第一篇：外文口腔資料（范文）

有關(guān)口腔科進(jìn)展的雜志

1.The British Dental Journal 數(shù)據(jù)庫：nature http://

3.Journal of Dental Research 數(shù)據(jù)庫：HighWire Press牙科影響因子最高的雜志2.956, 其影響因子最高曾達(dá)4。牙科個(gè)方面 http://

牙周粘膜方面

1.Pigment Cell Research http://

4.Seminars inOrthodontics(sciencedirect)正畸專題討論，內(nèi)容涉及臨床和基礎(chǔ)，每期一個(gè)專題。

http:// 網(wǎng)上現(xiàn)有的免費(fèi)雜志

004km.cn 里面收錄了3本正畸的雜志，angle 雜志

journal of orthodontics Virtual Journal of Clinical Orthodontics 其它專業(yè)的口腔雜志

Australian Dental Journal BMC Oral Health Brazilian Dental Journal Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende International Poster Journal of Dentistry and Oral Medicine Journal of Applied Oral Science Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice Journal of Dental Education Journal of the Canadian Dental Association New York State Dental Journal

第二篇：引進(jìn)外資外文翻譯資料

河南科技學(xué)院新科學(xué)院

2013屆本科畢業(yè)生論文（設(shè)計(jì)）

英文文獻(xiàn)及翻譯

Foreign capital inflows and welfare in an economy with

imperfect competition

學(xué)生姓名：王艷杰

所在院系：經(jīng)濟(jì)系

所學(xué)專業(yè)：國際經(jīng)濟(jì)與貿(mào)易

導(dǎo)師姓名：侯黎杰

完成時(shí)間： 2013年4月15日

Foreign capital inflows and welfare in an economy with imperfect competitionAbstract:This paper examines the resource allocational and welfare effects ofexogenous inflows of foreign capital in a general-equilibrium model witholigopolistic competition and unemployment.Although the welfare impact for theshort run is ambiguous and dependent upon the strength of excess profits and scale economies relative to unemployment in manufacturing, in the long run additional inflows of foreign capital always improve national welfare with capital mobility.Hence, attracting foreign capital remains a sound policy for economies characterized by imperfect competition, scale economies,and regional unemployment.Keywords:Internationalcapitalmobility;Imperfectcompetition;Welfare

1.Introduction

The welfare effects of exogenous inflows of foreign capital in the presence of trade restrictions have been extensively studied.Brecher and Diaz Alejandro(1977)show that when imports are subject to tariffs, an introduction of foreign capital inflows accentuates the tariff distortion and hence reduces national welfare if the import-competing sector is relatively capital-intensive.In contrast, Dei(1985)shows that when imports are restricted by quotas,foreign capital inflows in the presence of foreign-owned capital always improve welfare by depressing the rental and solowering the payments to existing foreign-owned capital.Recently, Neary(1981), using a common framework for both tariffs and quotas, obtains more general resultsof foreign capital inflows;the welfare effect of such inflows depends crucially on whether foreign-owned capital exists initially in the home country.In addition, Khan(1982)and Grinols(1991)have examined the effects of foreign capital inflows for a generalized Harris-Todaro economy under tariff protection.Khan finds that the result by Brecher and Diaz Alejandro is still valid even in the presence of unemployment, whereas Grinols argues that increased foreign capital need not be detrimental to welfare if the opportunity costs of labor are sufficiently low.Noteworthy is that the models used by these authors are all based upon the premise of perfect competition along with constant returns-to-scale technology.Although perfect competition serves as a useful assumption in crystallizing theoretical insights, it nevertheless fails to depict many of the real-world phenomena.The real-world economy is characterized, to a large extent, by imperfect competition and economies of scale.The policy implications of imperfect competition and economies

of scale have been examined in the recent literature(see, for example, Brander and Spencer(1985)), mostly dealing with developedeconomies.Krueger(1984)in her survey points out that though market imperfections exist indeveloped nations, the imperfections are far more serious and pervasive in developingcountries.Rodrik(1981), in an illuminating paper, reports that most developing nations have very high four-firm concentration ratios.He finds that a developing economy is typically characterized by(1)restricted entry in manufacturing partlybecause of the absence of serious antitrust policies;(2)high protection of the manufacturing sector by quotas rather than tariffs;and(3)imperfect home capital markets and, thus, sluggish movements of capital among sectors.The purpose of the present paper is to develop a model to incorporate these key features of imperfect competition characterizing a developing economy.In addition to the above-mentioned features as noted by Rodrik, we also introduce in our framework sector-specific unemployment frequently observed in a developing nation.The model will then be utilized to examine the welfare implications of foreign capital inflows.It will be shown that foreign capital inflows in the presence of a given quota may be detrimental to welfare in the short run in which capital is sector-specific;the inflows, however, are in the long run necessarily welfare improving with inter sectoral capital mobility.Since perfect competition is a limiting case of imperfect competition modeled in this paper, Dei’s result regarding welfare-improving foreign capital can be viewed as a special case of the present analysis.We construct a general-equilibrium model to capture the key salient features of imperfect competition for developing economies in Section 2.The resource-alloc-ational effects of foreign capital inflows in the presence of quantitative restrictions are examined in Section 3.The welfare impact of foreign capital inflows is discussed in Section 4.Section5 presents concluding remarks.2.Concluding remarks

This paper has examined the effects of inflows of foreign capital on home resource allocation and welfare in a general-equilibrium framework.The home country is characterized by oligopolistic competition, scale economies, and regional unemployment.Although the welfare effect of foreign capital for the short run is somewhat indeterminate and is dependent on the magnitude of the effects of excess profits and scale economies(relative to the unemploymenteffect in manufacturing),the inflows of foreign capital always improve welfare for such economies in the long run with capital mobility.Our results, which stand in sharp contrast to those derived in the presence of tariffs(Beecher and Dial Alejandro, 1977), lend support to the finding of Deｉ(1985).Dei’s key result is generalized to economies with imperfect competition in the short run and imperfect competition, along with regional unemployment, in the long run.The use of quasi linear preferences in this paper serves to focus on the price effect by suppressing the income effects on the demand for goods.It may be noted thatwhen the income effects are presented in the model via more general preferences, the demand for goods would be further raised in the case of inter sectoral mobility of capital.Hence, foreign capital inflows would be more welfare-improving in the long run.Bakra, R.N.and N.Naevi, 1987, Urban unemployment and the gains from trade,Economic 54, 381-3Y6.Bela di, H., 1988, Variable returns to scale, urban unemployment and welfare,Southern Economic Journal 55, 412-423.Brander, J.A.and B.J.Spencer, 1985, Export subsidies and international marketshare rivalry, Journal of International Economics 18, X3-100.Beecher, R.A.And C.F.Dial Alejandro 1977,Tariffs,foreign capital and immiserizing growth, Journal

譯文：

外國資本流入和福利經(jīng)濟(jì)的不完全競爭

摘要：本文探討了在寡頭競爭和失業(yè)的一般均衡模型下，資源配置和外國資本流入的福利效益。雖然福利影響短期內(nèi)是不確定的，而且它依賴于超額利潤的強(qiáng)度并取決于制造業(yè)中失業(yè)人數(shù)的規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)，從長遠(yuǎn)來看，額外的資本流入總是能提高國民福利與資本流動(dòng)。因此，吸引外資對(duì)于具有不完全競爭、規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)和區(qū)域失業(yè)特點(diǎn)的經(jīng)濟(jì)忍讓是一個(gè)良好的政策。

關(guān)鍵詞： 國際資本流動(dòng)； 不完全競爭；福利

1、引言

在貿(mào)易限制領(lǐng)域，外國資本流入的福利效應(yīng)已經(jīng)被廣泛研究。布雷赫爾和迪亞茲﹒亞歷杭德羅（1977）表明，當(dāng)進(jìn)口受制于關(guān)稅，外國資本流的引進(jìn)加劇了關(guān)稅失真，因此若果進(jìn)口競爭部門是相對(duì)的資本密集型企業(yè)就會(huì)降低減少國家福利。相反，DEI（1985）表明，當(dāng)進(jìn)口受配額限制，外商獨(dú)資領(lǐng)域的外國資本流入總是能通過壓低租金來改善福利，因此也降低了給現(xiàn)有的外商獨(dú)資資本的支付。最近，通過使用一個(gè)關(guān)稅和配額的共同框架，尼爾瑞（1981）獲得了更多外國資本的流入的一般結(jié)論；流入資本的這種福利效應(yīng)很大程度上取決于外商獨(dú)資資本最初在本國的福利效應(yīng)。此外，柯汗（1982）和格里諾爾斯（1991）探討了外國資本流入對(duì)一個(gè)廣義的在關(guān)稅保護(hù)下的哈里斯——托達(dá)羅經(jīng)濟(jì)的影響。柯汗發(fā)現(xiàn)布雷赫爾和迪亞茲﹒亞歷杭德羅的結(jié)果即使在失業(yè)存在的情況下仍然是有效的，而格里諾爾斯認(rèn)為，增加外國資本必須不損害福利，如果勞動(dòng)力的機(jī)會(huì)成本足夠低。

值得注意的是，這些作者所使用的模型都是基于完全競爭與規(guī)模報(bào)酬不變的前提。盡管完全競爭是具體的理論見解中的一個(gè)有用假設(shè)，但它無法描繪現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中的許多現(xiàn)象。真實(shí)經(jīng)濟(jì)的特點(diǎn)，在很大程度上，是不完全競爭和規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)。對(duì)不完全競爭和規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)的政策含義已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)在最近的文獻(xiàn)研究（見，例如，Brander和Spencer（1985）），主要是用來處理發(fā)達(dá)經(jīng)濟(jì)體。

克魯格（1984）在她的調(diào)查種指出，盡管在發(fā)達(dá)國家存在市場(chǎng)缺陷，但這種缺陷在發(fā)展中國家更為嚴(yán)重和普遍。洛迪克（1981），在一篇啟蒙論文中，報(bào)告說大多數(shù)發(fā)展中國家都有很高的四企業(yè)集中率。他認(rèn)為，發(fā)展型經(jīng)濟(jì)體的典型特征是（1）限制制造業(yè)企業(yè)的進(jìn)入部分原因是由于嚴(yán)重的反壟斷政策的缺失；（2）通過配額而不是關(guān)稅來加強(qiáng)制造業(yè)的保護(hù)；（3）不完善的國內(nèi)資本市場(chǎng)，因此，部門間的資本流動(dòng)緩慢。

本文的目的是建立一個(gè)模型，把這些表征發(fā)展型經(jīng)濟(jì)的不完全競爭特點(diǎn)融合在一起。除了上述洛迪克提出的特點(diǎn)，我們也將在我們的框架中介紹在發(fā)展中國

家觀察到的特定行業(yè)的經(jīng)常性失業(yè)。該模型然后會(huì)被用來研究外國資本流入的福利效益。它將表明，從短期來看，在一個(gè)給定配額的情況下特定行業(yè)的資本流入可能有損于福利；但是從長遠(yuǎn)來看，資本流入必然改善部門之間的資本流動(dòng)。由于完全競爭是是本文中的不完全競爭的一種極限情況，DEI的關(guān)于改善福利的外資的研究結(jié)果可以被看做是目前分析情況下的一個(gè)特殊案例。在第二部分我們構(gòu)建了一個(gè)一般均衡模型來捕獲發(fā)展型經(jīng)濟(jì)體關(guān)于不完全競爭的顯著特征。第三節(jié)討論了在數(shù)量限制情況下外國資本流入的資源配置效益。外國資本的流入對(duì)福利的影響在4節(jié)討論。第五節(jié)提出結(jié)論性意見。

2、結(jié)束語

本文在一般均衡框架考察外國資本流入對(duì)國內(nèi)資源的分配和福利的影響。本國的特點(diǎn)是寡頭競爭，規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)，以及地區(qū)性失業(yè)。雖然從短期來看外國資本流入的福利效益是不確定的，依賴于超額利潤的影響和規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)的效益（相對(duì)于制造業(yè)中的失業(yè)效應(yīng)），從長期來看，外國資本流入總是能改善這種經(jīng)濟(jì)體資本流動(dòng)的福利。

我們的研究結(jié)果，和那些起源于關(guān)稅存在的觀點(diǎn)形成鮮明對(duì)比（布雷赫爾和迪亞茲Alejandro，1977），支持ＤＥＥ的發(fā)現(xiàn)（1985）。DEI的關(guān)鍵結(jié)果短期內(nèi)伴隨著不完全競爭的廣義經(jīng)濟(jì)，長期來看伴隨著區(qū)域失業(yè)。

在本文中，準(zhǔn)線性偏好的使用致力于通過抑制商品需求的收入效應(yīng)而獲得的價(jià)格效益?？梢灾赋龅氖?，當(dāng)收入效益在模型中被通過更一般的喜好而展現(xiàn)出來，在跨部門資本流動(dòng)情況下，商品需求將被更進(jìn)一步的提高。因此，外國資本流入將更多的從長遠(yuǎn)來改善福利。

參考文獻(xiàn)

[1]巴特拉，注冊(cè)護(hù)士和N.納克維，1999，城市失業(yè)和貿(mào)易，經(jīng)濟(jì)54的收益，381-3y6。

[2]Beladi，H.，1988，規(guī)模報(bào)酬可變，城市失業(yè)和福利，南方經(jīng)濟(jì)雜志55，412-423。

[3]布蘭德，J.A.，B.J.斯賓塞，2003，出口補(bǔ)貼和國際市場(chǎng)份額的競爭，國際經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)雜志18，x3-100。

[4]布雷徹，迪亞茲Alejandro 1977，關(guān)稅，外國資本和貧困化增長，雜志

第三篇：外文期刊數(shù)據(jù)庫資料調(diào)研

外文期刊數(shù)據(jù)庫

【正題名】: Preparation and tribological properties of nanometer magnesium borate as lubricating oil additive

【作者】: Z.S.Hu;R.Lai;F.Lou;L.G.Wang;Z.L.Chen;G.X.Chen;J.X.Dong

【刊名】: Wear

【年卷期】: 2002, vol.252, no.5-6

【出版年】: 2002

【ISSN】: 0043-1648

【頁碼】: p.370-374

【分類號(hào)】: TH117

【關(guān)鍵詞】: Nanoparticle;Magnesium borate;Tribology

【正文語種】: eng

【文摘】:Nanoparticle magnesium borate with a particle size of about 10 nm was prepared using ethanol supercritical fluid drying technique and was characterized with TEM, XRD and X-ray small angle scattering.Tribological properties of the nanoparticle magnesium borate, using as lubricating oil additive, were evaluated using a four-ball and a block-on-ring tribotester.The wear scar was characterized with SEM and XPS.Results indicate that the wear resistance and load carrying capacity of the 500 SN base oil were improved and the friction coefficient of the oil was decreased by the additive.FeB were formed on sliding surface.【正題名】: Synthesis and tribological properties of ferrous octoxyborate as antiwearand friction-reducing additive of lubricating oil

【作者】: Z.S.Hu;Y.Yie;L.G.Wang;G.X.Chen;J.X.Dong

【刊名】: Tribology letters

【年卷期】: 2000, vol.8, no.1

【出版年】: 2000

【ISSN】: 1023-8883

【頁碼】: p.45-50

【分類號(hào)】: TH117

【關(guān)鍵詞】: Synthesis;Ferrous octoxyborate;Tribology;Boron-containing compound

【正文語種】: eng

【文摘】:An oil-soluble compound containing ferrous iron and boron-ferrousoctoxyborate was synthesized.The antiwear and friction-reducing properties of the compound as alubricating oil additive were evaluated using a four-ball and a block-on-ring tribotester.Results indicated that both the wear resistance and the load-carrying capacity of a 500 SN base oil were improved and its friction coefficient was decreased by the additive.The wear scar, alter being cleaned using an ultrasonic bath in ligroin and in distilled water, was characterized with SEM and XPS.Diboron trioxide, FeB and Fe{sub}2B were all found to have been deposited on the wear-scar surface.It was this deposition that provided the oil with excellent antiwear and friction-reducingproperties.【正題名】: Preparation of magnesium borate succinimide and its characteristics as alubricating oil additive

【作者】: Yonggang Shi;Junxiu Dong

【刊名】: Lubrication Science

【年卷期】: 2000, vol.12, no.4

【出版年】: 2000

【ISSN】: 0954-0075

【頁碼】: p.357-361

【分類號(hào)】: TH117

【關(guān)鍵詞】: Succinimide;Magnesium borate;Antioxidant;Acid neutralisation;Antifriction;Antiwear;Lubricating oils;Chemistry

【正文語種】: eng

【文摘】:Succinimide has for a long time been widely used for ashless dispersants in engine lubricating oils.However, this kind of dispersant does not have particularly good antioxidant, antifriction, antiwear or acid neutralisation properties.In this paper, a method is suggested for modifying succinimide so as to obtain improved antioxidant, acid neutralisation, antifriction, and antiwear properties.Magnesium borate cannot be dissolved in mineral lubricating oil.In the presence of succinimide, however, it will exist in a lubricating oil in the form of acolloid or complex.Therefore, in the present work, magnesium oxide, boric acid, and water were mixed together with succinimide.In the reaction process, some of the magnesium borate formed in situ will be surrounded by succinimide, forming stable colloids;the remainder will react with thesuccinimide, forming well distributed complexes in the lubricating oil.The presence of water is very important for this process.At least four moles of water are needed for one mole of magnesium borate.The resulting material has been evaluated as a lubricating oil additive.The experiments have shown that this kind of material possesses good antioxidant, acid neutralisation, antifriction,and antiwear properties, apparently due to the introduction of magnesium borate.The introduction of the magliesium borate does not influence the good dispersant properties of the succinimide.【正題名】: A study of N and S heterocyclic compound as a potential lubricating oil additive

【作者】: Junyan Zhang;Weimin Liu;Qunji Xue;Tianhui Ren

【刊名】: Wear

【年卷期】: 1999, vol.224, no.1

【出版年】: 1999

【ISSN】: 0043-1648

【頁碼】: p.160-164

【分類號(hào)】: TH117

【關(guān)鍵詞】: Lubricant additive;Wear tests;Surface analysis

【正文語種】: eng

【文摘】:S-[2-(2-hydroxygenacetyl)thiobenzothiazol-1-yl]pentanyl xanthates wassynthesized as potential lubricating oil additive.The friction and wear behaviors of thesynthesized compound as an additive in liquid paraffin were evaluated with a four-ballmachine.Thetribochemical reaction of the additive with a metal surface was investigated by X-ray photoelectronspectroscopy.It was found that the novel compound as an additive in liquid paraffin was effectivein improving the tribological performance.【申請(qǐng)?zhí)枴?EP89305805A

【申請(qǐng)日期】:19890608

【公開（告）號(hào)】:EP0347103A1

【公開（告）日期】:19891220

【主分類號(hào)】:C10M159/20

【副分類號(hào)】:C10M159/20,C10M159/22,C10M159/24,C10N030/04,C10N070/00

【優(yōu)先權(quán)】:19880614-GB8814009

【國家代碼】:EP

【發(fā)明人】:OCONNOR SEAN PATRICK,CRAWFORD JOHN,CANE CHARLES

【申請(qǐng)人】:BP CHEMICALS ADDITIVES

【發(fā)明名稱】:A process for the production of a lubricating oil additive concentrate.【摘要】:A process for the production of a lubricating oil additive concentratehaving a TBN greater than 300 which process comprises reacting at elevated temperature component(A)a defined mixture selected from defined sulphurised or non-sulphurised acids or calcium saltsthereof，component(B)an alkaline earth metal base added either in a single addition or in aplurality of additions at intermediate points during the reaction，component(C)at least onecompound which is(i)water，(ii)a polyhydric alcohol having 2 to 4 carbon atoms，(iii)a di-(C3or C4)glycol，(iv)a tri-(C2-C4)glycol，(v)a mono-or poly-alkylene glycol alkyl ether of theformula(I)R(OR<1>)xOR<2>(I)wherein R is a C1 to C6 alkyl group，R<1>is an alkylene group，R<2> is hydrogen or a C1 to C6 alkyl group and x is an integer from 1 to 6，(vi)a C1 to C20monohydric alcohol，(vii)a C1 to C20 ketone，(viii)a C1 to C10 carboxylic acid ester，or(ix)aC1 to C20 ether，component(D)a lubricating oil，component(E)carbon dioxide added subsequentto the，or each，addition of component(B)，component(F)a defined carboxylic acid orderivative，component(G)at least one compound which is(i)an inorganic halide or(ii)anammonium alkanoate or a mono-，di-，tri-or tetra-alkyl ammonium formate or alkanoate providedthat when component(G)is(ii)，component(F)is not an acid chloride，the weight ratios of allcomponents being such as to produce a concentrate having a TBN greater than 300.【歐洲主分類號(hào)】:C10M159/20

【歐洲副分類號(hào)】:C10M159/22,C10M159/24

【

同

族

專利】:AT118240-19950215,AU630355-19921029,AU3641489-19891221,DE68921024-19950323,DE68921024-19950601,EP0347103-19891220,JP2034690-19900205 【申請(qǐng)?zhí)枴?EP90402981A

【申請(qǐng)日期】:19901023

【公開（告）號(hào)】:EP0425367A1

【公開（告）日期】:19910502

【主分類號(hào)】:C10M159/20

【副分類號(hào)】:C10M159/20,C10M163/00,C10N010/02,C10N070/00

【優(yōu)先權(quán)】:19891026-FR8914053

【國家代碼】:EP

【發(fā)明人】:BOURGOGNON HENRI,HOORNAERT PIERRE,REY CLAUDE,RODES CHRISTIAN

【申請(qǐng)人】:ELF AQUITAINE

【發(fā)明名稱】:Overbased lubricating oil additive containing a copper derivate or acopper and boron derivate，method of preparation and compositions containing said additive.【摘要】:The oxidation-promoting effect of the overbased additives can beattenuated or even eliminated by incorporation into the overbased additive of a copper carboxylateoriginating from aliphatic carboxylic acids containing a linear or branched C7-C10 chain.Thesecopper carboxylates can also be employed in the form of combination with a boron derivative.【歐洲主分類號(hào)】:C10M159/20

【歐洲副分類號(hào)】:C10M163/00

【

同

族

專利】:EP0425367-19910502,ES2045856-19940116,FR2653780-19910503,JP3153794-19910701 【申請(qǐng)?zhí)枴?EP94306507A

【申請(qǐng)日期】:19940901

【公開（告）號(hào)】:EP0643126A2

【公開（告）日期】:19950315

【主分類號(hào)】:C10M159/22A

【副分類號(hào)】:C10M159/22A

【優(yōu)先權(quán)】:19930910-GB9318810

【國家代碼】:EP

【發(fā)明人】:CANE CHARLES,COOK STEPHEN JAMES

【申請(qǐng)人】:BP CHEMICALS ADDITIVES

【發(fā)明名稱】:Highly overbased lubricating oil additive concentrates，theirpreparation and use.【摘要】:An additive concentrate having a TBN greater than 300 suitable forincorporation into a finished lubricating oil composition comprising:-(I)a lubricating oilsoluble sulphurised or non-sulphurised alkaline earth metal hydrocarbyl phenate derived either froma hydrocarbyl phenate or its precursors and modified by reaction to incorporate:(i)analdehyde，and(ii)from greater than 2 to less than 40% by weight based on the weight of theconcentrate of either(a)at least one carboxylic acid having the formula:-wherein R is aC10 to C24 alkyl or alkenyl group and R<1> is either hydrogen，a C1 to C4 alkyl group or a-CH2-COOH group，or an anhydride or ester thereof，or(b)a di-or polycarboxylic acid containingfrom 36 to 100 carbon atoms or an anhydride or ester thereof，and(II)a lubricating oil，wherein the amount of lubricating oil(II)in the additive concentrate is such that the ratio of theweight of the additive concentrate to the weight of the hydrocarbyl phenate or its precursors fromwhich the modified sulphurised or non-sulphurised phenate is derived is at least 3.0.【歐洲主分類號(hào)】:C07G017/00

【歐洲副分類號(hào)】:C10M159/22

【同族專利】:EP0643126-19950315,JP7197066-19950801

第四篇：出租車計(jì)價(jià)器畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文資料

ABSTRACT In this paper, a multi-channel taximeter that is able to deal with more than one passenger simultaneously is proposed.In order to demonstrate the theory of operation of the proposed system, a complete design for an experimental three-channel taximeter(whose prototype has been built under grant from the Egyptian Academy for Scientific and Technological Research)is presented.System location, outline, block diagrams as well as detailed circuit diagrams for the experimental taximeter are also included.1.INTRODUCTION Transporting people in the morning from their homes to their works and back in the afternoon has become a big problem in big cities especially in undeveloped countries.As a partial solution of this problem, the authorities in some countries had, unofficially, left the taxicab drivers to carry different passengers to different places at the Same time.For example, a taxicab with four seats may carry four different passengers without any relation between them except that their way of travelling is the same.Accordingly, it has become very difficult to rely on the present conventional single-channel taximeter to determine the fare required from each passenger separately.Accordingly, an unfair financial relation was created between the taxicab driver, owner, passengers and the state taxation department.Under these circumstances, taxicab drivers force the passengers to pay more than what they should pay.In some cases passengers had to pay double fare they should pay.With the present conventional single-channel taximeter, taxicab owners are not able to determine the daily income of their taxicab.In some cases(a taxicab with four seats)they may only get one quarter of the income of the taxicab(collected by the taxicab driver).From which they should pay the salary of the taxicab driver as well as the cost of fuel, minor and major repairs in addition to the car depreciation.As a matter of fact the position of the taxicab owners is not so bad as it seems.A general agreement has been reached between the taxicab drivers and owners such that the drivers should guarantee a fixed daily income to the owners as well as the paying for the cost of fuel as well as the minor repaires.Even though the taxicab drivers still share the large portion ofthe income of the taxicab.Also with the presence of the single-channel taximeter, it has become very difficult for the state taxation department to know the yearly income of the taxicab and accordingly it has become very difficult to estimate the taxes to be paid by the taxicab owners.In order to face this problem, the state taxation department had to impose a fixed estimated taxes for each seat of the taxicab whatever the income of the taxicab.In this paper, we introduced a multichannel taximeter that can deal with more than one passenger simultaneously.I t should be pointed out that by the term passenger we mean a one person or a group of related persons.I t should also be pointed out that our proposed multi-channel taximeter is not, simply, a multi display readouts.As a matter of fact it contains logic circuits that automatically changes the fare per killometer of travelling distance or per minutes of 'waiting time according to the number of passengers hiring the taxicab.In the following part and as an example, we will present a complete design for a three-channel taximeter.Block diagrams as well as detailed circuit diagrams of the experimental three-channel taximeter are also included.A prototype has been built under grant from the Egyptian Academy for Scientific and Technological Research.2.AN EXPERIMENTAL THREECHANNEL TAXIMETER Theory of operation of our experimental device to work as an electronic digital taximeter is based on t h e fact thathe speedometer cable rotates one revolution for each meter of travelling distance.Accordingly, if the speedometer cable is coupled with a speed sensor that generates a single pulse for each meter of travelling distance, then our taximeter could be three up counter modules associated with a speed sensor unit.However, our experimental taximeter is not simply a three display readouts.As a matter offact it contains logic circuits that automatically changes the fare per kilometer of travelling distance or per minutes of waiting time according to the number of passengers hiring the taxicab.The device may be splitted into two main parts: The first is the speed sensor unit which may be located anywhere in the taxicab such that an easy coupling to the speedometer cable can be achieved.The second unit contains the main electronic circuit, the displayand control panel.The unit should be located somewhere in front of both the driver and the passengers.A possible components locations is shown in Figure 1.A.Speed Sensor Unit The main function of this unit is to supply train of pulses whose frequency is proportional to the angular rotation of the wheels.A possible form of a speed sensor is shown in Figure 2.If may consist of a tj.pica1 permanent magnet sine wave generator with its output connected to a pulse shapping circuit(two general purpose silicon diodes, 1K ohms resistor and a schmit trigger inverter).In order to find some way to detect the movement of the taxicab, the output of the sine wave generator is rectified through a general purpose silicon diode Dl then smoothed by a 1000 F capacitor.The output voltage at terminal Q is then limited to the value of 4.7 volts by using a Ik ohms resistor as well as a zener diode ZD.The level of the voltage at terminal Q would be high whenever the taxicab is moving and will be zero otherwise.This voltage can be used for the automatic switching from distance fare to time fare.B.Main Electronic and Display Unit A suggested shape for the main electronic and display unit is shown in Figure 3.The control and display panel contains all ' controls necessary for operating the taximeter as well as four readout displays.The first channel will give the sum of money required from the first passenger, while the second and third readouts are for the second and third passengers, respectively.The fourth readout will give the total income of the taxicab.The contents of the last readout should be nonvolatile and be able to be retained even during parking the taxicab.The channel rotary selector switchs 1 , 2 and 3 have fully clockwise/anticlockwise positions.In the fully anticlockwise position, the counter of the corresponding readout is blancked and disabled.In the fully clockwise position, the counter is unblanked, cleared to zero and enabled to be ready for counting the sum of money required from the first, second and third passengers, respectively.Pushing the total sum pushbutton 4 unblanks the fourth readout enabling any person to retain the readout corresponding to the total income.After the release of the pushbutton, the fourth readout will be blanked again.This unit also contains the main electronic circuit which will be fully described in the following section.3.DESCRIBTION OF THE MAIN ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT The general block diagram of the main electronic circuit is shown in Figure 4.It consists of five subcircuits designated by the symboles CTI up to CT4supporting circuits, these are: The number of passenger deticition circuit CTI, travelling distance scaling circuit CT2, waiting time scaling circuit CT3, circuit CT4 which generates clock pulses for the display circuit.A.Number of Passengers Detection Circuit CT1 As shown from the general block diagram, the circuit CTI has three inputs I, 2 and 3 as well as three outputs J, K and L.The function of the circuit is to supply a high level voltage at terminals J, K or L if and only if one, two or three passengers are hiring the taxicab, respectively.The term passenger, here, means one person or a group of related persons.When a passenger is getting into the cab, we simply turn on a free readout display by turning the corresponding rotary selector switch to a fully clockwise direction.This will automatically disconnect the corresponding terminal I, 2 or 3 from ground.The logical relation between various input terminals I, 2 and 3 and the output terminals J, K and L is shown in Table 1.As a combinational circuit we start the design by deriving a set of boolean functions.A possible simplified boolean functions that gives minimum number of inputs to gates may be obtained from Table I.A possible logical diagram that is based on the above derived expressions is shown in Figure 5.It consists of two inverters, four 2-input AND, to3-input AND two 3-input OR gates B.Tavelling Distance Scaling Circuit CT2 As shown from the block diagram of Figure 4, the circuit CT2 has four input J, K, L and E and one output M.The function of the circuit is to supply a single pulse at the output M for a certain number of pulses generated at the output of the speed sensor(certain number of meters travelled by the taxicab), according to the number of passengers hiring the car.A suggested fare per kilometer of travelling distance is shown in colomn two of Table 2.the circuit, in this case, should supply a single pulse at the output M for every 100, 125 or 143 pulses generated at the input terminal E according to the level of voltage at input terminale 3, K or L, respectively.Our circuit could be, as shown in Figure 5, three decade counters, connected as a three digit frequency divider whose dividing ratios 100, 125 and 143 are automatically selected by the voltage level at terminals J, K and L, respectively.A possible circuit diagram that may verify the above function is shown in Figure 6.It consists of three decade counters type 7490, one BCD-to decimal decoder type 7445, three 4-input AND, one 3-input ANDone 2-input AND two 3-input OR gates.C.Time Scaling Circuit CT3 As shown in the block diagram, the time scalingcircuit will have four inputs J, K, L and F and one output N.The function of this circuit and accordingto colomn three of Table 2(fare per 2 minuts of waiting time)is to supply a single pulse at the output N for every 120, 240 or 360 pulses supplied at the input terminal F from the I Hz clock according to level of voltage at inputs J, K and L, respectively.Time scaling circuit would be similar to the distance scaling circuit but with different diving ratios.A Possible circuit diagram is shown in figure 7.It consists, in this case, of three decade counter type 7490, two 3-input AND, one 5-input AND, one 2-input AND one 3-input OR gates.D.Circuit CT4 Which Generates Clock Pulses for Display Circuit The function of this circuit is to supply one, two or three pulses at the output terminal R for each pulse generated at any of the terminals N or M, according to the voltage level at the input terminals J, K or L, respectively.The output P will receive a pulse for each pulse generated at any of the input terminals N or M.This function can be performed by the circuit shown in Figure 8, it consists of one ripple counter type 7493, one half of a dual JK masterslave flip-flops circuit type 7476, three inverters, three 2-input AND, one 3-input AND, one 2-input OR and one 3-input OR gates.When a pulse is generated at either input terminals N or M, a high level voltage will be generated at the output Q of the flip-flop.This will g a t e t h e I Khz signal to be connected to the input A of the ripple counter as well as to the output terminal R.When one, two or three pulses are counted by the ripple counter, according to the level of voltage at the input terminals J, K and L, respectively, a high is generated to reset the counter and change the state of the flip-flopsuch that Q becomes low.Hence, the 1 KHz signal is disabled to reach the outputerminal R or the input A of the ripple counter.In order to ensure the proper function of the circuit, the flip-flop should be cleared whenever a new channel is operated.This has been achieved by the input 5 and will be explained later when describing the function of the channels rotary selector switchs.E.Display Circuit As shown in Figure 2, the display panel would contain three 4-digit displays that give the sum of money required from each passenger separately as well as a one six-digit display that gives the total income of the taxicab.A possible wiring diagram for the display circuit is shown in Figure 9.Rotating any of the rotary selector switches to fully clockwise direction will supply the corresponding display by5 volts through terminals 1, 2 and 3, respectively.The corresponding display will be unblanked by supplying a low level of voltage through terminals A, C and G, respectively.Keeping terminals 8, D and H, respectively, at low level will keep them reset to zero.The corresponding display is then enabled by removing the low voltage from terminals B, D, and H, respectively, to be ready for counting the sum of money required from the corresponding passenger starting from zero.The counting pulses for these three displays are supplied through terminal P.The total sum display will be enabled whenever any of the three displays is enabled(this is done by a 3-input OR gate as shown in Figure 8).Retaining the contents of the last display will be done by unblanking it by supplying a low level of voltage to terminal I as shown in Figure 10 b.F.Changing Over Between Time and Distance Fares In the following part, two different methods for changing over between time andistance fares are suggested: The first is to switch to time fare whenever the distance fare is less than the time fare.Hence, a simple look to fares table(Table 2)can show that time fare should be used whenever the taxicab moves with speed less than 50 m/min.A possible circuit that can perform this switching action is shown in Figure IO c.It contains one rpm limit switch and a one inverter as well as two 2-input AND gates.The contacts of the limit switch are normally closed and will be opened whenever the angular speed of the speedometer cablexceeds 50 rmp.The second alternation is to connect the input of the inverter in Figure 10 c.to the output terminal Q of the speedometer circuit, Figure 2.In this case, the switching into time fare will be done whenever the taxicab is at stand still.G.Function of the Rotary Selector Switches The voltage levels that should be supplied by the terminals of the rotary selector switches in order to ensure proper operation by the electronic circuit are given in Table 3.Connection of three rotary selector switches each witb four decks of five poles each, that satisfy the logic function of Table 3, is shown in Figure 10 a.Rotating any of the three switches into fully clockwise direction will pass through five positions.The function of the rotary selector switches can be described starting from the first position passing through variousteps until reaching the final position as follows: Initial position: In this position a low voltage level is applied to terminals I, 2 and 3, this will disconnect the 5 volts supply from the three first displays, set the three inputs of the number of passenger detection circuit CTI to low level.A low voltage level is applied to terminals 8, D and H, this is to ensure that the total income display is disabled.Voltage levels at terminals A, C, G and S are at no care condition.Step I: Rotating any of the rotary selector switches one step toward clockwise direction will supply 5 volts to the corresponding display, provides a high level voltage at terminals 1, 2 or 3 indicating that one passenger have entered the taxicab.A high level voltage should be applied to terminals A, C or G in order to ensure that the corresponding display is still blanked.Other terminals B, D, H and S are kept unchanged.Step 2: Rotating the rotary selector switch one step further, will change the state of voltages at terminal A, C or G to be at low level and unblanks the corresponding display.States of voltages at terminals I, 2, 3 and S are remained unchanged.Terminals B, D and H should be remained at low level to ensure that the corresponding readout is cleared to zero while unblanking the display.

第五篇：中英文對(duì)照資料外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)

中英文對(duì)照資料外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)

平設(shè)計(jì)任何時(shí)期平面設(shè)計(jì)可以參照一些藝術(shù)和專業(yè)學(xué)科側(cè)重于視覺傳達(dá)和介紹。采用多種方式相結(jié)合，創(chuàng)造和符號(hào)，圖像和語句創(chuàng)建一個(gè)代表性的想法和信息。平面設(shè)計(jì)師可以使用印刷，視覺藝術(shù)和排版技術(shù)產(chǎn)生的最終結(jié)果。平面設(shè)計(jì)常常提到的進(jìn)程，其中溝通是創(chuàng)造和產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)。共同使用的平面設(shè)計(jì)包括雜志，廣告，產(chǎn)品包裝和網(wǎng)頁設(shè)計(jì)。例如，可能包括產(chǎn)品包裝的標(biāo)志或其他藝術(shù)作品，舉辦文字和純粹的設(shè)計(jì)元素，如形狀和顏色統(tǒng)一件。組成的一個(gè)最重要的特點(diǎn)，尤其是平面設(shè)計(jì)在使用前現(xiàn)有材料或不同的元素。平面設(shè)計(jì)涵蓋了人類歷史上諸多領(lǐng)域，在此漫長的歷史和在相對(duì)最近爆炸視覺傳達(dá)中的第20和21世紀(jì)，人們有時(shí)是模糊的區(qū)別和重疊的廣告藝術(shù)，平面設(shè)計(jì)和美術(shù)。畢竟，他們有著許多相同的內(nèi)容，理論，原則，做法和語言，有時(shí)同樣的客人或客戶。廣告藝術(shù)的最終目標(biāo)是出售的商品和服務(wù)。在平面設(shè)計(jì)，“其實(shí)質(zhì)是使以信息，形成以思想，言論和感覺的經(jīng)驗(yàn)”。在唐朝（618-906）之間的第4和第7世紀(jì)的木塊被切斷打印紡織品和后重現(xiàn)佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷書籍。在19世紀(jì)后期歐洲，尤其是在英國，平面設(shè)計(jì)開始以獨(dú)立的運(yùn)動(dòng)從美術(shù)中分離出來。蒙德里安稱為父親的圖形設(shè)計(jì)。他是一個(gè)很好的藝術(shù)家，但是他在現(xiàn)代廣告中利用現(xiàn)代電網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)在廣告、印刷和網(wǎng)絡(luò)布局網(wǎng)格。于1849年，在大不列顛亨利科爾成為的主要力量之一在設(shè)計(jì)教育界，該國政府通告設(shè)計(jì)在雜志設(shè)計(jì)和制造的重要性。他組織了大型的展覽作為慶?，F(xiàn)代工業(yè)技術(shù)和維多利亞式的設(shè)計(jì)。從1892年至1896年威廉?莫里斯凱爾姆斯科特出版社出版的書籍的一些最重要的平面設(shè)計(jì)產(chǎn)品和工藝美術(shù)運(yùn)動(dòng)，并提出了一個(gè)非常賺錢的商機(jī)就是出版?zhèn)ゴ笪谋菊摰膱D書并以高價(jià)出售給富人。莫里斯證明了市場(chǎng)的存在使平面設(shè)計(jì)在他們自己擁有的權(quán)利，并幫助開拓者從生產(chǎn)和美術(shù)分離設(shè)計(jì)。這歷史相對(duì)論是，然而，重要的，因?yàn)樗鼮榈谝淮沃卮蟮姆磻?yīng)對(duì)于十九世紀(jì)的陳舊的平面設(shè)計(jì)。莫里斯的工作，以及與其他私營新聞運(yùn)動(dòng)，直接影響新藝術(shù)風(fēng)格和間接負(fù)責(zé)20世紀(jì)初非專業(yè)性平面設(shè)計(jì)的事態(tài)發(fā)展。誰創(chuàng)造了最初的“平面設(shè)計(jì)”似乎存在爭議。這被歸因于英國的設(shè)計(jì)師和大學(xué)教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息來源于20世紀(jì)初美國圖書設(shè)計(jì)師William Addison Dwiggins。倫敦地鐵的標(biāo)志設(shè)計(jì)是愛德華約翰斯頓于1916年設(shè)計(jì)的一個(gè)經(jīng)典的現(xiàn)代而且使用了系統(tǒng)字體設(shè)計(jì)。在20世紀(jì)20年代，蘇聯(lián)的建構(gòu)主義應(yīng)用于“智能生產(chǎn)”在不同領(lǐng)域的生產(chǎn)。個(gè)性化的運(yùn)動(dòng)藝術(shù)在 2 俄羅斯大革命是沒有價(jià)值的，從而走向以創(chuàng)造物體的功利為目的。他們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)的建筑、劇院集、海報(bào)、面料、服裝、家具、徽標(biāo)、菜單等。Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年書中編纂了新的現(xiàn)代印刷原則，他后來否認(rèn)他在這本書的法西斯主義哲學(xué)主張，但它仍然是非常有影響力。Tschichold，包豪斯印刷專家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一納吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面設(shè)計(jì)之父都被我們今天所知。他們首創(chuàng)的生產(chǎn)技術(shù)和文體設(shè)備，主要用于整個(gè)二十世紀(jì)。隨后的幾年看到平面設(shè)計(jì)在現(xiàn)代風(fēng)格獲得廣泛的接受和應(yīng)用。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)結(jié)束后，美國經(jīng)濟(jì)的建立更需要平面設(shè)計(jì)，主要是廣告和包裝等。移居國外的德國包豪斯設(shè)計(jì)學(xué)院于1937年到芝加哥帶來了“大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)”極簡到美國;引發(fā)野火的“現(xiàn)代”建筑和設(shè)計(jì)。值得注意的名稱世紀(jì)中葉現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)包括阿德里安Frutiger，設(shè)計(jì)師和Frutiger字體大學(xué);保蘭德，從20世紀(jì)30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原則和適用包豪斯他們受歡迎的廣告和標(biāo)志設(shè)計(jì)，幫助創(chuàng)造一個(gè)獨(dú)特的辦法，美國的歐洲簡約而成為一個(gè)主要的先驅(qū)。平面設(shè)計(jì)稱為企業(yè)形象;約瑟夫米勒，羅克曼，設(shè)計(jì)的海報(bào)嚴(yán)重尚未獲取1950年代和1960年代時(shí)代典型。從道路標(biāo)志到技術(shù)圖表，從備忘錄到參考手冊(cè)，增強(qiáng)了平面設(shè)計(jì)的知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)讓?？勺x性增強(qiáng)了文字的視覺效果。設(shè)計(jì)還可以通過理念或有效的視覺傳播幫助銷售產(chǎn)品。將它應(yīng)用到產(chǎn)品和公司識(shí)別系統(tǒng)的要素像標(biāo)志、顏色和文字。連同這些被定義為品牌。品牌已日益成為重要的提供的服務(wù)范圍，許多平面設(shè)計(jì)師，企業(yè)形象和條件往往是同時(shí)交替使用。教科書的目的是本科目，如地理、科學(xué)和數(shù)學(xué)。這些出版物已布局理論設(shè)計(jì)說明和圖表。一個(gè)常見的例子，在使用圖形，教育是圖表人體解剖學(xué)。平面設(shè)計(jì)也適用于布局和格式的教育材料，使信息更容易和更容易理解的。平面設(shè)計(jì)是應(yīng)用在娛樂行業(yè)的裝飾，景觀和視覺故事。其他的例子娛樂設(shè)計(jì)用途包括小說，漫畫，電影中的開幕和閉幕，在舞臺(tái)上節(jié)目的和道具的安排。這也包括藝術(shù)品在T恤衫的應(yīng)用和其他物品的出售。從科學(xué)雜志報(bào)道，提出意見和事實(shí)往往是提高圖形和深思熟慮的組成視覺信息-被稱為信息的設(shè)計(jì)。報(bào)紙，雜志，博客，電視和電影紀(jì)錄片，可以使用平面設(shè)計(jì)通知及娛樂。隨著網(wǎng)絡(luò)，信息與經(jīng)驗(yàn)的交互設(shè)計(jì)的工具，Adobe和Flash正越來越多地被用來說明的背景新聞。一個(gè)平面設(shè)計(jì)項(xiàng)目可能涉及程式化和介紹現(xiàn)有的文字，或者事先存在的意向或圖像開發(fā)的平面設(shè)計(jì)師。例如，一家報(bào)紙的故事始于記者和攝影記者，然后成為平面設(shè)計(jì)師的工作安排到一個(gè)合理的頁面布局，并確定是否有任何其他圖形元素應(yīng)當(dāng)要求。在一本雜志的文章或廣告，往往是平面設(shè)計(jì)師或藝術(shù)總監(jiān)將委員會(huì)攝影師或插圖創(chuàng)建原始文件只是被納入設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)劃?，F(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)的做法已經(jīng)擴(kuò)展到了現(xiàn)代的計(jì)算機(jī)，例如在使用所見的用戶界面，通常被稱為交互式設(shè)計(jì)，或多媒體設(shè)計(jì)。任何圖形元素用于設(shè)計(jì)之前，圖形元素必須是源于通過視覺藝術(shù)技能。這些圖形通常（但并不總是）被設(shè)計(jì)師開發(fā)。視覺藝術(shù)的作品主要是視覺性的東西從使用傳統(tǒng)的傳播媒介、攝影或電腦產(chǎn)生的藝術(shù)。平面設(shè)計(jì)原則可以適用于每一個(gè)人的版畫藝術(shù)元素，并最終組成。3 印刷術(shù)是藝術(shù)，工藝和技術(shù)型，修改類型字形，并安排類型的設(shè)計(jì)。類型字形（字符）的創(chuàng)建和修改使用各種說明方法。這項(xiàng)安排的類型是選擇字體、大小、線長、主要的（行距）和文字的間距。刷術(shù)是由排字工機(jī)，排字，印刷工人，圖形藝術(shù)家，藝術(shù)總監(jiān)，工作者和辦事員。直到數(shù)字時(shí)代，印刷成為一個(gè)專業(yè)的領(lǐng)域。數(shù)字化開辟了新的視覺設(shè)計(jì)師和用戶。排版設(shè)計(jì)師平面設(shè)計(jì)的一部分，是在網(wǎng)頁設(shè)計(jì)中是圖形設(shè)計(jì)，處理安排風(fēng)格（內(nèi)容）的要素。從早期的照明網(wǎng)頁手工復(fù)制書籍的中世紀(jì)和程序，以錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜的現(xiàn)代雜志和目錄布局，適當(dāng)?shù)木W(wǎng)頁設(shè)計(jì)公司長期以來一直是考慮的印刷材料，與印刷媒體，內(nèi)容通常包括類型（文字，圖片（照片）偶爾發(fā)生持有者圖形的內(nèi)容，沒有印刷油墨，如模具/激光切割，燙金壓印或盲目壓花。平面設(shè)計(jì)師常常專心研究于界面設(shè)計(jì)，如網(wǎng)頁設(shè)計(jì)和軟件設(shè)計(jì)，最終用戶的交互性是一個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)考慮的布局或接口。視覺溝通技巧、互動(dòng)溝通技巧與用戶互動(dòng)得相結(jié)合和在線品牌推廣，平面設(shè)計(jì)師往往與軟件開發(fā)和網(wǎng)絡(luò)開發(fā)人員創(chuàng)建的外觀和風(fēng)格的網(wǎng)站或軟件應(yīng)用程序，來加強(qiáng)用戶或網(wǎng)絡(luò)網(wǎng)站的訪問者互動(dòng)體驗(yàn)。版畫是在紙上，其他有機(jī)材料或者表面上印刷藝術(shù)品的過程。每一張不會(huì)被復(fù)制，但時(shí)最初的因?yàn)樗皇且粋€(gè)復(fù)制的另一藝術(shù)作品，并在技術(shù)上稱為留下深刻的印象。繪畫或素描，另一方面，創(chuàng)造了獨(dú)特的原始藝術(shù)品。版畫是由一個(gè)單一的原始表面創(chuàng)造的，在技術(shù)上已經(jīng)作為基質(zhì)而被已知。常見的矩陣包括：金屬板，通常是銅或鋅的雕刻或蝕刻石料，用于光刻;塊木刻的木材，油氈和織物板的絲網(wǎng)印刷。但也有許多其他種類，討論如下：作品從一個(gè)單一的印刷板創(chuàng)造一個(gè)版本，在現(xiàn)代通常每個(gè)簽署和編號(hào)，形成限量。打印也可編制成冊(cè)，作為藝術(shù)家的書籍。一個(gè)單一的打印可能是產(chǎn)品的一種或多種技術(shù)。色彩學(xué)領(lǐng)域是如何在打印機(jī)上和顯示器上用眼睛識(shí)別顏色和如何解釋和組織這些色彩。眼睛的視網(wǎng)膜被兩個(gè)被命名為視桿和視錐的感光體涵蓋。視桿對(duì)光很敏感但是對(duì)顏色不是很敏感。視錐卻與視桿恰恰相反。他們對(duì)光不太敏感，但是顏色可以被感知。隨著科技的發(fā)展，人們?cè)絹碓秸J(rèn)識(shí)到環(huán)境問題日益嚴(yán)重，大氣污染、森林破壞、水土流失、土地沙漠

化、水資源污染、大量物種滅絕、石油、天然氣、煤等資源枯竭。作為工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師，應(yīng)該有強(qiáng)烈的環(huán)境 保護(hù)意識(shí)，使得自己的設(shè)計(jì)建立在不破壞環(huán)境及節(jié)約自然資源的基礎(chǔ)上。

其中，溫室效應(yīng)、臭氧層破壞和酸雨是當(dāng)今全球性的三大環(huán)境問題。

溫室效應(yīng)就是大氣變暖的效應(yīng)其形成原因是太陽短波輻射可以透過大氣射入地面，而地面增暖后放

出的長波輻射卻被大氣中的二氧化碳就像一層厚厚的玻璃，把地球變成了一個(gè)大暖房。甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟烴以及水汽等也對(duì)溫室效應(yīng)有所貢獻(xiàn)。隨著人口的急劇增加和工業(yè)的迅速發(fā)展，越來越多的二氧化碳 排入大氣中；

又由于森林被大量砍伐，大氣中原本應(yīng)被森林吸收的二氧化碳沒有被吸收，致使二氧化碳 逐漸增加，溫室效應(yīng)也不斷增強(qiáng)。溫室效應(yīng)的后果十分嚴(yán)重，自然生態(tài)將隨之發(fā)生重大變化，荒漠將擴(kuò)

大，土地侵蝕加重，森林退向極地，旱澇災(zāi)害嚴(yán)重，雨量增加；溫帶冬天更濕、夏天更旱；熱帶也將變 得更濕，干熱的亞熱帶變得更干旱，迫使原有水利工程重新調(diào)整。沿海將受到嚴(yán)重威脅。由于氣溫升高，兩極冰塊將融化，使海平面上升，將會(huì)淹沒許多城市和港口。

臭氧層破壞現(xiàn)象引起科學(xué)界及整個(gè)國際社會(huì)的震動(dòng)。美國的兩位科學(xué)家 Monila 和 Rowland 指出，正是人為的活動(dòng)造成了今天的臭氧洞。元兇就是現(xiàn)在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龍。

酸雨目前已成為一種范圍廣泛、跨越國界的大氣污染現(xiàn)象。酸雨破壞土壤，使湖泊酸化，危害動(dòng)植

物生長；刺激人的皮膚，誘發(fā)皮膚病，引起肺水腫、肺硬化；會(huì)腐蝕金屬制品、油漆、皮革、紡織品和 含碳酸鹽的建筑。

總而言之，人類生活的環(huán)境已經(jīng)日益惡化。

而惡化的原因大部分屬于人類本身的不良生活方式和不 尊重客觀規(guī)律，急功近利，對(duì)于地球資源的使用沒有科學(xué)的計(jì)劃性，而且在設(shè)計(jì)、制造產(chǎn)品以及日常生

活中缺乏保護(hù)環(huán)境的意識(shí)，以至于自毀家園，其危害不僅于當(dāng)代，而且嚴(yán)重影響了子孫后代的生存。

環(huán)境問題在很大程度上是由于人們的不良設(shè)計(jì)、生活方式造成的后果。于是給設(shè)計(jì)師們提出了一個(gè)

嚴(yán)肅的問題：作為設(shè)計(jì)師，應(yīng)肩負(fù)起保護(hù)環(huán)境的歷史重任！

工業(yè)在為人類創(chuàng)造大量物質(zhì)財(cái)富的同時(shí)，也給世界帶來了災(zāi)難。工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)在為人類創(chuàng)造了現(xiàn)代生活

方式的同時(shí)，也加速了資源、能源的消耗，并對(duì)地球的生態(tài)平衡造成了巨大的破壞。

所以，作為工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師，建立環(huán)境意識(shí)體現(xiàn)了其道德和社會(huì)責(zé)任心。設(shè)計(jì)師必須對(duì)自己的設(shè)計(jì)負(fù)責(zé)，必須把人類的健康幸福，自然與人類的和諧共存作為設(shè)計(jì)中心遵循的原則。

設(shè)計(jì)師還必須掌握必要的材料、工藝、化工、制造等方面的知識(shí)，使得其設(shè)計(jì)不對(duì)環(huán)境造成危害而 成為可能。

“可持續(xù)發(fā)展設(shè)計(jì)” 這一概念的提出，對(duì)于人性的回歸及世界真正意義上的發(fā)展具有劃時(shí)代的意義。他體現(xiàn)了設(shè)計(jì)師的道德與責(zé)任，已成為 21 世紀(jì)設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)展的總趨勢(shì)。從此，人類傳統(tǒng)工業(yè)文明發(fā)展模式

轉(zhuǎn)向現(xiàn)代生態(tài)文明發(fā)展模式。它是社會(huì)進(jìn)步，經(jīng)濟(jì)增長，環(huán)境保護(hù)三者之間的協(xié)同。

可持續(xù)發(fā)展是人們應(yīng)遵循的一種全新的倫理、道德和價(jià)值觀念。其本質(zhì)在于：充分利用現(xiàn)代科技，大力開發(fā)綠色資源，發(fā)展清潔生產(chǎn)，不斷改善和優(yōu)化生態(tài)環(huán)境，促使人與自然的和諧發(fā)展，人口、資源 和環(huán)境相互協(xié)調(diào)。

解決可持續(xù)反展問題是一個(gè)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新和行為模式轉(zhuǎn)變的問題。

可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略是解決在不危害未來幾代人的需求前提下，盡量滿足當(dāng)代人的需求的問題。實(shí)現(xiàn)目

前利益與長遠(yuǎn)利益的統(tǒng)一，為子孫后代留下發(fā)展空間。

目前可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略考慮的問題有：循環(huán)性、綠色能源、生態(tài)效率。

綠色設(shè)計(jì)源于人們對(duì)于現(xiàn)代技術(shù)文化所引起的環(huán)境及生態(tài)破壞的反思。綠色設(shè)計(jì)著眼于人與自然的

生態(tài)平衡關(guān)系，在設(shè)計(jì)過程的每一個(gè)決策中都充分考慮到環(huán)境效益，盡量減少對(duì)環(huán)境的破壞。

對(duì)工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師而言，綠色設(shè)計(jì)的核心是“ 3R ”，即“減少”（Reduce）、“再循環(huán)”(Recycle)和“再 利用”（Reuse)。不僅要盡量減少物質(zhì)和能源的消耗、減少有害物質(zhì)的排放，而且要使產(chǎn)品及零件能夠 5 方便的分類回收，并再生循環(huán)或重新利用。

綠色設(shè)計(jì)不僅是一種技術(shù)層面的考慮，更重要的是一種觀念 上的變革。

要求設(shè)計(jì)師放棄那種過分強(qiáng)調(diào)產(chǎn)品在外觀上標(biāo)新立異的做法，而將重點(diǎn)放在真正意義上的創(chuàng) 新上面，已一種更為負(fù)責(zé)的方法去創(chuàng)造產(chǎn)品的形態(tài)，用更簡潔、長久的造型使產(chǎn)品盡可能地延長其使用 壽命。

從材料方面要考慮： 原材料的存量和可再生性，獲取材料時(shí)的環(huán)境能源的消耗與污染，后續(xù)加工時(shí)

環(huán)境材料的易加工性，低能耗性、低污染性，報(bào)廢時(shí)的可回收性。

從加工制造方面要考慮：加工制造階段需要將污染減至最少，或?qū)⑽廴鞠麥缭谏a(chǎn)過程初始階段。

從包裝、運(yùn)輸、銷售等方面要考慮：包裝的環(huán)境性能、綠色包裝，良好的可運(yùn)輸性、降低自重、減 少能耗，當(dāng)?shù)鼗a(chǎn)及減少物流過程消耗。

從產(chǎn)品的使用階段考慮： 使用中的能耗、資源消耗。

產(chǎn)品更新?lián)Q代時(shí)環(huán)境性能的模塊化、可重組性、產(chǎn)品的使用模式等因素。

從產(chǎn)品的報(bào)廢階段考慮：易拆卸性，便于分解和分類，材料可回收性和可再利用性，零部件可重組 性或移作它用等因素。

清潔的能源：如考慮太陽能、水電、風(fēng)力的清潔燃料；清潔的材料，涉及低污染、無毒、易降解和 可回收性；清潔的制造過程，考慮低能耗、少排放的制造；清潔的產(chǎn)品，涉及使用中節(jié)能、環(huán)保、報(bào)廢 后的回收。

零部件的再生利用濕可持續(xù)戰(zhàn)略的有力措施。事實(shí)證明： 報(bào)廢的產(chǎn)品拆卸后，經(jīng)分析，其中材料在

改進(jìn)設(shè)計(jì)后可重用和經(jīng)翻新后可重用的比例可以提高。

比如：一輛報(bào)廢車中，金屬材料占 80 ％，其中，有色金屬占 3 ％～ 4.7 ％。世界鋼產(chǎn)量中的 45 ％是 由廢鋼鐵生產(chǎn)出的。中國鋼產(chǎn)量的 25 ％是由廢鋼鐵生產(chǎn)的。

產(chǎn)品全生命周期管理是指從人對(duì)產(chǎn)品的需求開始，到產(chǎn)品淘汰報(bào)廢的全部生命歷程。其中包括產(chǎn)

品需求分析產(chǎn)品計(jì)劃、概念設(shè)計(jì)、產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)、數(shù)字化仿真、工藝準(zhǔn)備、工藝規(guī)劃、生產(chǎn)測(cè)試和質(zhì)量監(jiān)控、銷售與分銷、使用、維護(hù)與維修，以及報(bào)廢與回收等主要階段。將先進(jìn)的管理理念和一流的信息技術(shù)有

機(jī)融入到現(xiàn)代企業(yè)的工業(yè)和商業(yè)運(yùn)作中，從而使企業(yè)在數(shù)字經(jīng)濟(jì)時(shí)代能夠有效地調(diào)整經(jīng)營手段和管理方式，以發(fā)揮企業(yè)前所未有的競爭優(yōu)勢(shì)。幫助企業(yè)進(jìn)行產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新，贏得市場(chǎng)，并獲得額外利潤，以提高企業(yè)產(chǎn)品的價(jià)值。

GRAPHIC DESIGN The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation.Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.Graphic design often refers to both the process by which the communication is created and the products which are generated.Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design.For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza.In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art.After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.In graphic design, “the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience.” During the Tang dynasty(618–906)between the 4th and 7th century A.D.wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design.He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout.In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures.He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and 2 made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art.The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles.This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.Who originally coined the term “graphic design” appears to be in dispute.It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography.He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today.They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging.The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a “mass-produced”minimalism to America;sparking a wild fire of “modern”architecture and design.Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger;Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity；and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era.3 From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge.Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication.It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text.Together these are defined as branding(see also advertising).Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably.Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math.These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams.A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy.Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage.This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information-known as information design.Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain.With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer.For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required.In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout.Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills.These graphics are often(but not always)developed 4 by a graphic designer.Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art.Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.Type glyphs(characters)are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading(line spacing)and letter spacing.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements(content)on a page.Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material.With print media, elements usually consist of type(text), images(pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor.Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print.Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression.Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork.Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching;stone, used for lithography;blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing.But there are many other kinds, discussed below.Works printed from a single