭鳥(niǎo)”紅火于京城就不難理解了。

第二,讓顧客參與產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)與研發(fā)。

企業(yè)以顧客為中心,經(jīng)過(guò)市場(chǎng)細(xì)分,廣泛的調(diào)研了解目標(biāo)公眾的需求和價(jià)值,站在顧客的角度考慮產(chǎn)品開(kāi)發(fā)、設(shè)計(jì),提供個(gè)性化、人性化的高附加值的產(chǎn)品和服務(wù),是正確的,但必須讓用戶一起參與產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)。利用互聯(lián)網(wǎng)和CAD技術(shù)與顧客建立有效的溝通和信息交流,及時(shí)掌握顧客的各種需求信息和顧客價(jià)值,鼓勵(lì)各種信息來(lái)源渠道對(duì)顧客信息庫(kù)進(jìn)行及時(shí)的更新。經(jīng)過(guò)分析、總結(jié),了解顧客的本質(zhì)需求,并使顧客本質(zhì)需求信息成為企業(yè)各個(gè)部門(mén)的共享資源。以此設(shè)計(jì)產(chǎn)品,提供令顧客滿意的服務(wù)?，F(xiàn)在,許多公司采用一種名為:“產(chǎn)品配置器”的系統(tǒng)來(lái)幫助用戶一起參與產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)。即在計(jì)算機(jī)里存放了所

有產(chǎn)品模塊的最新信息,并隨時(shí)更換,營(yíng)銷人員在銷售現(xiàn)場(chǎng)通過(guò)因特網(wǎng),根據(jù)用戶需要或與用戶一起配置出其所需要的能滿足其價(jià)值的產(chǎn)品。上海通用公司生產(chǎn)的汽車令經(jīng)營(yíng)商和用戶非常滿意,就是因?yàn)樽層脩粢黄饏⑴c了產(chǎn)品的設(shè)計(jì)。而海爾無(wú)論是為四川農(nóng)民生產(chǎn)的能洗地瓜的洗衣機(jī),為上海用戶生產(chǎn)的“小王子冰箱”,還是換臺(tái)不晃眼的彩電,海爾的“智慧眼”變頻空調(diào),星級(jí)一條龍售后服務(wù)等,都是依據(jù)用戶的需要,吸收了顧客參與產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)的建議,而設(shè)計(jì)開(kāi)發(fā)的令顧客滿意的富有人性化的超值商品和服務(wù),自然就贏得了更多顧客的芳心。

第三,提供令顧客滿意的全程服務(wù)和個(gè)性服務(wù)。

全程服務(wù)是針對(duì)顧客的購(gòu)物與消費(fèi)每一環(huán)節(jié)所進(jìn)行的細(xì)致而又深入的服務(wù),心的服務(wù)。全程服務(wù)就是消費(fèi)者從產(chǎn)生消費(fèi)欲望那一刻起到商品使用價(jià)值耗盡為止的整個(gè)過(guò)程,對(duì)消費(fèi)者的細(xì)心呵護(hù),使消費(fèi)者與自己的品牌緊密相連,讓消費(fèi)者享受文化、享受服務(wù)、感受理念、感到受益,心甘情愿地消費(fèi)你的產(chǎn)品或服務(wù),令消費(fèi)者在每一個(gè)層面都感到完全滿意,并能贏得客戶的忠誠(chéng)。銷售階段———保證顧客得到必須及時(shí)優(yōu)質(zhì)的服務(wù),售前咨詢培訓(xùn)參與,傳遞知識(shí)信息,創(chuàng)造購(gòu)物需求,令顧客理性選擇,幫助顧客購(gòu)買(mǎi)自己實(shí)用稱心的商品；售中支持提供方便,最大限度地發(fā)揮商品功能,讓顧客體味到溫情和價(jià)值；售后增值反饋回訪服務(wù),使顧客感受到溫馨和真情。如一老太太買(mǎi)的海爾空調(diào),回家途中被黑心司機(jī)拉跑了,海爾得知后,立即免費(fèi)給老太太送去一臺(tái)海爾新空調(diào),并決定以后送貨到位。內(nèi)蒙一用戶因家中失火,將剛買(mǎi)的海爾冰箱燒壞,海爾接電后從計(jì)算機(jī)服務(wù)網(wǎng)絡(luò)中查到該用戶詳細(xì)住址,派專人專車用4天時(shí)間趕到為其修好冰箱。這種超值服務(wù)必然贏得顧客超期望值的滿意。

在如今情感消費(fèi)時(shí)代,人們追求“心的滿足感和充實(shí)感”的商品,是高附加值極富個(gè)性化價(jià)值的商品,追求價(jià)值觀和意識(shí)多元化、個(gè)性化和無(wú)形的滿足感。因此,企業(yè)不再將注意力投入于全體消費(fèi)者的一般需求差異上,應(yīng)針對(duì)追求各異的個(gè)性消費(fèi)者,量體裁衣,設(shè)計(jì)并開(kāi)發(fā)企業(yè)的產(chǎn)品及服務(wù)項(xiàng)目,以適應(yīng)當(dāng)今個(gè)性化和多樣化的消費(fèi)趨勢(shì)。面對(duì)越來(lái)越復(fù)雜的消費(fèi)傾向,企業(yè)要駕馭顧客需求,進(jìn)行個(gè)性化營(yíng)銷,關(guān)鍵在于建立顧客資料庫(kù)與顧客信息反饋系統(tǒng),進(jìn)行客戶關(guān)系管理,不斷收集了解消費(fèi)者的要求和偏好的變化,以及對(duì)企業(yè)新的期望,以便更好地為顧客提供個(gè)性化服務(wù)。

第四,培育顧客忠誠(chéng)。

在餐飲業(yè),滿意顧客中品牌轉(zhuǎn)換者的比例竟高達(dá)60%到80%。這說(shuō)明滿意的顧客并不一定能成為忠誠(chéng)顧客。而一個(gè)企業(yè)80%的利潤(rùn)來(lái)自20%的忠誠(chéng)顧客,營(yíng)銷顧客集Aracature Corp.的總裁Larry Light在Advertising Age雜志上說(shuō),從忠誠(chéng)顧客身上得到的收益是非忠誠(chéng)顧客的9倍。沃爾瑪之所以能夠持續(xù)增長(zhǎng)成為500強(qiáng)的老大,根本原因在于它吸引客戶忠誠(chéng)的經(jīng)營(yíng)能力。

顧客忠誠(chéng)是來(lái)自顧客感受到的、通過(guò)雙向溝通所傳遞的價(jià)值和相互關(guān)系,是通過(guò)企業(yè)不懈地提供超值產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)而取得的。要使顧客忠誠(chéng),企業(yè)最高管理層必須有長(zhǎng)期不懈的決心和資金支持,對(duì)企業(yè)的忠誠(chéng)顧客進(jìn)行界定,了解顧客的需求是怎樣形成的,他們離去的原因是什么,買(mǎi)了誰(shuí)的產(chǎn)品,為什么?認(rèn)識(shí)并創(chuàng)建顧客忠誠(chéng)的激勵(lì)因素。培育忠誠(chéng)顧客的營(yíng)銷方法有兩種:

一是要妥善解決顧客的抱怨。只要妥善地處理顧客報(bào)怨,82%的顧客會(huì)再度購(gòu)買(mǎi)商品。妥善處理顧客報(bào)怨,要求企業(yè)確立一套良好的人性化的“報(bào)怨管理”制度。第一,樹(shù)立“顧客的報(bào)怨,是給企業(yè)最好的禮物,對(duì)改善企業(yè)的經(jīng)營(yíng)管理有好處”的觀念；第二,企業(yè)必須確立有效的報(bào)怨處理政策和制度,并訓(xùn)練員工,正確對(duì)待顧客報(bào)怨,站在顧客的角度處理顧客報(bào)怨的問(wèn)題；第三,處理顧客的部門(mén)要輪換,以便各業(yè)務(wù)單位都能及時(shí)了解顧客的滿意度,并獲得處理顧客報(bào)怨的經(jīng)驗(yàn)；第四,建立所有顧客報(bào)怨資料庫(kù),以便及時(shí)

處理并防止公關(guān)危機(jī)的發(fā)生。

二是建立忠誠(chéng)顧客數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)。只有通過(guò)數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)進(jìn)行跟蹤調(diào)查分析,才能確切知道企業(yè)擁有的顧客份額會(huì)增加多少,達(dá)到某一份額需要多久。忠誠(chéng)顧客數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)的核心是關(guān)聯(lián)數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù),它由一系列記錄營(yíng)銷項(xiàng)目不同側(cè)面的子庫(kù)組成。忠誠(chéng)顧客數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù),可以為員工及時(shí)提供超值服務(wù)所需的資料；為收集所有與顧客有關(guān)的細(xì)節(jié)資料創(chuàng)造條件；強(qiáng)化同顧客的快捷聯(lián)系；為開(kāi)發(fā)新產(chǎn)品和提供新的服務(wù)創(chuàng)造條件；與顧客進(jìn)行長(zhǎng)期互動(dòng)的雙向溝通,以便為其提供潛在需求的、似曾想到又非想到的滿足其期望價(jià)值的產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)。