科技英語(yǔ)教案

第一篇：科技英語(yǔ)教案

科技英語(yǔ)教案

I.Teaching Plan(180 minutes)

1.Warm-up(10 minutes)

2.Detailed Study(145 minutes)

3.Translating skills of nominalization(24 minutes)

4.Assignment(1 minute)

II.Teaching Steps

1.Warm-up:(10 minutes)

1).Have you ever watched the movie A Beautiful Mind? What is the story about?

2).What are the basic elements of games and what is the goal of the participants in the game?

3).In order to win in a game, what kind of approach or strategy should be applied?

2.Detailed Study(145 minutes)

Step1.Text Organization

Part One: paras.1-3

Game theory can be defined as the science of strategy which studies both pure conflicts(zero-sum games)and conflicts in cooperative forms.Part Two: paras.4-11

There are two distinct types of strategic imterdependence;sequential move game and simultaneous-move game.Part Three: paras: 12-19

The typical examples of game theory are given as basic principles such as prisoners’ dilemma, mixing moves, strategic moves, bargaining, concealing and revealing information.Part Four: para.20

The research of game theory has succeeded in illustrating strategies in situations of conflict and cooperation and it will focus on the design of successful strategy in future.Step 2.Detailed study of part one

Terms: game theory, zero-sum game，Words and phrases:

1)outcome: The outcome of an activity, process, or situation is the situation that exists at the end of it

E.g:

Mr.Singh said he was pleased with the outcome...辛格先生說(shuō)他對(duì)這一結(jié)果感到滿(mǎn)意。

2)rear: v.bring up and educate children rear a family 養(yǎng)家

I was reared in east Texas.我在得克薩斯州東部長(zhǎng)大。

n.[the rear] the back part 后部、背后、后面 a kitchen in the rear of the house

3)takeover: n.公司的接收或并購(gòu)

The economy of Hong Kong goes well after its ～.4)implement: 1.V.履行;實(shí)施 N-COUNT 可數(shù)名詞工具;器具;用具

e.g We need money to implement the program.～ plans, policies, a program of reforms

knives and other useful implements.刀子和其他有用工具

5)jointly: in collaboration or cooperation adv.共同地，聯(lián)合地，連帶地

e.g The two boys owned the boat jointly.joint: n.關(guān)節(jié)，連接處 adj.共有的，共同的

6)fight back: When an animal is under attack, it can run away or fight back.抵抗，反擊，強(qiáng)忍住

e.g If he hit you, why didn't you fight back?

7)cut down: 削減;減少使用

e.g If you spend more than your income, can you try to cut down?

如果你入不敷出，可以試著減少開(kāi)支嗎?

Content questions:

1.What kind of games did early game theory mathematicians emphasize? What is the current research focus?

2.Are game strategies different from decisions made in a neutral environment? Why or why not?

Step 3.Detailed study of part two

1)When thinking about how others will respond, one must put oneself in their shoes, and think as they would;one should not impose one’s own reasoning on them.? 在考慮其他博弈者會(huì)如何應(yīng)對(duì)時(shí)，博弈者必須能設(shè)身處地地?fù)Q位思考，而不能把自己的主觀判斷強(qiáng)加于人。

2)In contrast to the linear chain of reasoning for sequential games, a game with simultaneous moves involves a logical circle.? Paraphrase: A game with simultaneous move requires a logical circular thinking, which is totally different from the linear chain of reasoning for sequential games

? 與連續(xù)策略博弈的線性思維不同，聯(lián)立策略的博弈涉及邏輯循環(huán)。

3)square: v.與…一致，符合

? That explanation squares with the facts, doesn't it...那個(gè)解釋和事實(shí)相符，不是嗎?

? Square the circle: to attempt sth.impossible 做(似乎是)不可能的事情

4)When we say that an outcome is an equilibrium, there is no presumption that each person’s privately best choice will lead to a collectively optimal result.? 當(dāng)我們把博弈的結(jié)果表述為一種均衡的時(shí)候，并不能假定博弈的每個(gè)參與者的個(gè)人最佳策略將帶來(lái)共同的最優(yōu)化結(jié)果。

collectively: adv.全體的，共同的

e.g.All members of the Cabinet are collectively responsible for decisions taken.? 所有內(nèi)閣成員對(duì)所作決定集體負(fù)責(zé)。

optimal: a.best or most favorable 最佳的

e.g.Aim to do some physical activity three times a week for optimal health.? 為了達(dá)到最佳的健康狀況，要力爭(zhēng)每周進(jìn)行3次身體鍛煉。

Content questions:

1).What is the essence of the game?

2).In a sequential-move game, what do the players do? While in a simultaneous game, what do the players do?

3).What is the general principle for players in the simultaneous game?

4).Can you describe the concept of Nash equilibrium? How is it used in circular reasoning of games?

Step 4.Detailed study of part three and part four

1).confess: v.①confesses to sth/doing sth 承認(rèn)，供認(rèn)坦白(自己做錯(cuò)的事)

? She finally confessed to having stolen the money.②confess sth to sb(向神父)懺悔，告解

? You just go to the church and confess your sins...你干脆去教堂懺悔自己的罪過(guò)吧。

2).outweigh: v.be greater in weight, value or importance than sth

e.g The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.利遠(yuǎn)大于弊

? out-為前綴,意為exceeds, go beyond

3).Prisoners’ dilemma : in game theory, the prisoners’ dilemma is a type of non-zero game in which two players can cooperate with or defect the other player.4)Game theory quantifies this insight and details the right proportions of such mixtures.? 博弈論為提高洞察力和掌握混合性策略恰當(dāng)?shù)幕鸷蛱峁┝藚⒖肌?/p>

5).deter: v.～sb.from doing sth.使某人決定不做某事

e.g Failure did not deter him from making another attempt.他并未因失敗而畏縮不前。

6).credible: adj.可信的，可靠的

incredible: adj.不可思議的;驚人的;難以置信的;credibility: n.可靠性，可信性;確實(shí)性

7).renege: v.fail to keep a promise, one’s word 食言，背信

If someone reneged on a deal, they could never trade here again.誰(shuí)要是違背了約定，就永遠(yuǎn)不能再在這里進(jìn)行交易。

8).commit to: 對(duì)…作出承諾, 擔(dān)負(fù)責(zé)任;致力于…;把…固定在

e.g.He has committed himself to the cause of education.他已決心獻(xiàn)身教育事業(yè)。

9).monopoly: n.①專(zhuān)賣(mài)權(quán)，專(zhuān)利權(quán) gain a ～

? In some countries, tobacco is a government～專(zhuān)賣(mài)品

Content questions:

1).In tennis why is it crucial for players to mix their moves?

2).What is brinkmanship strategy in games of conflict?

3).What is the process of bargaining for players? What agreement can be reached?

3.The translating skills——nominalization(24 minutes)

Nominalization(名詞化結(jié)構(gòu))

1)單純名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)：指由一個(gè)或多個(gè)名詞修飾一個(gè)中心名詞構(gòu)成的名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)。

water purification system

該結(jié)構(gòu)的中心名詞是system，purification 修飾water，因此該結(jié)構(gòu)相當(dāng)于a system for the purification of water

2)復(fù)合名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)：指由一個(gè)中心名詞和形容詞、名詞、副詞、分詞及介詞短語(yǔ)等多個(gè)前置或后置修飾語(yǔ)構(gòu)成。

acute bacterial peritonitis 急性細(xì)菌性腹膜炎

將名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)譯為動(dòng)詞

All substances will permit the passage of some electric current, provided the potential difference is high enough.這里的名詞passage在翻譯時(shí)要譯為動(dòng)詞“通過(guò)”。

全句譯為：只要有足夠的電位差，電流便可通過(guò)任何物體。

將名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)譯為動(dòng)賓關(guān)系

As a small-scale illustration of the artificial modification of physical weather processes, take the frost prevention in an orchard.劃線部分的名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)譯為“對(duì)天氣的物理過(guò)程進(jìn)行人工影響”

全句譯為：我們可舉果園中防霜作為說(shuō)明對(duì)天氣的物理過(guò)程進(jìn)行小尺度人工影響的例子。

4.Assignment(1 minute)

Do the exercises of multiple choice, blank filling, cloze.

第二篇：科技英語(yǔ)教案

科技英語(yǔ)

王瀟芹

機(jī)電學(xué)院熱能與動(dòng)力工程系 Unit 1 Engineering and Engineer

第一單元工程和工程師

1.1 Engineering 1.1 工程

Most simply, engineering is the art of directing the great source of power in nature for the use and the convenience of man.In its modern form, engineering involves men, money, materials, machines, and energy.It is differentiated from science because it is primarily concerned with how to direct to useful and economical ends the natural phenomena which scientists discover and formulate into acceptable theories.Engineering therefore requires above all the creative imagination to find useful applications of natural phenomena.It is always dissatisfied with present methods and equipment.It seeks newer, cheaper, better means of using natural sources of energy and materials to improve man’s standard of living and to diminish toil.最簡(jiǎn)單地說(shuō)，工程是為了人類(lèi)的應(yīng)用與方便而對(duì)自然界存在的巨大自然力進(jìn)行引導(dǎo)操縱的技術(shù)。在其現(xiàn)代形式中，工程包括人力、金錢(qián)、材料、機(jī)械和能量。工程與科學(xué)的不同在與工程主要關(guān)注如何有效的經(jīng)濟(jì)的支配自然現(xiàn)象，而科學(xué)家則發(fā)現(xiàn)這些自然現(xiàn)象并將他們明確的表述為公認(rèn)的理論。因此工程首先要求具有創(chuàng)造性的想象力來(lái)找出有效利用自然現(xiàn)象的方法。工程通常不滿(mǎn)足于現(xiàn)有的方法和設(shè)備，它總是尋求更新、更廉價(jià)、更好的方法來(lái)利用自然能源和材料，從而提高人們的生活水平，減小苦力。

Traditionally there were two divisions or disciplines, military engineering and civil engineering.As man’s knowledge of natural phenomena grew and the potential civil applications became more complex, the civil engineering discipline tended to become more and more specialized.The practicing engineer began to restrict his operations to narrower channels.For instance, civil engineering came to be concerned primarily with static structures, such as dams, bridges, and buildings, whereas mechanical engineering split off to concentrate on dynamic structures, such as machinery and engines.Similarly, mining engineering became concerned with the discovery of , and removal from, geological structures of metalliferous ore bodies, whereas metallurgical engineering involved extraction and refinement of the metal from the ores.From the practical applications of electricity and chemistry, electrical and chemical engineering arouse.按照慣例，工程通常劃分為兩類(lèi)或稱(chēng)之為兩個(gè)部門(mén)，即軍事工程和民用工程。隨著人類(lèi)對(duì)自然現(xiàn)象了解的增長(zhǎng)和潛在的民用設(shè)施的復(fù)雜化，民用工程部門(mén)趨向于越來(lái)越專(zhuān)業(yè)化。當(dāng)今的工程師開(kāi)始將其業(yè)務(wù)限制在更為狹窄的渠道內(nèi)，比如，土木工程學(xué)開(kāi)始主要關(guān)注于靜態(tài)建筑，諸如水壩、橋梁和樓房；然而機(jī)械工程學(xué)則分裂出來(lái)開(kāi)始關(guān)注動(dòng)態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu)，諸如機(jī)器和發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)。類(lèi)似的，采礦工程學(xué)開(kāi)始關(guān)注探尋含金屬礦體的地質(zhì)結(jié)構(gòu)，并從此地質(zhì)結(jié)構(gòu)中開(kāi)采含金屬的礦體，而冶金工學(xué)則更多關(guān)注從礦石中提取和精煉金屬。基于實(shí)際應(yīng)用電器和化學(xué)的電氣工程和化學(xué)工程也出現(xiàn)了。

This splintering process continued as narrower specialization became more prevalent.Civil engineers has more specialized training as structural engineers, dam engineers, water-power engineers, bridge engineers;mechanical engineers machine-design engineers，industrial engineers, motive-power engineers;electrical engineers as power and communication engineers(and the latter divided eventually into telegraph, telephone, radio, television, and radar engineers);mining engineers as metallic-ore mining engineers and fossil-fuel mining engineers(the latter divided into coal and petroleum engineers).隨著專(zhuān)業(yè)細(xì)化的更加盛行這種分離過(guò)程也在繼續(xù)。土木工程師有更專(zhuān)業(yè)化的系列諸如結(jié)構(gòu)工程師、筑壩工程師、水利工程師和橋梁工程師。機(jī)械工程師細(xì)分為機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)工程師，工業(yè)工程師和動(dòng)力工程師。電氣工程師細(xì)分為電力工程師和通信工程師（后者最終劃分為電報(bào)工程師、電話(huà)工程師、無(wú)線電通信工程師、電視工程師和雷達(dá)工程師）；采礦工程師細(xì)分為金屬礦物采礦工程師和礦物燃料工程師（后者劃分為煤炭工程師和石油工程師）。

As a result of this ever-increasing utilization of technology, mankind and his environment have been affected in various ways--some good, some bad.Sanitary engineering has been expanded from treating the waste products of humans to also treating the effluents from technological processes.The increasing complexity of specialized machines and their integrated utilization in automated processes has resulted in physical and mental problems for the operating personnel.This has led to the development of bioengineering, concerned with the physical effects upon man, and management engineering, concerned with the mental effects.隨著技術(shù)利用的不斷增長(zhǎng)，其結(jié)果之一就是人類(lèi)與環(huán)境在各個(gè)方面均受到了影響—有些是好的，有些則是壞的。衛(wèi)生工程師從起初只處理人類(lèi)廢品擴(kuò)大到開(kāi)始處理工藝過(guò)程產(chǎn)生的廢水。專(zhuān)業(yè)化機(jī)械以及它們?cè)谧詣?dòng)化過(guò)程中的集成應(yīng)用均變得日益復(fù)雜，這導(dǎo)致運(yùn)行人員身體和精神方面都出現(xiàn)了一些問(wèn)題，這就引起了生物工程和管理工程的發(fā)展，前者關(guān)注于對(duì)人類(lèi)身體產(chǎn)生的影響，后者關(guān)注于對(duì)精神的影響。

1.2 Mechanical Engineering

1.2 機(jī)械工程

Engineering is an applied science.The engineer has a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences by study, experience, and practice which is applied to develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.The engineer is a problem solver, using knowledge and ability to devise or improve the solution to technological problems.The engineer is concerned with learning why a system or concept operates and how it might be directed toward useful, beneficial products.工程是一門(mén)應(yīng)用科學(xué)。工程師通過(guò)學(xué)習(xí)、體驗(yàn)和實(shí)踐來(lái)獲得數(shù)學(xué)和自然科學(xué)知識(shí)，它們被用來(lái)開(kāi)發(fā)出對(duì)人類(lèi)有益的更經(jīng)濟(jì)有效的利用自然材料和能量的途徑。工程師是問(wèn)題的解決者，他們應(yīng)用知識(shí)和才能設(shè)計(jì)或改進(jìn)技術(shù)問(wèn)題的解決方案。工程師關(guān)注于研究規(guī)律或原理為什么運(yùn)作以及如何將其引導(dǎo)使之產(chǎn)生有用有益的產(chǎn)品。

Perhaps the broadest of the engineering disciplines, mechanical engineering is concerned with the application of science and technology in the solution of the numerous problems facing our increasingly complex world.機(jī)械工程也許是工程學(xué)科中內(nèi)容最廣的一門(mén)科學(xué)，它關(guān)注的是如何應(yīng)用科學(xué)技術(shù)來(lái)解決我們面對(duì)的日益復(fù)雜的世界中的眾多問(wèn)題。

Mechanical engineers are innovators, developing devices and systems to perform useful services.They are involved in the conception, planning, design, analysis, testing, production, and utilization of facilities, systems, and machines.They are concerned with the production and use of energy, with combustion processes, environmental control, industrial pollution, materials processing and handling, the design of transportation vehicles and propulsion systems, and the safety of products.The field of mechanical engineering may be divided into two major areas: thermosciences and design.機(jī)械工程師是改革創(chuàng)新者，他們不斷研制各種裝臵與系統(tǒng)來(lái)完成有用的工作；他們致力于設(shè)施、體系和機(jī)器的概念、規(guī)劃、設(shè)計(jì)、分析、測(cè)試、產(chǎn)品和應(yīng)用；他們關(guān)注于能量的產(chǎn)品和應(yīng)用，還關(guān)注于燃燒過(guò)程、環(huán)境的控制、工業(yè)污染、材料加工和處理，運(yùn)輸車(chē)輛和推進(jìn)系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)以及產(chǎn)品的安全性。機(jī)械工程領(lǐng)域可以劃分為兩大主要方面：熱學(xué)和設(shè)計(jì)。

In the thermosciences area, the mechanical engineer is concerned with thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer—the behavior of solids, liquids, and gases—in engineering applications.Emphasis is placed on energy conversion systems, energy analyses, the design and development of engines and propulsion systems, and the use of energy.在熱學(xué)領(lǐng)域，機(jī)械工程師關(guān)注的是熱力學(xué)、流體力學(xué)和傳熱學(xué)（即固體、液體和氣體的性質(zhì)）在工程中的應(yīng)用。重點(diǎn)研究的是能量的轉(zhuǎn)換系統(tǒng)、能量分析，發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)和推進(jìn)系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)和研制以及能量的利用。

In the design area, mechanical engineers are concerned with the development of new and improved laborsaving devices and machines.They work toward the development of devices to transmit and control mechanical power for useful purposes.Emphasis is placed on machine design, mechanisms, kinematics, and automatic controls.Mechanical engineers, for example, have had a hand in the design of a great variety of commodities.They have also been instrumental in the development of machines to produce these commodities.在設(shè)計(jì)領(lǐng)域，機(jī)械工程師關(guān)注的是改進(jìn)、開(kāi)發(fā)新型可節(jié)省勞動(dòng)力的裝臵與機(jī)器，他們工作的目標(biāo)是研制出能夠傳遞并控制機(jī)械動(dòng)力至實(shí)際用途的裝臵。重點(diǎn)研究的是機(jī)器的設(shè)計(jì)、機(jī)構(gòu)、運(yùn)動(dòng)學(xué)和自動(dòng)控制。比如說(shuō)，機(jī)械工程師們參與了許許多多各種各樣商品的設(shè)計(jì)，并且在研制生產(chǎn)這些商品的機(jī)器中也發(fā)揮著作用。1.3 The Main Tasks of an Engineer

1.3 工程師的主要任務(wù)

There are many types of industries active today.All industries require a great deal of engineering to keep new ideas and developments coming and to refine and improve manufacturing techniques.現(xiàn)今活躍于社會(huì)中的行業(yè)多種多樣。各個(gè)行業(yè)都要求大量的工程研究以保持新觀念和發(fā)展趨勢(shì)，并改善和提高生產(chǎn)技術(shù)

As we know, these are the main tasks of an engineer: to explore new ways, invent new solutions to problems, and design new devices.In the research stage of a project, the engineer usually has found a new way of doing a job and is analyzing it(using mathematics and computers)to see how feasible the idea is and how well it will work.The development stage then follows.Here the idea is carried out in the laboratory.The processes vary among different projects, but the basic point is the same: turn the idea into a working reality.The development stage lasts as long as it needs to, until the working device has been constructed and tested.Then the manufacturing stage begins, during which it may be necessary to change some plans in the light of practical manufacturing conditions.正如我們所知，工程師的主要任務(wù)是：探索新的途徑、找出解決問(wèn)題的新方法和設(shè)計(jì)新的裝臵。在一個(gè)項(xiàng)目的研究階段，工程師通常在發(fā)現(xiàn)了一個(gè)作某項(xiàng)工作的新方法之后對(duì)其進(jìn)行分析（用數(shù)學(xué)和計(jì)算機(jī)）以了解其可行性如何以及其工作的成效如何，接下來(lái)是開(kāi)發(fā)階段，在此階段想法在實(shí)驗(yàn)室得以實(shí)現(xiàn)。對(duì)于不同的項(xiàng)目其過(guò)程也不盡相同，但基本的目的是一致的：即將想法轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榭晒ぷ鞯默F(xiàn)實(shí)，研發(fā)階段的持續(xù)時(shí)間依其需要而定，直到工作裝臵被建成并通過(guò)測(cè)試。接下來(lái)開(kāi)始的是生產(chǎn)階段，在此階段通常需要根據(jù)實(shí)際生產(chǎn)條件對(duì)原方案作一些改動(dòng)。

Following the development of a new device or product, it must be manufactured, usually in large quantities.In the last few decades a whole field of automated manufacturing techniques has been developed, requiring new engineering skills to invent and improve machines that automatically construct other machines efficiently and reliably.新裝臵或產(chǎn)品在研發(fā)之后就要進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)，通常是大規(guī)模的。在最近幾十年內(nèi)自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)技術(shù)已經(jīng)全面地發(fā)展起來(lái)，它要求新的工程技術(shù)來(lái)發(fā)明和改進(jìn)能高效可靠的自動(dòng)生產(chǎn)其它機(jī)器的機(jī)器。

During production and at the end of the assembly line, a product must be carefully tested to determine if it will perform its job properly and reliably.Frequently this testing procedure must be done automatically as well.Engineers are now developing procedures and machines to carry out what can be a very complicated sequence of tests.For example, consider the enormous problem of testing a large computer to see if it will perform all its tasks correctly.在生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中以及在裝配線的最后階段，產(chǎn)品必須進(jìn)行仔細(xì)地檢測(cè)以確定其是否能正確有效地執(zhí)行作業(yè)。通常這種檢測(cè)過(guò)程也需要自動(dòng)執(zhí)行。工程師目前正在研發(fā)可執(zhí)行非常復(fù)雜的系列測(cè)試的程序和機(jī)器，比如考慮一個(gè)大型的問(wèn)題來(lái)檢測(cè)大型計(jì)算機(jī)，看其是否能正確的執(zhí)行其全部任務(wù)。

In a large-scale production operation, be it identical small items such as radios of cars or a single item such as an oil refinery, there are many problems for an engineer to deal with.In an industrial environment the engineer’s basic job is to plan the sequence of steps necessary for the successful completion of a task at minimum cost.在大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)中，不論是批量生產(chǎn)同一小產(chǎn)品如汽車(chē)用收音機(jī)或是建設(shè)單個(gè)項(xiàng)目如煉油廠，都有許多問(wèn)題等待工程師解決。在工業(yè)環(huán)境下，工程師的基本工作是設(shè)計(jì)出能以最小的成本成功地完成任務(wù)所必需的一系列步驟。Unit 2 Computer Knowledge 第二單元計(jì)算機(jī)知識(shí)

2.1 Computer 2.1 計(jì)算機(jī)

A computer is an electronic machine that performs calculations and processes data automatically at high speed according to a prescribed sequence of operations.Broadly speaking, the term can refer not only to an electronic machine but also to one of a mechanical, analog, or other variety.Although all these types are used, computers usually mean electronic digital machines because electronic digital machines have many advantages and are widely used.Computers vary greatly in size;the smallest can be incorporated into a wristwatch, while the largest may fill an entire room.The electronic components of computers enable them to perform operations at high speeds.The fastest computer is able to perform billions of calculations per second.Computes are used to solve numerous problems, such as payroll calculations, inventory records, bank account transactions, airline reservations, and scientific and engineering computations.For each problem, the user must supply the necessary data and prepare an appropriate program(sequence of operations)by which the computer can process the data to produce the desired output.計(jì)算機(jī)是一種電子機(jī)器，它能夠按照規(guī)定的運(yùn)行順序以高速進(jìn)行自動(dòng)計(jì)算和數(shù)據(jù)處理。一般說(shuō)來(lái)，該術(shù)語(yǔ)不僅僅指電子機(jī)器，也可指機(jī)械式的、模擬的或其它類(lèi)型的。雖然這些種類(lèi)都在使用，但計(jì)算機(jī)通常指的是電子數(shù)字機(jī)器，因?yàn)殡娮訑?shù)字機(jī)器有許多優(yōu)點(diǎn)并且得到了廣泛的應(yīng)用。計(jì)算機(jī)在體積上差別很大，最小的可以嵌入一塊表內(nèi)，而最大的則可以占據(jù)整個(gè)房間。計(jì)算機(jī)的電子元件可以使其以高速運(yùn)行。最快的計(jì)算機(jī)每秒鐘可以進(jìn)行幾十億次運(yùn)算。人們應(yīng)用計(jì)算機(jī)解決眾多問(wèn)題如工資表計(jì)算、庫(kù)存資產(chǎn)記錄、銀行賬目交易、航班預(yù)定以及科技與工程方面的運(yùn)算。對(duì)每個(gè)問(wèn)題，使用者都必須提供必需的數(shù)據(jù)并預(yù)先編好正確的程序（一系列指令），計(jì)算機(jī)通過(guò)程序處理數(shù)據(jù)并給出期望的結(jié)果。

Owing to the tremendous progress in the micro-miniaturization of the transistor(the basic element of computers)since the late 1960s, inexpensive and small computers have become widely available, proliferating in virtually every sector of society.Industrialized countries have become dependent on computers to assist in daily life, for they are used in countless activities, such as manufacturing, transportation, communication, education, and business.Compared with other important technological products, computers are used in home and office by far more people, including those with little or no technical background.Thus, a solid working knowledge of computers is beneficial to most people.自20世紀(jì)60年代后期，由于晶體管（計(jì)算機(jī)的基本元件）在微型化方面取得的巨大進(jìn)展，廉價(jià)的小型計(jì)算機(jī)在社會(huì)的各個(gè)部門(mén)都得到了廣泛的應(yīng)用。發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家已經(jīng)依靠計(jì)算機(jī)來(lái)確保日產(chǎn)生活的正常運(yùn)行，因?yàn)樗鼈円驯粦?yīng)用于無(wú)數(shù)活動(dòng)中，比如生產(chǎn)、運(yùn)輸、通信、教育和商業(yè)。同其他重大科技產(chǎn)品相比，計(jì)算機(jī)可被更多的用戶(hù)在家中和辦公室中所使用，其中包括那些只有很少或根本沒(méi)有專(zhuān)業(yè)背景的人。因此扎實(shí)的計(jì)算機(jī)操作知識(shí)對(duì)大多數(shù)人都是有用的。

A computer can be represented in block diagram form as shown in Fig.2-1.It consists of five functional blocks: memory, input, output, control and arithmetic and logic unit.計(jì)算機(jī)可以表示為圖2-1所示的方框圖形式，它由存儲(chǔ)器、輸入設(shè)備、輸出設(shè)備、控制器及算術(shù)邏輯單元五個(gè)功能塊所組成。

The memory is used to store instructions and data which are processed by the arithmetic and logic unit.The control unit coordinates the operations of the computer and most of the control resides in a central unit which, since it normally also contains the arithmetic and logic unit, is known as the central processing unit(CPU), namely the central processing unit(CPU)consists of a control unit and an arithmetic and logic unit.In a simple microcomputer system, integrated circuits often correspond to this functional division of computer systems.The main method of communication between the various component parts of a computer is by the use of one or more buses.A bus consists of a group of signal lines used to carry information.The CPU is organized around a bus structure.存儲(chǔ)器用來(lái)存儲(chǔ)算術(shù)邏輯單元的指令和數(shù)據(jù)。控制器用來(lái)協(xié)調(diào)計(jì)算機(jī)的操作，并且絕大多數(shù)控制器被設(shè)臵于中央單元內(nèi)，由于中央單元一般也包含算術(shù)邏輯單元，因而它被稱(chēng)作中央處理器（CPU），即中央處理器（CPU）由控制器和算術(shù)邏輯單元組成。在一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的微型計(jì)算機(jī)系統(tǒng)中，集成電路的布臵通常與計(jì)算機(jī)系統(tǒng)的這種劃分相適應(yīng)。計(jì)算機(jī)中各個(gè)部分之間通信的主要方法是利用一條或多條總線?？偩€包括一組用來(lái)傳輸信息的信號(hào)線。CPU的周?chē)紳M(mǎn)了總線。

The parts of the computer which are involved in the transfer of data to and from the outside world are know as peripheral devices and can be categorized as follows:(1)Input: devices used to transfer information into the computer.(2)Output: devices used to transfer information out from the computer to the outside world.(3)Input/Output: devices which can be used for both the input and the output of data.計(jì)算機(jī)中用來(lái)和外界進(jìn)行數(shù)據(jù)傳輸交換的部分被稱(chēng)為外部設(shè)備，可以劃分為以下幾類(lèi)：

1）輸入設(shè)備：用來(lái)向計(jì)算機(jī)輸入信息的設(shè)備。2）輸出設(shè)備：用來(lái)將信息從計(jì)算機(jī)向外傳輸?shù)脑O(shè)備。3）輸入/輸出（I/O）：可同時(shí)用來(lái)進(jìn)行數(shù)據(jù)輸入和輸出的設(shè)備。2.2 Programming Languages

2.2 程序設(shè)計(jì)語(yǔ)言

Programming languages are the languages in which a programmer writes the instructions that the computer will ultimately execute.The earliest programming languages were assembly languages, not far removed from the binary-encoded instructions directly executed by the machine hardware.Users soon(beginning in the mid-1950s)invented more convenient languages.The early language FORTRAN(Formula Translation)was originally much like assembly language;however, it allowed programmers to write algebraic expressions instead of coded instructions for arithmetic operations.COBOL(Common business-Oriented Language)was developed to handle records, files, and the operations necessary for simple business applications.The trend since then has been toward developing increasingly abstract languages, allowing the programmer to think and communicate with the machine at a level ever more remote from machine code.程序設(shè)計(jì)語(yǔ)言是程序員用來(lái)編寫(xiě)計(jì)算機(jī)最終能執(zhí)行的指令的語(yǔ)言。最早的程序設(shè)計(jì)語(yǔ)言是匯編語(yǔ)言，它與計(jì)算機(jī)硬件能直接執(zhí)行的二進(jìn)制編碼指令差別不大。使用者很快發(fā)明出了更方便的語(yǔ)言（開(kāi)始于20世紀(jì)50年代中期）。早期Fortran語(yǔ)言（意為公式翻譯）開(kāi)始時(shí)與匯編語(yǔ)言很相似，但是它允許程序員在編寫(xiě)代數(shù)運(yùn)算時(shí)可以用代數(shù)表達(dá)式代替編碼指令。COBOL（面向商業(yè)的通用語(yǔ)言）被用來(lái)處理簡(jiǎn)單商業(yè)應(yīng)用所必需的記錄、文件和運(yùn)算。從那時(shí)開(kāi)始趨向于發(fā)展日益抽象的語(yǔ)言，允許程序員在遠(yuǎn)離機(jī)器代碼的水平上進(jìn)行思考并與計(jì)算機(jī)交流。

COBOL, FORTRAN, and their descendants such as PASCAL and C are know as imperative languages, since, they specify as a sequence of explicit commands how the machine is to go about solving the problem at hand;this is not very different from what takes place at the machine level.Other languages are functional, in the sense that programming is done by calling(i.e., invoking)functions or procedures, which are sections of code executed within a program.The best-known language of this type is LISP(from List Processing), in which all computation is expressed as an application of a function to one or more “objects”.Since LISP objects may be other functions as well as individual data items(variables, in mathematical terminology)or data structures, a programmer can create functions at the appropriate level of abstraction to solve the problem at hand.This feature has made LISP a popular language for artificial intelligence applications, although it has been somewhat superseded by logic programming languages such as PROLOG(from Programming in Logic).These are termed nonprocedural, or declarative, languages in the sense that the programmer specifies what goals are to be accomplished but not how specific methods are to be applied to attain those goals.COBOL，F(xiàn)ORTRAN及它們的后繼者，如PASCAL與C，均被稱(chēng)為命令式語(yǔ)言，因?yàn)樗鼈儗C(jī)器如何著手解決手頭的問(wèn)題規(guī)定為一顯式指令序列，這與發(fā)生在機(jī)器語(yǔ)言中的情況沒(méi)有很大的不同。而從下述意義上說(shuō)其他語(yǔ)言都是函數(shù)型的，即編制程序是通過(guò)調(diào)用（即援引）作為程序內(nèi)可執(zhí)行編碼段的函數(shù)或過(guò)程來(lái)進(jìn)行的。這種類(lèi)型的語(yǔ)言最著名的是LISP（來(lái)自于“表處理”的意思），它將所有的計(jì)算都表達(dá)成一個(gè)或多個(gè)對(duì)象的函數(shù)式。既然LISP的對(duì)象可以是單個(gè)的數(shù)據(jù)項(xiàng)（用數(shù)學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)描述即為變量）或數(shù)據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu)，也可以是其它的函程數(shù)，因此程序員就可以在適當(dāng)?shù)某橄笏缴蟿?chuàng)造出解決手頭問(wèn)題的程序。LISP的這一特點(diǎn)使其成為人工智能應(yīng)用方面最受歡迎的語(yǔ)言之一，雖然它有些被邏輯編程語(yǔ)言PROLOG（來(lái)自“邏輯程序設(shè)計(jì)”的意思）所取代。只需程序員說(shuō)明要實(shí)現(xiàn)的目標(biāo)而不需給出實(shí)現(xiàn)這些目標(biāo)的具體方法的語(yǔ)言稱(chēng)之為非過(guò)程化語(yǔ)言或描述性語(yǔ)言。

Computer programs written in any language other than machine language must be either interpreted or compiled.An interpreter is software that examines a user program one instruction at a time and calls on code to execute the operations required by that instruction.This is a rather slow process.A compiler is software that translates a user program as a whole into machine code that is saved for subsequent execution whenever desired.Much work has been done on making both the compilation process and the compiled code as efficient as possible.When a new language is developed, it is usually at first interpreted.If the language becomes popular, it becomes important to write compilers for it, although this may be a task of considerable difficulty.用機(jī)器語(yǔ)言以外的任何語(yǔ)言編寫(xiě)的計(jì)算機(jī)程序都必須經(jīng)過(guò)解釋或編譯方可執(zhí)行。解釋程序是一種軟件，它在逐一檢查應(yīng)用程序每條指令的同時(shí)將其譯成代碼，并執(zhí)行該指令要求的運(yùn)算。這是一個(gè)相當(dāng)緩慢的過(guò)程。編譯程序是一種將應(yīng)用程序整體翻譯成機(jī)器代碼的軟件，編譯后的程序被儲(chǔ)存起來(lái)在需要的時(shí)候再執(zhí)行。為使編譯過(guò)程和生成代碼盡可能的有效已作了大量的工作。當(dāng)一種新的語(yǔ)言被開(kāi)發(fā)出時(shí)，它通常采取解釋的方式執(zhí)行。如果這門(mén)語(yǔ)言變得普及，對(duì)其開(kāi)發(fā)編譯程序就變得很重要，盡管這將是一項(xiàng)相當(dāng)艱巨的工作。

2.3 Computer Viruses 2.3 計(jì)算機(jī)病毒

The computer virus is an outcome of the computer overgrowth in the 1980s.The cause of the term “computer virus” is the likeness between the biological virus and the evil program infected with computers.The origin of this term came from an American science fiction “The adolescence of P-1” written by Thomas J.Ryan, published in 1977.Human Viruses invade a living cell and turn it into a factory for manufacturing viruses.However, computer viruses are small programs.They replicate themselves and attach their copies to another program.計(jì)算機(jī)病毒是20世紀(jì)80年代計(jì)算機(jī)飛速發(fā)展的產(chǎn)物?！坝?jì)算機(jī)病毒”這一名詞起因于計(jì)算機(jī)上傳染的有害程序與生物學(xué)中病毒的相似性。該名詞最早出現(xiàn)于美國(guó)作家Thomas J.Ryan于1977年發(fā)表的科幻小說(shuō)“P-1的青春期”。人體病毒侵入生命細(xì)胞并將其變?yōu)椴《镜摹吧a(chǎn)工廠”。然而，計(jì)算機(jī)病毒則是一些小的程序，它們可以自我復(fù)制并將其粘貼于其它程序之中。

Once attached to the host program, the viruses then look for other programs to “infect”.In this way, the virus can speed quickly throughout a hard disk, or an entire organization when it infects a LAN or a multi-user system.At some point, determined by how the virus was programmed, the virus attacks.The timing of the attack can be linked to a number of situations, including a certain time or date, the presence of a particular file, the security privilege level of the user, and the number of times a file is used.Likewise, the mode of attack varies.So-called “benign” viruses might simply display a message, like the one that infected IBM’s main compute system last Christmas with a season’s greeting;while malignant viruses are designed to damage the system, the attack is to wipe out data, to delete files, or to format the hard disk.只要一粘附于宿主程序，病毒就會(huì)尋找其它的程序?qū)⑵涓腥?。通過(guò)這種方式，當(dāng)一個(gè)局域網(wǎng)或一個(gè)多用戶(hù)系統(tǒng)受到感染之后，計(jì)算機(jī)病毒會(huì)迅速擴(kuò)散到整個(gè)硬盤(pán)甚至整個(gè)組織。病毒程序的設(shè)計(jì)決定了它們只有在某個(gè)點(diǎn)上才會(huì)發(fā)作。發(fā)作的時(shí)間選擇通常與一些環(huán)境條件有關(guān)，如確定的時(shí)間或日期，某個(gè)特定文件的存在，使用者的安全優(yōu)先等級(jí)或文件被使用的次數(shù)等。同樣，病毒發(fā)作的方式也不盡相同。所謂的“良性病毒”可能僅僅是顯示一條信息，比如上個(gè)圣誕節(jié)IBM的主機(jī)系統(tǒng)感染的病毒，它只是一個(gè)節(jié)日的問(wèn)候。然而惡性病毒的設(shè)計(jì)卻能破壞系統(tǒng)，這種病毒發(fā)作會(huì)毀掉數(shù)據(jù)、刪除文件或者將硬盤(pán)格式化。

There are four main types of viruses: shell, intrusive, operating system and source code.病毒主要有四種類(lèi)型：外殼型病毒，嵌入式病毒，操作系統(tǒng)型病毒和源碼型病毒。

Shell viruses wrap themselves around a host program and do not modify the original program.Shell programs are easy to write, which is why about half of viruses are of this type.外殼型病毒將其自身隱藏于宿主程序附近但并不修改原文件。外殼型病毒很容易編寫(xiě)，這也是為什么病毒中有一半屬于這種類(lèi)型的原因。

Intrusive viruses invade an existing program and actually insert a portion of themselves into the host program.Intrusive viruses are hard to write and very difficult to remove without damaging the host file.嵌入式病毒會(huì)侵入已有程序，并將自身的一部分插入到宿主程序中。嵌入式病毒很難編寫(xiě)，而且在不損害主文件的前提下很難去除。

Shell and intrusive viruses most commonly attack executable program files—those with a.com or.exe extension, although data files are also at some risk.外殼型病毒和嵌入性病毒主要侵犯可執(zhí)行文件—即那些以.com或.exe做擴(kuò)展名的文件，盡管它有時(shí)也會(huì)危及到數(shù)據(jù)文件。

Operating system viruses work by replacing parts of the operating system with their own logic.It is very difficult to write operating system viruses and these viruses have the ability, once booted up, to take total control of your system.For example, some operating system viruses have hidden large amounts of attack logic in falsely marked bad disk sectors.操作系統(tǒng)型病毒則通過(guò)用自身代碼取代部分操作系統(tǒng)程序來(lái)發(fā)作。操作系統(tǒng)型病毒也很難編寫(xiě)，這種病毒一旦被導(dǎo)入，就有控制整個(gè)系統(tǒng)的能力。比如，某些操作系統(tǒng)病毒會(huì)在錯(cuò)誤標(biāo)記的壞扇區(qū)隱藏大量的攻擊性代碼。

Source code viruses are intrusive programs and they are also inserted into a source program such as those written in PASCAL prior to the program being compiled.They are the least-common viruses because they are not only hard to write, but also have a limited number of hosts compared to the other types.源碼型病毒是嵌入式程序，它們也會(huì)在諸如PASCAL之類(lèi)語(yǔ)言編寫(xiě)的源程序被編譯之前就插入到其中。它們是最不常見(jiàn)的一種病毒，因?yàn)樗鼈儾粌H難于編寫(xiě)，而且與其它類(lèi)型病毒相比，所能附著的宿主程序也是極為有限的。Unit 3 Mechanics Foundation

第三單元力學(xué)基礎(chǔ) 3.1 Basic Concepts in Mechanics

3.1 力學(xué)中的基本概念

The branch of scientific analysis which deals with motions, time, and forces is called mechanics and is made up of two parts, statics and dynamics.Statics deals with the analysis of stationary systems, i.e., those in which time is not a factor, and dynamics deals with systems which change with time.研究運(yùn)動(dòng)、時(shí)間和力的關(guān)系的學(xué)科稱(chēng)為“力學(xué)”，它由兩部分組成：靜力學(xué)和動(dòng)力學(xué)。靜力學(xué)對(duì)靜止系統(tǒng)作分析研究，也就是說(shuō)在這些系統(tǒng)中時(shí)間并不是一個(gè)變量；動(dòng)力學(xué)則研究隨時(shí)間而變的系統(tǒng)。

Forces are transmitted into machine members through mating surfaces, e.g., from a gear to a shaft or from one gear through meshing teeth to another gear, from a connecting rod through a bearing to a lever, from a V belt to a pulley, or from a cam to a follower.It is necessary to know the magnitudes of these forces for a variety of reasons.The distribution of the forces at the boundaries or mating surfaces must be reasonable, and their intensities must be within the working limits of the materials composing the surfaces.For example, if the force operating on a sleeve bearing becomes too high, it will squeeze out the oil film and cause metal-to-metal contact, overheating, and rapid failure of the bearing.If the forces between gear teeth are too large, the oil film may be squeezed out from between them.This could result in flaking and spalling of the metal, noise, rough motion, and eventual failure.In the study of dynamics we are principally interested in determining the magnitude, direction, and location of the forces.力在機(jī)械零件之間通過(guò)配合表面來(lái)傳遞，比如，從齒輪傳至軸或從一對(duì)齒輪通過(guò)嚙合齒對(duì)傳至另一個(gè)齒輪，從連桿通過(guò)軸承傳至搖桿，從V帶傳至帶輪，或從凸輪傳至從動(dòng)桿等等。有很多原因促使我們必須明確這些力的大小。力在邊界處和配合表面處的分布必須是合理的，而且其密度必須在組成表面的材料所允許的工作范圍之內(nèi)。比如說(shuō)，如果作用于一滑動(dòng)軸承上的力升的太高，潤(rùn)滑油膜將會(huì)被擠出而導(dǎo)致金屬與金屬的直接接觸，從而引起過(guò)熱和軸承的迅速破壞。如果齒輪嚙齒之間的力過(guò)大，其間的潤(rùn)滑油膜也會(huì)被擠出。這可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致金屬出現(xiàn)剝落與裂紋，產(chǎn)生噪聲，運(yùn)動(dòng)平穩(wěn)性變差并造成最終的斷裂。在動(dòng)力學(xué)的研究中，我們主要關(guān)注的是如何確定力的大小、方向和位臵。

Some of the terms used in this phase of our studies are defined below.我們本文所研究的一些術(shù)語(yǔ)定義如下：

Force

Our earliest ideas concerning forces arose because of our desire to push, lift, or pull various objects.So force is the action of one body acting on another.Our intuitive concept of force includes such ideas as place of application, direction, and magnitude, and these are called the characteristics of a force.力：我們對(duì)力最初的概念來(lái)源于我們推、提或拉物體的需要。因此力是一個(gè)物體對(duì)另一個(gè)物體的作用。我們對(duì)力直觀的概念包括這樣一些要素：即力的作用點(diǎn)、方向和大小，這些稱(chēng)之為力的特性。

Matter

Matter is any material or substance;if it is completely enclosed, it is called a body.物質(zhì)：物質(zhì)可以是任何材料或物品，如果它是完全封閉的，則稱(chēng)為物體。Mass Newton defined mass as the quantity of matter of a body as measured by its volume and density.This is not a very satisfactory definition because density is the mass of a unit volume.We can excuse Newton by surmising that he perhaps did not mean it to be a definition.Nevertheless, he recognized the fact that all bodies possess some inherent property that is different from weight.Thus, a moon rock has a certain constant amount of substance, even though its moon weight is different from its earth weight.This constant amount of substance, or quantity of matter, is called the mass of the rock.質(zhì)量：牛頓將質(zhì)量定義為物體所包含的物質(zhì)的數(shù)量，用體積和密度的乘積來(lái)度量。這并不是一個(gè)令人滿(mǎn)意的定義，因?yàn)槊芏缺旧硎菃挝惑w積的質(zhì)量。我們不必責(zé)怪牛頓，也許他并未將此視作定義。然而，他認(rèn)識(shí)到所有物體都擁有一些與重力無(wú)關(guān)的內(nèi)在性質(zhì)這一事實(shí)。因此，一塊月球上的石塊擁有確定不變的物質(zhì)的數(shù)量，盡管它在月球上的重量與在地球上不同。這個(gè)確定的材料的多少或物質(zhì)的數(shù)量，即為這塊石頭的質(zhì)量。

Inertia Inertia is the property of mass that causes it to resist any effort to change its motion.慣性：慣性是質(zhì)量所具有的抵抗任何外力改變其本身運(yùn)動(dòng)狀態(tài)的性質(zhì)。Weight

Weight is the force of gravity acting upon a mass.重量：重量是重力作用于質(zhì)量上的力。

Particle

A particle is a body whose dimensions are so small that they may be neglected.質(zhì)點(diǎn)：質(zhì)點(diǎn)是這樣的一個(gè)物體，即其尺寸小到可以忽略不計(jì)。Rigid Body

All bodies are either elastic or plastic and will be deformed if acted upon by forces.When the deformation of such bodies is small, they are frequently assumed to be rigid, i.e., incapable of deformation, in order to simplify the analysis.剛體：所有的物體都是彈性的或塑性的，在作用有外力時(shí)會(huì)發(fā)生形變。當(dāng)物體的形變很小時(shí)，它們通常被認(rèn)為是剛性的，也就是說(shuō)，為了簡(jiǎn)化分析認(rèn)為是不可變形的。

Deformable Body

The rigid-body assumption cannot be used when internal stresses and strains due to the applied forces are to be analyzed.Thus we consider the body to be capable of deforming.Such analysis is frequently called elastic-body analysis, using the additional assumption that the body remains elastic within the range of the applied forces.變形體：由于在分析由外力引起的內(nèi)應(yīng)力和應(yīng)變時(shí)不能采用剛體假設(shè)，因而我們將物體視作可變形體。這種分析通常稱(chēng)之為彈性體分析，并且通常假定物體在力的作用范圍內(nèi)保持為彈性的。3.2 Mechanical Properties of Metals

3.2 金屬的力學(xué)性能

Mechanical properties are the characteristic responses of a material to applied forces.The knowledge of mechanical properties of materials is very essential in order to construct a mechanically sound structure such as a bridge on a river.Mechanical properties can be determined by conducting experimental tests on the material specimen.Some important mechanical properties of materials are: 力學(xué)性能指的是某種材料對(duì)所外力所表現(xiàn)出的特性。在建造力學(xué)堅(jiān)固的建筑如在河流上建造橋梁時(shí)，了解材料的力學(xué)性能顯得非常重要。力學(xué)性能可以通過(guò)在材料試樣上作測(cè)試實(shí)驗(yàn)得到。材料的一些重要的力學(xué)性能包括：

(1)Strength(in tension, compression, shear, bending and torsion)(2)Stiffness(3)Ductility(4)Impact strength(5)Hardness(6)Toughness 1）強(qiáng)度（在拉伸、壓縮、剪切、彎曲、扭轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)所表現(xiàn)出的強(qiáng)度）2）剛度 3）塑性 4）沖擊強(qiáng)度 5）硬度 6）韌性 1.Strength Strength of a material may be defined as the ability of the material to sustain loads without undue distortion or failure.Material should have adequate strength when subjected to tension, compression, shear, bending or torsion as per the intended use;for example, the crankshaft of an automobile should have proper torsion strength.1.強(qiáng)度：材料的強(qiáng)度可以定義為材料在不致過(guò)度變形和毀壞的情況下成承受載荷的能力。材料在預(yù)定的使用場(chǎng)合中受到拉伸、壓縮、剪切、彎曲或扭轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)應(yīng)具有足夠的強(qiáng)度。比如說(shuō)汽車(chē)的曲軸應(yīng)具有適當(dāng)?shù)目古?qiáng)度。

2.Stiffness Stiffness is the ability of a material or shape to resist elastic deflection.For identical shapes, the stiffness is proportional to the modulus of elasticity.A material which deforms less under a given load is stiffer than one which deforms more.2.剛度：剛度是材料或物體抵抗彈性變形的能力。對(duì)于確定的形狀，剛度正比于彈性模量。在給定的載荷下變形較小的材料較之變形較大的材料具有更高的剛度。

3.Ductility Ductility refers to the capacity of a material to undergo deformation under tension without rupture as in a wire drawing operation.3.塑性：塑性是指材料經(jīng)受拉伸變形如拉絲加工而不致斷裂的能力。4.Impact Strength It is the strength of a material when subjected to high rates of loading, usually in bending, tension or torsion.The amount of energy required to fracture the material by a single blow is measured by means of Charpy test.4.沖擊強(qiáng)度：這是指材料在受到高速載荷作用時(shí)的強(qiáng)度，通常是在彎曲、拉伸或扭轉(zhuǎn)的情況下。致使材料失效的單次沖擊能量的數(shù)值可以通過(guò)擺錘式?jīng)_擊實(shí)驗(yàn)得到。

5.Hardness Hardness is the resistance of a material to plastic deformation usually by indentation.However, the term may refer to stiffness or refer to resistance to scratching, abrasion or cutting.Tests such as Vickers, Brinell and Rockwell are generally employed to measure hardness.5.硬度：硬度是指材料對(duì)通常由壓痕引起的塑性變形的抗力，不過(guò)這一名詞也可指剛性或指材料對(duì)劃擦、磨損或切削的抗力。硬度多利用維氏、布氏及洛氏之類(lèi)的實(shí)驗(yàn)方法來(lái)測(cè)定。6.Toughness Toughness refers to the ability of a material to withstand bending or the application of shear stresses without fracture.By this definition, copper is extremely tough but cast iron is not.6.韌性：韌性指的是在不致失效的情況下材料承受彎曲或剪切應(yīng)力的能力。根據(jù)該定義可知，銅的韌性很好，而鑄鐵的韌性則較差。

3.3 Machines and Work

3.3 機(jī)器和功

Defined in simplest terms a machine is a device that uses force to accomplish something.More technically, it is a device that transmits and changes force or motion into work.This definition implies that a machine must have moving parts.A machine can be very simple, like a block and tackle to raise a heavy weight, or very complex, like a railroad locomotive or the mechanical systems used for industrial processes.用最簡(jiǎn)單的詞定義，機(jī)器就是用力完成某項(xiàng)工作的裝臵。更專(zhuān)業(yè)一點(diǎn)講機(jī)器是將力或運(yùn)動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)楣Φ难b臵。該定義意味著機(jī)器必須含有運(yùn)動(dòng)部件。機(jī)器可以非常簡(jiǎn)單，比如提升重物的滑輪組；機(jī)器也可以非常復(fù)雜，比如鐵路機(jī)車(chē)和生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中的機(jī)械系統(tǒng)。

A machine receives input from an energy source and transforms it into output in the form of mechanical or electrical energy.Machines whose input is a natural source of energy are called prime movers.Natural sources of energy include wind, water, steam, and petroleum.Windmills and waterwheels are prime movers;so are the great turbines driven by water or steam that turn the generators that produce electricity;and so are internal combustion engines that use petroleum products as fuel.Electric motors are not prime movers, since an alternating current of electricity which supplies most electric energy does not exist in nature.機(jī)器接受能源的輸入，并將其轉(zhuǎn)換為機(jī)械能或電能的形式輸出。以自然能源作為輸入的機(jī)器稱(chēng)之為原動(dòng)機(jī)，自然能源包括風(fēng)、水、蒸汽和石油。因此風(fēng)車(chē)和水車(chē)是原動(dòng)機(jī)；由水或蒸汽驅(qū)動(dòng)并帶動(dòng)發(fā)電機(jī)發(fā)電的大型渦輪機(jī)也是原動(dòng)機(jī)；以石油產(chǎn)品作為燃料的內(nèi)燃機(jī)還是原動(dòng)機(jī)。電力馬達(dá)并非原動(dòng)機(jī)，因?yàn)闉槠涮峁┙^大部分電能的交流電并不是自然界中存在的。

Terms like work, force, and power will be used frequently, so it is necessary to define them precisely.Force is an effort that results in motion or physical change.If you use you muscles to lift a box, you are exerting force on that box.The water which strikes the blades of a turbine is exerting force on those blades, thereby setting them into motion.諸如功、力、功率之類(lèi)的術(shù)語(yǔ)會(huì)經(jīng)常用到，因此必須對(duì)其進(jìn)行準(zhǔn)確的定義。力是為產(chǎn)生運(yùn)動(dòng)或物理改變而作出的努力。如果你用臂力舉起一個(gè)箱子，那么你在對(duì)箱子施加力的作用。沖擊渦輪葉片的水在對(duì)這些葉片施加力的作用，從而可以使其開(kāi)始運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)。

Note these two kinds of motion: linear and rotary.Linear motion is movement in a straight line;the technical term for this kind of motion is translation.Reciprocating motion is a linear motion that goes back and forth or up and down in the same path, like the movement of the pistons in a car.Rotary motion is movement in a circular path.To produce rotary motion it is necessary to have torque, a force that can cause a twisting motion called torsion.Torque is the kind of effort that you exert to open a twist-off lid on a jar.In many machines the problem is to change one kind of motion to another.In a car, for example, the linear motion of the pistons must be converted into rotary motion to make the wheels turn.注意這兩種不同形式的運(yùn)動(dòng)：線性運(yùn)動(dòng)和旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)。線性運(yùn)動(dòng)是沿直線的運(yùn)動(dòng)，這種運(yùn)動(dòng)的專(zhuān)業(yè)術(shù)語(yǔ)是“平移”。往復(fù)運(yùn)動(dòng)指的是沿著相同的路徑前后或上下所作的線性運(yùn)動(dòng)，比如說(shuō)汽車(chē)內(nèi)活塞的運(yùn)動(dòng)。旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)指的是沿環(huán)形路線的運(yùn)動(dòng)。要形成轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)就必須具有轉(zhuǎn)矩，即引起稱(chēng)作扭轉(zhuǎn)的回轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)的力。轉(zhuǎn)矩是你為擰開(kāi)瓶蓋而施加的那種作用。很多機(jī)器要處理的問(wèn)題是將一種運(yùn)動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榱硪环N運(yùn)動(dòng)。比如說(shuō)在汽車(chē)內(nèi)，活塞的線性運(yùn)動(dòng)必須被轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)槭管?chē)輪轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)的旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)。

Power is another term used in a special technical sense in speaking of machines.It is the rate or speed at which work is performed.If you raise a ten pound weight a distance of twenty feet in two minutes, you are performing work at a rate of ten pounds×twenty feet / two minutes, or two hundred foot-pounds in two minutes.Since the rate is usually given in units of one minute, this is a rate of 100 foot-pounds in a minute.功率是在談到機(jī)器時(shí)所用的另一個(gè)專(zhuān)業(yè)術(shù)語(yǔ)，它指的是做功的速率或速度。如果你在兩分鐘內(nèi)將一個(gè)10磅重的物體提升了20英尺，你就以10磅×20英尺/2分鐘的速率做了功。由于速率通常以每分鐘為單位給出，因而這一速率亦即每分鐘100磅英尺。

In the metric system, power is measured in terms of watts and kilowatts.The watt is the power to do one joule of work per second.The joule is a small unit of work, approximately three-quarters of a foot-pound.One horsepower is equal to 745.7 watts.The kilowatt, a more widely used term, equals a thousand watts or approximately 4/3 horsepower in the English system.The newton is a unit equal to the force necessary to accelerate one kilogram one meter per second per second.在公制系統(tǒng)中，功率由瓦或千瓦來(lái)衡量，1瓦的功率相當(dāng)于每秒做了1焦耳的功，焦耳是功的一個(gè)很小的單位，大約相當(dāng)于1磅英尺的三分之一。1馬力等于745.7瓦。千瓦則是更常用的單位，等于一千瓦特或在英制系統(tǒng)中近似等于4/3馬力。牛頓是力的單位，它等于產(chǎn)生1千克·米/平方秒加速的力。Unit 4 Materials and Heat Treatment

第四單元材料與熱處理 4.1 Metallic and Nonmetallic Materials 4.1 金屬材料和非金屬材料

Perhaps the most common classification that is encountered in materials selection is whether the material is metallic or nonmetallic.The common metallic materials are such metals as iron, copper, aluminum, magnesium, nickel, titanium, lead, tin, and zinc and the alloys of these metals, such as steel, brass, and bronze.They possess the metallic properties of luster, thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity;are relatively ductile;and some have good magnetic properties.The common nonmetals are wood, brick, concrete, glass, rubber, and plastics.Their properties vary widely, but they generally tend to be less ductile, weaker, and less dense than the metals, and they have no electrical conductivity and poor thermal conductivity.金屬材料和非金屬材料的劃分也許是材料選擇中最常見(jiàn)的一種分類(lèi)形式。最常見(jiàn)的金屬材料諸如鐵、銅、鋁、鎂、鎳、鈦、鉛、錫、鋅以及這些金屬的合金，如鋼鐵、黃銅、青銅等，它們擁有金屬的一些特性諸如光澤、導(dǎo)熱性、導(dǎo)電性、延展性，而且其中的某些還有較好的磁性。常見(jiàn)的非金屬材料諸如木材、磚塊、混凝土、玻璃、橡膠和塑料。這些材料的特性差異很大，但他們整體上表現(xiàn)為不易延展、較脆、與金屬相比密度較小，沒(méi)有導(dǎo)電性以及導(dǎo)熱性較差。

Although it is likely that metals always will be the more important of the two groups, the relative importance of the nonmetallic group is increasing rapidly, and since new nonmetals are being created almost continuously, this trend is certain to continue.In many cases, the selection between a metal and nonmetal is determined by a consideration of required properties.Where the required properties are available in both, total cost becomes the determining factor.盡管在兩類(lèi)材料中相對(duì)重要的可能還將一直是金屬材料，但非金屬材料的重要性卻在迅速提高，并且由于新的非金屬材料的不斷涌現(xiàn)，這種提高的趨勢(shì)肯定還會(huì)保持下去。在許多場(chǎng)合中，金屬材料或非金屬材料的選擇取決于所要求的特性，如果兩種材料都具備該需求特性，那么總的成本將成為決定性因素。

More than 90% by weight of the metallic materials used by human beings are ferrous alloys.This represents an immense family of engineering materials with a wide range of microstructures and related properties.The majority of engineering designs that require structural load support or power transmission involve ferrous alloys.As a practical matter, these alloys fall into two broad categories based on the carbon in the alloy composition.在人類(lèi)使用的金屬材料中，重量占90%以上的都是鐵合金。這代表著一個(gè)具有各種各樣微觀機(jī)構(gòu)與相關(guān)特性的巨大工程材料家族。大多數(shù)要求結(jié)構(gòu)承重或動(dòng)力傳輸?shù)墓こ淘O(shè)計(jì)都采用了鐵合金。在實(shí)際應(yīng)用中，這些合金根據(jù)碳在合金成分中的含量被劃分為兩大類(lèi)。

A number of nonmetallic materials have substantial importance in manufacturing.Consequently, it is imperative for the design engineer to have an understanding of their natures, properties, advantages, and limitations so he may know when and how they may be used advantageously in his designs.Except in furniture manufacturing, where wood is of prime importance, these materials are plastics, elastomers and ceramics.許多非金屬材料在制造業(yè)中也占據(jù)重要地位。因此，對(duì)于設(shè)計(jì)工程師來(lái)說(shuō)，必須了解它們的種類(lèi)、特性、優(yōu)點(diǎn)和局限性，這樣他才能知道何時(shí)和怎樣在設(shè)計(jì)中更好的使用它們。在木材占首要重要性的家具制造業(yè)中則例外，其材料包括塑料、橡膠和陶瓷。

4.2 Iron and Its Production

4.2 鐵及其產(chǎn)品

As we have seen, ferrous metals are alloys of iron with carbon, these alloys may contain also some other elements such as silicon(Si), phosphorus(P), etc., but carbon is the most important of all elements present in ferrous alloys.正如我們所知，黑色金屬是鐵和碳的合金，這些合金也可能包含一些其它元素諸如硅、磷等等，但碳是鐵合金所有元素中最重要的。

Ferrous metals are used in industry in two general forms: cast iron and steel.These two ferrous alloys are usually produced from pig iron, and they have different carbon content.Steel is iron containing from 0.0218 to 2.11 per cent carbon, while pig iron is an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content more than 2.11 per cent.Pure iron is not used in industry because it is too soft.黑色金屬在工業(yè)領(lǐng)域的應(yīng)用主要有兩種形式：鑄鐵和鋼鐵。這兩種鐵合金通常都由生鐵制造，但其中碳的含量不同，含炭量在0.0218%到2.11之間的鐵為鋼，而生鐵則是碳的含量超過(guò)2.11%的鐵碳合金。純鐵因?yàn)樘浂诠I(yè)中不被使用。

The furnace that is used for separating iron from the other elements combined with it in the iron ore is called a blast furnace, as shown in Fig.4-1.It is called so because a blast of hot air is forced into it , while producing the pig iron.This is a vertical furnace from 50 to 100 feet high and from 10 to 20 feet in diameter.The walls of this furnace are made of refractory bricks, which can stand great heat.用來(lái)從鐵礦石中把同其它元素結(jié)合在一起的鐵分離出來(lái)的爐子叫做鼓風(fēng)爐（高爐），如圖4-1所示。之所以這樣稱(chēng)是因?yàn)樵跓捝F時(shí)要將熱風(fēng)鼓入爐內(nèi)，這是一個(gè)高度在50-100英尺，直徑在10-20英尺之間的豎直熔爐，該熔爐的墻由耐火磚制成，它可以經(jīng)受高溫。

The largest parts of the blast furnace are the shaft and the hearth.The charging mechanism is in the shaft top, through this charging mechanism the iron ore, coke and flux are charged into the blast furnace.The blast of hot air is forced into the hearth through tuyeres, special holes in the top part of the hearth.These tuyeres are cooled with water while working.The pig iron flows out of the furnace through the tap which is special hole in the wall of hearth near the hearth bottom.The slag, which is lighter than the pig iron, flows out through another hole made in the wall of the furnace higher than the tap.This hole is called the slag hole.鼓風(fēng)爐中最主要的組成部分是豎井和爐膛，加料機(jī)構(gòu)位于豎井頂端，鐵礦石、焦炭和助熔劑通過(guò)加料機(jī)構(gòu)被加入到鼓風(fēng)爐中。熱風(fēng)通過(guò)風(fēng)口即位于爐膛頂部的一些特制孔被鼓入爐膛，這些風(fēng)口在工作的同時(shí)被水冷卻，生鐵從出鐵口即靠近爐膛底部的路墻上的特制孔排出爐膛。比生鐵重量輕的爐渣從爐墻上另外一個(gè)位臵比出鐵口略高的出口排出，這一出口被稱(chēng)為爐渣出口。

For separating iron from the impurities, the iron ore must be melted.The ore melts at a very high temperature, that is why the temperature inside the blast furnace is held about 2 500 degrees Fahrenheit.This great heat is produced by the coke burning in the blast of hot air.The air is heated in special stoves which are called hot blast stoves.In these stoves the blast furnace gases are burned to produce heat and to heat the air.A blast furnace may hold about 1 000 tons of iron ore, coke and fluxes.為了將鐵和雜質(zhì)分離開(kāi)，鐵礦石必須被熔化，礦石的熔化溫度很高，這就是為什么高爐內(nèi)的溫度要保持在華氏2500度左右的原因。高熱的產(chǎn)生依賴(lài)于焦炭在熱風(fēng)中的燃燒，而熱風(fēng)則是在稱(chēng)作熱風(fēng)爐中的專(zhuān)用爐子中被加熱的，在這些爐子中通過(guò)燃燒高爐煤氣來(lái)產(chǎn)生熱量并加熱空氣，一個(gè)鼓風(fēng)爐可以容納大約1000噸的鐵礦石、焦炭和助熔劑。

4.3 Heat Treatment of Steel

4.3 鋼的熱處理

Heat treatment is a method by which the heat-treater can change the physical properties of a metal.There are three main operations in the heat treatment of steel: hardening, tempering, and annealing.熱處理是熱處理工人用來(lái)改變金屬物理性能的方法。鋼的熱處理有三種主要的工藝：淬火、回火和退火

The hardening operation consists of heating the steel above its critical range and then quenching it, that is rapidly cooling in a suitable medium such as water, brine , oil, or some other liquid.Having been hardened , the metal must be given a tempering treatment which consists of reheating the hardened steel to a temperature below the critical range, thus producing the required physical properties.淬火處理是指將鋼材加熱到其臨界區(qū)之上，然后降溫—即在適當(dāng)?shù)慕橘|(zhì)如水、鹽水、油或其它液體中使之迅速冷卻。金屬淬硬之后必須進(jìn)行回火處理，回火是將淬硬的鋼重新加熱到低于臨界區(qū)的某個(gè)溫度，從而獲得所需的物理性能。

The critical points or critical temperatures are the temperatures at which a certain change takes place in the physical condition of the steel.These points are very important because in order to properly harden a piece of steel, it must be heated to a temperature above the upper critical point.Having known the critical points for certain steel, we can easily control the heat in the furnace.Gas, oil, and electric furnaces are the most commonly used for heat-treating.臨界點(diǎn)或臨界溫度指的是鋼的物理狀態(tài)發(fā)生某個(gè)變化的溫度。這些點(diǎn)非常的重要，因?yàn)闉榱诉m當(dāng)?shù)卮阌惨粔K鋼材必須將其加熱到高于上臨界點(diǎn)的溫度。已知某種鋼材的臨界點(diǎn)之后，控制爐膛中的熱量就比較容易了。金屬的熱處理中用得最多的是氣爐、油爐和電爐。

Annealing is the uniform heating of a metal above usual hardening temperatures, followed by very slow cooling.Annealing may be carried out either to soften a piece that is too hard to machine or to remachine a piece that has already been hardened.Annealing also relieves internal stresses produced by machining.退火指的是在通常的淬火溫度之上將金屬均勻的加熱，然后再緩慢的冷卻。若工件過(guò)硬以致無(wú)法機(jī)加工，或是要重新機(jī)加工已經(jīng)加工變硬的工件，就可通過(guò)退火來(lái)使材料軟化。退火也可以減輕因?yàn)榧庸ざ斐傻膬?nèi)應(yīng)力。

Low carbon steel do not become hard when subjected to such a heat treatment because of the small amount of carbon contained.If it is necessary to obtain a hard surface on a part made of such steel, surface hardening operation must be carried out.One of the methods of surface hardening is cyaniding, which is done by keeping the work in a molten bath of sodium cyanide from 5 to 30 minutes, depending on the size of the work and the depth of penetration required.Having been subjected to such a treatment, the work is then quenched in water or oil, and a very hard case 0.01 to 0.015 inch thick is formed.This process is also called case hardening.低碳鋼因?yàn)楹剂可偎栽诮?jīng)受這種熱處理后并不會(huì)變硬。如果這種鋼材制成的某個(gè)零件有必要得到一個(gè)較硬的表面，就必須進(jìn)行表面硬化處理。表面硬化的方法之一是氰化，即根據(jù)工件的尺寸和所要求的滲層深度將工件臵于氰化鈉熔池中保持5到30分鐘。工件經(jīng)過(guò)這樣的處理后被臵于水或油中冷卻，就可以形成一0.01到0.015英寸厚的硬度層，這一過(guò)程也被稱(chēng)為表面硬化。

Nitriding is also one of the case hardening methods.This process consists of keeping the steel in hot ammonia gas for some hours.Nitrogen, formed in this condition from ammonia, penetrates into the surface of the metal, thus forming a very hard case.滲氮也是一種表面硬化方法，它是指將鋼臵于熱的氨蒸氣中保持?jǐn)?shù)小時(shí)。氮—在該情形下來(lái)自于氨—便會(huì)滲入金屬表面，形成一非常硬的表層。

Another method of the case hardening is carburization.The work is placed into a metal box containing carburizing materials(that is materials with high carbon content)；the box is closed and placed into a furnace for some hours at the temperature of 926 degrees Centigrade.The depth to which the carbon penetrates depends upon the length of time the piece is kept in the furnace.Having been quenched in some liquid quenching medium, the work has a hard case and a soft core.表面硬化的另一個(gè)方法是滲碳。工件被臵于含滲碳材料（即含碳量很高的材料）的金屬箱中。封閉箱子將其臵于926攝氏度的爐膛內(nèi)數(shù)小時(shí)。滲碳深度取決于工件在爐膛中保持的時(shí)間長(zhǎng)短，經(jīng)一些液體冷卻介質(zhì)冷卻之后，工件便會(huì)形成堅(jiān)硬的表面和較軟的芯部。Unit 7 Friction and Mechanisms

第七單元摩擦與機(jī)構(gòu)

7.1 Friction 7.1 摩擦

Friction reduces the efficiency of machines but it is also indispensable.When you try to walk on ice, slipping and sliding and perhaps falling down, you realize the importance of friction.Ice has a low coefficient of friction and that is what makes it so difficult to walk on.Without friction it would be impossible to walk at all and our trains and cars could not move.摩擦的存在使得機(jī)器效率下降，但它同樣也是不可缺少的。當(dāng)你試著在冰上行走時(shí)，總會(huì)滑動(dòng)還可能摔倒，這時(shí)你就會(huì)意識(shí)到摩擦力的重要性。冰的摩擦系數(shù)很小，這使得在其之上很難行走。沒(méi)有摩擦力我們將完全無(wú)法行走，火車(chē)和汽車(chē)也將無(wú)法運(yùn)行。

There are there different kinds of mechanical friction: static, sliding, and rolling.Static friction is the resistance to motion between two bodies in contact but at rest.The resistance of static friction is greater than that of sliding friction which is the resistance to continued motion after one body has started to move.Rolling friction occurs when resistance is reduced to its lowest degree by rotary motion not on the same axis.機(jī)械摩擦有三種不同的類(lèi)型：即靜止摩擦、滑動(dòng)摩擦和滾動(dòng)摩擦。靜止摩擦是抵抗兩個(gè)相互接觸的物體發(fā)生相對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)的力。靜止摩擦產(chǎn)生的抵抗力大于滑動(dòng)摩擦，滑動(dòng)摩擦阻止物體開(kāi)始運(yùn)動(dòng)之后的進(jìn)一步運(yùn)動(dòng)。當(dāng)軸線不定的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)所受到的阻力降至最低限度時(shí)，就會(huì)出現(xiàn)滾動(dòng)摩擦。Note these three kinds of friction at work: it takes a stronger effort to put a box into motion(static friction)than it does to keep it moving across the floor once started(sliding friction);if there are rollers under the box it takes still less effort to keep it in motion(rolling friction).注意這三種有效的摩擦力：使一個(gè)箱子開(kāi)始移動(dòng)（靜摩擦）所需的力要大于它開(kāi)始移動(dòng)之后使之在地板上繼續(xù)移動(dòng)（滑動(dòng)摩擦）所需的力；而如果箱子下有滾柱的話(huà)，使之繼續(xù)運(yùn)動(dòng)（滾動(dòng)摩擦）所需的力還會(huì)更小。

One way to reduce friction in machines is through the materials for the parts that contact each other.The coefficient of friction is the constant ratio of the friction to the force pressing the surfaces together.Coefficients have been equated for different common materials using the three type of friction.Steel on steel or glass on glass has high coefficients but some new substances have much lower coefficients.One of these is babbitt metal, an alloy made of tin, copper, and antimony;another is teflon, a plastic containing fluorine that is sometimes used in cooking utensils.降低摩擦的一個(gè)方法是通過(guò)改進(jìn)相互接觸的零件的材料實(shí)現(xiàn)的。摩擦力與促使表面壓合的力之比為常數(shù)，稱(chēng)為摩擦系數(shù)。人們已測(cè)定出各種常用材料在此三種摩擦形式下的摩擦系數(shù)值。鋼和鋼或玻璃和玻璃相互接觸時(shí)有較高的摩擦系數(shù)，但是一些新型的材料其系數(shù)要低得多。巴氏合金即是其中之一，它是一種由錫、銅和銻組成的合金。另外還有聚四氟乙烯，這是一種含氟的塑料，有時(shí)候用于作廚具。

Another way of reducing friction is by means of lubrication, applying oil or grease to the points or surfaces where the parts of a machine contact each other, petroleum products are the principal modern lubricants;some of them include polymers, the long, heavy, complex molecules that occur in plastics.另外一種減小摩擦的方法是通過(guò)潤(rùn)滑，即將油或油脂加在機(jī)器零件相互接觸的點(diǎn)或面上。石油產(chǎn)品是最重要的現(xiàn)代潤(rùn)滑劑，其中一些含有聚合物，即塑料中存在的又長(zhǎng)又大的復(fù)雜分子團(tuán)。

A vital mechanism for reducing friction is the bearing which basically is a device that bears the friction of parts in motion.Often one of the parts will be moving and the other will be stationary.Logs used to move heavy stones in early times were the primitive form of a bearing.They were efficient because they changed sliding friction to rolling friction, thereby decreasing the effort necessary to move the stones.減小摩擦所用到的一個(gè)非常重要的裝臵是軸承，它可以承擔(dān)運(yùn)動(dòng)零件的摩擦力。通常其中的一個(gè)零件處于運(yùn)動(dòng)狀態(tài)而另一個(gè)則靜止。早期用來(lái)移動(dòng)重的石頭的圓木可以說(shuō)是軸承的原始形式。它們是非常有效的，因?yàn)樗鼈儗⒒瑒?dòng)摩擦轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榱藵L動(dòng)摩擦，因此減小了移動(dòng)石塊所必需的力。

Reducing friction between the parts of a machine is the principal purpose of bearings.Different types have been designed for use at various points of contact to fit the kinds of motion at work.Probably the most familiar are ball bearings which are used in many machines.Small balls are fitted into a cage, a container that separates them.Cage and bearings（應(yīng)改為：balls）are then sealed, often in a lubricant, between rings which are called races.The entire assembly is a ball bearing.減小機(jī)器零件之間的摩擦是軸承最基本的目的。對(duì)各種不同的接觸點(diǎn)已設(shè)計(jì)了不同的軸承種類(lèi)，以便適應(yīng)做功的運(yùn)動(dòng)類(lèi)型。最常見(jiàn)的可能是用于多種機(jī)器的球軸承。小的球體被嵌入盒內(nèi)，即將其分割容納的腔室，然后將殼與球體密封在稱(chēng)之為套圈的環(huán)路內(nèi)，其中往往要采用潤(rùn)滑劑。這一完整的裝配就是一個(gè)球軸承。

Another familiar type is the roller bearing, a modern version of the logs that were used as primitive bearings.Roller bearings contain small cylinders on which the bearing races can roll.They are usually fitted with the same kind of holding cage and races as ball bearing.In order to sustain pressure from different directions, bearing rollers are sometimes tapered or shaped like cut-off cones and set at an angle to the races.A variation is the needle bearing with cylinders of very small diameter.Needle bearings need not be contained in a cage or between races.Their advantage is greater load-carrying capacity with more friction than ball bearings of comparable size.另一種常見(jiàn)的型式為滾子軸承，這是最早用作軸承的圓木的現(xiàn)代版本。滾子軸承包含有若干小的圓柱體，軸承套圈可以在其上滾動(dòng)，它們配合的方式與球軸承中殼與套圈的連接一樣。為了承受來(lái)自不同方向的壓力，軸承滾子有時(shí)候做成楔形的或像截錐形的并以一定的角度裝入套圈內(nèi)。其變種之一是包含小直徑圓柱體的滾針軸承。滾針軸承不必安裝于盒內(nèi)或位于套圈之間，它們的優(yōu)點(diǎn)是在尺寸可比的情況下較球軸承而言有更高的承重能力，可承受更大的摩擦力。

7.2 Mechanisms 7.2 機(jī)構(gòu)

Essentially all machines are variations or combinations of some basic mechanisms.There are a number of different kinds of mechanisms or components that transmit motion or change it in one way or another.Modern machines and their components have become so complex that a branch of the science of mechanics called kinematics evolved in order to study mechanisms and their actions.Regardless of the original input and the final output of most modern machines, it is their mechanisms that give them their great versatility and flexibility.基本上所有的機(jī)器都是一些基本機(jī)構(gòu)的變種或組合形式。有許多不同類(lèi)型的機(jī)構(gòu)或構(gòu)件可以用來(lái)傳輸運(yùn)動(dòng)或?qū)⑵鋸囊环N方式轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榱硪环N方式?，F(xiàn)代的機(jī)器及其構(gòu)件已變得如此復(fù)雜，以至于已發(fā)展出了一門(mén)稱(chēng)之為運(yùn)動(dòng)學(xué)的力學(xué)分支,專(zhuān)門(mén)用于研究機(jī)構(gòu)及其運(yùn)動(dòng)。不論絕大多數(shù)現(xiàn)代機(jī)器的最初輸入和最終輸出如何，都是其中的機(jī)構(gòu)使之具有了廣泛的適應(yīng)性和很大的靈活性。

Gears play such an important part in machines that they have become the symbol for machinery.They are wheels with teeth that engage or mesh with each other so that they work in pairs to transmit or change motion.They are frequently used to reduce or increase the speed of a motion and they can also change the direction of motion.The line around which a wheel rotates is its axis;gears can change axial motion.齒輪在機(jī)器中扮演了一個(gè)非常重要的角色,以至于它們已成為了機(jī)器的象征。齒輪的輪上有相互嚙合的齒，因此它們成對(duì)的工作以便傳輸或改變運(yùn)動(dòng)。它們通常用于減小或增加某個(gè)運(yùn)動(dòng)的速度，有時(shí)也用于改變運(yùn)動(dòng)的方向。輪子繞其旋轉(zhuǎn)的線稱(chēng)之為軸線，齒輪可以改變軸向運(yùn)動(dòng)。

Another kind of mechanism is the cam.Like the gear, it consists of a pair of components;the cam itself is the input member and the follower is the output member.The cam is attached to a rotating shaft;it transmits motion to the follower.Cams come in many different shapes—there are heart-shaped cams, clover-leafed cams, elliptical cams and others.By means of these different shapes cams can change rotating into reciprocating(back and forth or up and down)motion or into oscillating or vibrating motion.The follower is usually a rod or shaft.Cams can transmit exact motions at specific times in a cycle.They are in automobile engines to raise and lower the valves and in sewing machines to control the movements of the needle.還有一種機(jī)構(gòu)是凸輪，它和齒輪一樣包括一對(duì)構(gòu)件。凸輪本身為輸入元件而從動(dòng)件則是輸出元件。凸輪安裝于旋轉(zhuǎn)的軸上，它將運(yùn)動(dòng)傳遞給從動(dòng)件。凸輪有很多不同的形狀—有心形凸輪、三星凸輪、橢圓凸輪以及其它形狀的凸輪。通過(guò)這些不同的形狀，凸輪可以將旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)變?yōu)橥鶑?fù)運(yùn)動(dòng)（前后的或者上下的）或變?yōu)閿[動(dòng)或振動(dòng)。從動(dòng)件則通常是桿或軸。凸輪可在一個(gè)循環(huán)中特定的時(shí)間段精確傳遞運(yùn)動(dòng)。在汽車(chē)發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)中它們用來(lái)提起或關(guān)上閥門(mén)，在縫紉機(jī)中則用來(lái)控制針的運(yùn)動(dòng)。

Another kind of mechanism is known as a linkage;it is a series of at least four rods that are connected by joints that permit the rods to pivot.When one rod is fixed the other rods can move only in paths that are predetermined.Like cams, linkages are used to change the direction of motion, to transmit different kinds of motion, or to provide variations by varying the lengths of the rods in relation to each other.還有一種機(jī)構(gòu)稱(chēng)之為連桿機(jī)構(gòu)，它由至少4個(gè)以上的一系列桿組成，通過(guò)可以確保這些桿轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)的連接裝臵連接起來(lái)。當(dāng)某一根桿固定時(shí)，其它桿只能沿預(yù)定的路線運(yùn)動(dòng)。和凸輪一樣，連桿機(jī)構(gòu)可被用來(lái)改變運(yùn)動(dòng)的方向、傳遞不同類(lèi)型的運(yùn)動(dòng)，或者通過(guò)改變連桿的長(zhǎng)度來(lái)提供其它變型。

A ratchet is another paired mechanism consisting of a wheel with teeth and a pawl which drops into the spaces between the teeth.The ratchet mechanism is used to prevent a motion from being reversed or to change reciprocating into rotary motion.棘輪機(jī)構(gòu)是另外一種成對(duì)的機(jī)構(gòu)，它由一個(gè)帶齒的輪子和一個(gè)棘爪組成，棘爪位于兩齒之間。棘輪機(jī)構(gòu)用來(lái)防止運(yùn)動(dòng)反向進(jìn)行，或用來(lái)將往復(fù)運(yùn)動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)樾D(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)。

This is a brief introduction to the complex world of mechanisms.以上就是對(duì)復(fù)雜的機(jī)構(gòu)世界的一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)短介紹。

7.3 Gears 7.3 齒輪

Gears are vital factors in machinery.One of the first mechanism invented using gears was the clock.In fact, a clock is little more than a train of gears.Considerable study and research have been made on gears in recent years because of their wide use exacting conditions.They have to transmit heavier loads and run at higher speeds than ever before.The engineers and the machinists all consider gearing the prime element in nearly all classes of machinery.在機(jī)器中齒輪是一個(gè)不可缺少的元件。首先采用了齒輪的發(fā)明之一是鐘表，實(shí)際上，鐘表就是一系列的齒輪。因?yàn)辇X輪在苛刻的條件下的廣泛適用性，近些年來(lái)對(duì)其作了大量的學(xué)習(xí)和研究工作。和過(guò)去相比，現(xiàn)在的齒輪要傳遞更重的載荷，并以更高的速度運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)。工程師和機(jī)械師一致認(rèn)為，幾乎在所有的機(jī)械領(lǐng)域內(nèi)齒輪裝臵都是最基本的元件。

1.Spur Gears Spur gears are used to transmit power and rotary motion between parallel shafts.As can be seen in Fig.7-1, the teeth are cut parallel to the axis of the shaft on which the gears are mounted.The smaller of two gears in mesh is called the pinion, and the large is customarily designated as the gear.In most applications the pinion is the driving whereas the gear is the driven element.1.直齒圓柱齒輪：直齒圓柱齒輪用于在平行的軸間傳遞功和轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。如圖7-1所示，齒的切割與齒輪安裝的軸線相平行。嚙合的一對(duì)齒輪中較小的一個(gè)稱(chēng)為小齒輪，而大的則通常被稱(chēng)為“齒輪”。在大多數(shù)設(shè)備中，小齒輪通常是主動(dòng)元件，而齒輪則通常是從動(dòng)元件。2.Helical Gears Fig.7-2 shows helical gears in mesh.The pair shown is mounted on parallel shafts, the most common situation for which helical gears are used.However, helical gears are sometimes used for nonparallel, nonintersecting shaft applications.When used in this manner, they are known as crossed helical gears.Fig.7-3 illustrates a pair of crossed helical gears in mesh.Spur gears are used for low speed applications and those situations where noise control is not a problem.Use of helical gears is indicated when applications involves high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise abatement is important.Whereas spur gears have their teeth cut parallel to the gear axis, helical gear teeth are cut in the form of helices making a constant angle with respect to the gear axis.2.斜齒輪：圖7-2所示是一對(duì)相互嚙合的斜齒輪。所示的一對(duì)齒輪裝在相互平行的軸上，這也是大多數(shù)場(chǎng)合中斜齒輪的使用方式。然而，有時(shí)候斜齒輪使用時(shí)其軸線是既不平行也不相交的，當(dāng)以這種方式應(yīng)用時(shí)，它們被稱(chēng)為交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪。圖7-3描繪了一對(duì)嚙合的交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪。直齒圓柱齒輪被用于低速和那些對(duì)噪音控制要求不高的場(chǎng)合，而在高速、大功率傳動(dòng)或?qū)υ肼曈袊?yán)格要求的應(yīng)用場(chǎng)合，則需要使用斜齒輪。與輪齒被切削為平行于齒輪軸線的直齒圓柱齒輪不同，斜齒輪的輪齒被切削為螺旋線的形式，即相對(duì)于齒輪軸線夾一恒定角度。

3.Worm Gears Although crossed helical gears can be used for applications involving nonparallel, nonintersecting shafts, they are rather limited in their load transmission capacity.In addition, large speed ratios, on the order of say 200 to 1 could not be reasonably achieved in one reduction because of the size of gear

第三篇：英語(yǔ)教案

學(xué)院：外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院班級(jí)：2011級(jí)英本八班學(xué)號(hào)：11280268 姓名：沈賢淑

如何做一個(gè)懂禮儀的大學(xué)生

禮儀，在現(xiàn)代的社會(huì)中扮演者越來(lái)越重要的角色，在很多為人處事的細(xì)節(jié)中，禮儀顯得尤為重要。作為新一代的大學(xué)生，學(xué)好禮儀是很重要的，一個(gè)人的素質(zhì)就可以突顯在一個(gè)人的禮儀上，那么，怎樣提高自己的素養(yǎng)，怎樣學(xué)好禮儀，這是我們值得深思的問(wèn)題。而現(xiàn)代大學(xué)生現(xiàn)在的素質(zhì)低下，行為舉止不文明禮貌的現(xiàn)象日已有泛濫，我們應(yīng)該引起足夠的重視，那么我們就如何做一個(gè)懂禮儀的大學(xué)生這個(gè)問(wèn)題進(jìn)行探究。

我國(guó)是一個(gè)歷史悠久的文明古國(guó)，素有“禮儀之邦”的美稱(chēng)。講“禮”懂“儀”是中華民族世代相傳的優(yōu)良傳統(tǒng)。源遠(yuǎn)流長(zhǎng)的禮儀文化是前人留給我們的一筆豐厚的遺產(chǎn)。隨著時(shí)代的進(jìn)步，人際交往的日趨頻繁和密切，作為交往潤(rùn)滑劑的禮儀也越加顯得重要。在走向全面小康的當(dāng)今社會(huì)中，崇尚禮儀是社會(huì)對(duì)其成員的基本要求，也是社會(huì)成員的精神要求。注重禮儀，對(duì)促進(jìn)社會(huì)進(jìn)步和提高文明有著重要的作用。

講究禮儀，遵從禮儀規(guī)范，可以有效地展現(xiàn)一個(gè)人的教養(yǎng)、風(fēng)度與魅力，更好地體現(xiàn)一個(gè)人對(duì)他人和社會(huì)的認(rèn)知水平和尊重程度，從而使個(gè)人的學(xué)識(shí)，修養(yǎng)和價(jià)值得到社會(huì)的認(rèn)可和尊重。適度、恰當(dāng)?shù)亩Y儀不僅能給公眾以可親可敬、可合作、可交往的信任和欲望，而且會(huì)使與公眾的合作過(guò)程充滿(mǎn)和諧與成功。

一個(gè)知書(shū)不達(dá)禮，知識(shí)水準(zhǔn)和道德水準(zhǔn)嚴(yán)重不協(xié)調(diào)的學(xué)生，不可能成為一個(gè)優(yōu)秀人才。一個(gè)優(yōu)秀人才，不僅應(yīng)當(dāng)有高水平的專(zhuān)業(yè)知識(shí)，還必須有良好的道德品質(zhì)修養(yǎng)和禮儀修養(yǎng)。禮儀是良好品德修養(yǎng)的表現(xiàn)形式，也是良好道德品質(zhì)養(yǎng)成重要途徑之一，良好的道德品質(zhì)需用彬彬有禮的方式去體現(xiàn)。盡管禮儀的研究和教育在國(guó)內(nèi)已經(jīng)有所發(fā)展，特別是職業(yè)與禮儀的結(jié)合已成大勢(shì)所趨?？墒嵌Y儀教育，還未引起高校的足夠重視，大多數(shù)高校還未開(kāi)設(shè)禮儀課程。

大學(xué)生是知識(shí)層次較高的群體，在如今的中國(guó)社會(huì)已經(jīng)算得上是知識(shí)分子，也是中國(guó)明日發(fā)展的引領(lǐng)者、頂梁柱，在道德水準(zhǔn)上，在禮儀修養(yǎng)方面應(yīng)當(dāng)提出更高的要求。追求個(gè)性是當(dāng)代年輕人的特點(diǎn)，在追求突出個(gè)性過(guò)程中，卻有一些大學(xué)生把丑陋當(dāng)成了個(gè)性。許多不文明、不禮貌，甚至丑陋、陳腐、粗俗的東西都被當(dāng)做了“新潮”、“瀟灑”，在現(xiàn)在的大學(xué)校園里面，經(jīng)常可以看到衣冠不整者、行為不端者、張口罵人者、隨地吐痰者，其他的不講禮不懂儀的現(xiàn)象亦不鮮見(jiàn)，如關(guān)門(mén)之時(shí)聲震如雷、打電話(huà)從不自我介紹、不再禮讓教師、端著飯盒邊走邊吃等等。這些不良現(xiàn)象已經(jīng)不再是個(gè)別，而且有著愈加普遍的趨勢(shì)。

造成一些大學(xué)生禮儀素養(yǎng)低下的原因，大致有以下幾點(diǎn)：

第一點(diǎn)：中學(xué)時(shí)代的應(yīng)試教育副作用。在這個(gè)層面上，家長(zhǎng)，教師，乃至整個(gè)教育體系都負(fù)有不可推卸的責(zé)任。高考的指揮捧的魔力使中小學(xué)的教育是以“分?jǐn)?shù)”和“考試”為中心的教育，德育和美育長(zhǎng)期受到不應(yīng)該的冷落。學(xué)生把分?jǐn)?shù)看成是“命根”，老師把分?jǐn)?shù)看成是“法寶”，家長(zhǎng)只看學(xué)生的成績(jī)，不關(guān)心學(xué)生的心理和品格的全面發(fā)展。這種只用學(xué)習(xí)成績(jī)的名次來(lái)衡量學(xué)生的優(yōu)劣，就決定只在教學(xué)上下工夫而在塑造孩子的靈魂方面卻很少花費(fèi)時(shí)間和精力。看來(lái)教育的制度是要大力的投入，不斷借鑒古今中外的教育制度中的合理的成分，不斷地完善一個(gè)能適應(yīng)時(shí)代發(fā)展的教育體系。

第二點(diǎn)：社會(huì)的轉(zhuǎn)型。當(dāng)社會(huì)初于價(jià)值的轉(zhuǎn)型，倫理，道德，觀念，都處系亂狀態(tài)之中，作為社會(huì)的一部分的大學(xué)生，也是難作到“出淤泥而不染，濯清漣而不妖”。大學(xué)城已非伊甸園般的凈土。作為一個(gè)典型的亞文化圈，大學(xué)城必然要受到社會(huì)大文化的影響和侵蝕。在商品化和傳煤化的社會(huì)里出，不吃人間煙火的象牙塔早已不復(fù)存在。當(dāng)代的中國(guó)正面臨著相似的社會(huì)文化背景中國(guó)的大學(xué)生正經(jīng)歷著一個(gè)痛苦的“斷奶”歷程，如何判斷真、善、美，是他們的是他們急待禰補(bǔ)的課程。

第三點(diǎn)：社會(huì)的不良的風(fēng)氣的影響。就大學(xué)生身邊的就很多的不良風(fēng)氣，像如“課桌文學(xué)”，“廁所文學(xué)”的泛濫，圖書(shū)館的書(shū)被亂圖亂寫(xiě)，某些大學(xué)教授抄襲他人的學(xué)術(shù)論文被揭露，有些教師為了創(chuàng)收而對(duì)上課敷衍了事……，還有是社會(huì)上的兇殺，色情，受賄，貪污，蒙騙……

由此大學(xué)生們應(yīng)吸取傳統(tǒng)文化的精髓，提高文化道德修養(yǎng)，學(xué)習(xí)一些必要的禮儀常識(shí)，方可立足于社會(huì)、立足于風(fēng)潮的前端，方可得到人們更多的肯定。

其實(shí)，不知道大學(xué)們是否曾想過(guò)：當(dāng)你在社會(huì)交往中用禮貌的語(yǔ)言與人交談；用文明的舉止與人交往；用得體的文書(shū)與人交流，人們一定會(huì)感觸到你彬彬有禮的氣度，落落大方的氣質(zhì)，文明道德的修養(yǎng)，都會(huì)平生出幾分敬意。優(yōu)雅合理的談吐，親切整體的儀容，會(huì)是人感到一股溫馨的春風(fēng)吹來(lái)一股熱情洋溢周身。

禮儀貫穿著人際交往的始終，為交往的內(nèi)涵服務(wù)；不重視禮儀必然會(huì)影響交流的深度和交往的持久性。由于禮儀的缺憾而影響交往是在是因小失大。不獨(dú)對(duì)外交往，我們大學(xué)生在日常生活中也要重視禮儀，養(yǎng)成習(xí)慣，自然成為一種修養(yǎng)也有助于提高自己的品味。

一、修飾與衣著

修飾是指女士穿戴不要太華麗了，太耀眼了，如果這樣去面試，我想機(jī)會(huì)就已經(jīng)了了無(wú)幾了。因?yàn)槟闶莵?lái)工作的，要莊重，不要給人一種浮的感覺(jué)。我覺(jué)得不化妝也不太好，最起碼要化些淡妝，這也是對(duì)別人尊重的一種做法。想想看打扮的整整潔潔是不是讓別人看上去很舒服呀！你想如果一個(gè)老農(nóng)民和一個(gè)西裝革履的人，找你談判，你是不是要選擇那個(gè)西裝革履的人呀！

當(dāng)面試時(shí)，有的人說(shuō)：“面試時(shí)，不就是到那天從里到外都換上新衣服，穿的整整齊齊的，然后到發(fā)廊整理一下頭型嗎？”其實(shí)這樣做是不對(duì)的。

一、會(huì)讓人一看就知道你提前準(zhǔn)備了，有的時(shí)候連剛打上去的發(fā)膠還在頭上呢，一看就知道你是剛從發(fā)廊里出來(lái)的。

二、由于剛穿上新衣服，一切都是新的，你會(huì)有一種很不舒服的感覺(jué)，所以你最好要提前

一、兩天就穿上，適應(yīng)一下。也就是面試前要提前

一、兩天做好準(zhǔn)備。

面試時(shí)要多帶幾份簡(jiǎn)歷，因?yàn)槟憬坏矫嬖嚬倌堑囊呀?jīng)訂成厚厚的一打了。他要看你的簡(jiǎn)歷還要翻找一下才能找到，這時(shí)你就要拿出你已提前多準(zhǔn)備的簡(jiǎn)歷給他，他會(huì)覺(jué)得的很舒服的。當(dāng)面試完后要給面試官寫(xiě)感謝信，雖然現(xiàn)在有許多人一般都不寫(xiě)，但這是禮儀，我還是希望大家寫(xiě)，你想別人都不寫(xiě)，你寫(xiě)了是不是會(huì)引起注意呀。在面試或會(huì)議時(shí)要帶上比較精致皮面的筆記本，還有好的筆，不要隨便找一個(gè)本或筆。

面試時(shí)要提前半小時(shí)去，先與他們的總臺(tái)人熟悉一下，總臺(tái)是個(gè)很關(guān)鍵的人物，多打聽(tīng)一下有關(guān)將要面試你的上級(jí)的消息。如稱(chēng)呼等。有一次一位王女士，接了一個(gè)電話(huà)說(shuō)：你好，我是xx公司的王浩，請(qǐng)你明天九點(diǎn)到我們公司來(lái)接授面試。第二天，他八點(diǎn)半就到了，和總臺(tái)服務(wù)員聊了一會(huì)，服務(wù)員打了一個(gè)電話(huà)，說(shuō)“王總，王小姐到了”，這時(shí)她才知道，原來(lái)給她打電話(huà)的就是王總呀！在這之前她還把這個(gè)人當(dāng)成小人物呢？因?yàn)橐话愦螂娫?huà)通知的都是小人物或員工做的事。所以她進(jìn)去面試時(shí)，說(shuō)了你好！王總。你想想假如她說(shuō)，你好，王浩！王總會(huì)怎么個(gè)想法，“王總”叫了幾年了，都已經(jīng)叫習(xí)慣了，突然叫他王浩，他能夠習(xí)慣嗎？

二、自我介紹。

應(yīng)籌式：在不太重要的場(chǎng)合。如在火車(chē)上等場(chǎng)合只要說(shuō)出叫什么名字就可以了，不必報(bào)上職務(wù)等。

工作式：你好，我是xx公司的xx經(jīng)理。

交流式：你好，我是xx，請(qǐng)多多關(guān)照，或送上名片。比較隨便。

禮儀式：如：開(kāi)學(xué)儀式，升旗儀式等等。比較莊嚴(yán)。

三、眼神

時(shí)間：與別人談話(huà)30分鐘時(shí)，如果只有10分鐘以?xún)?nèi)對(duì)方是看著你的，說(shuō)明他在輕視你。如果10分鐘至20分鐘之間，說(shuō)明他對(duì)你是友好的。20分鐘至30分鐘說(shuō)明兩種情況：

一、重視。

二、敵視。也就是與別人談話(huà)時(shí)眼睛要注視談話(huà)時(shí)間的2/3。字串1

部位：額頭上，屬于公務(wù)型注視。不太重要的事情和時(shí)間也不太長(zhǎng)的情況下。

眼睛上，屬于關(guān)注型注視。

睛睛至唇部，屬于社交型注視。

眼睛到胸部，屬于親密型注視。

角度：平視，表示平等。斜視，表示失禮。

俯視：從上往下看，輕視別人。

四、面容

有的時(shí)候皺眼眉，表示不奈。撅著嘴表示生氣?！班蕖?表示驚呀！

五、笑容

要學(xué)會(huì)微笑。微笑很重要，誰(shuí)喜歡天天面對(duì)著冷冰冰一點(diǎn)笑容的人呀。像儲(chǔ)蓄所、銀行的職員，當(dāng)你去取錢(qián)時(shí)，他們是不是很冷冰冰的，一點(diǎn)笑容也沒(méi)有。像別人欠他們什么似的，感覺(jué)不太好吧，其實(shí)那是他們的職業(yè)病，已經(jīng)習(xí)慣了。下面我給你們講一個(gè)故事：

以前有一家公司讓他們的員工去拿一份重要的材料，結(jié)果去的都被罵了回來(lái)。老板就把這個(gè)任務(wù)交給了小李，小李很愁呀！但這份材料不拿還不行，結(jié)果還是去了。到那時(shí)，只見(jiàn)那位科長(zhǎng)還在破口大罵呢？這時(shí)小李什么也沒(méi)有說(shuō)，只是微笑、微笑還是微笑，嘴里說(shuō)著：“噢？這樣呀？是嗎？”，只是點(diǎn)著頭微笑著。后來(lái)，那個(gè)吳科長(zhǎng)罵了一陣子的時(shí)候，小李說(shuō)：“吳科長(zhǎng)，你很會(huì)善于表達(dá)你內(nèi)心里的憤怒呀！”。后來(lái)，吳科長(zhǎng)看了看小李說(shuō)：“嗯！這小伙子不錯(cuò)！我也不為難你了，你就拿回去吧！”，就這樣別人沒(méi)有拿到的，他卻拿到了。

大學(xué)生社交禮儀論文生活中，社交禮儀已經(jīng)成為我們必不可缺少的一部分，掌握良好的社交禮儀知識(shí)是我們走向成功必要的鋪路石。

先來(lái)談?wù)剛€(gè)人禮儀吧。

一、修飾與衣著

一、會(huì)讓人一看就知道你提前準(zhǔn)備了，有的時(shí)候連剛打上去的發(fā)膠還在頭上呢，一看就知道你是剛從發(fā)廊里出來(lái)的。

二、由于剛穿上新衣服，一切都是新的，你會(huì)有一種很不舒服的感覺(jué)，所以你最好要提前

一、兩天就穿上，適應(yīng)一下。也就是面試前要提前

一、兩天做好準(zhǔn)備。

二、自我介紹。

應(yīng)籌式：在不太重要的場(chǎng)合。如在火車(chē)上等場(chǎng)合只要說(shuō)出叫什么名字就可以了，不必報(bào)上職務(wù)等。

工作式：你好，我是xx公司的xx經(jīng)理。

交流式：你好，我是xx，請(qǐng)多多關(guān)照，或送上名片。比較隨便。

禮儀式：如：開(kāi)學(xué)儀式，升旗儀式等等。比較莊嚴(yán)。

三、眼神

一、重視。

二、敵視。也就是與別人談話(huà)時(shí)眼睛要注視談話(huà)時(shí)間的2/3。

部位：額頭上，屬于公務(wù)型注視。不太重要的事情和時(shí)間也不太長(zhǎng)的情況下。

眼睛上，屬于關(guān)注型注視。

睛睛至唇部，屬于社交型注視。

眼睛到胸部，屬于親密型注視。

角度：平視，表示平等。斜視，表示失禮。

俯視：從上往下看，輕視別人。

四、面容

有的時(shí)候皺眼眉，表示不奈。撅著嘴表示生氣。“噢”?表示驚呀！

五、笑容

六、需要避免的身體語(yǔ)言。

當(dāng)與別人談話(huà)時(shí)不要雙手交叉，身體晃動(dòng)，一會(huì)傾向左邊，一會(huì)傾向右邊，或是摸摸頭發(fā)、耳朵、鼻子給人以你不耐煩的感覺(jué)。一邊說(shuō)話(huà)一邊在玩筆，有的人特別喜歡轉(zhuǎn)筆，好像在炫耀，你看我轉(zhuǎn)的多酷呀！也不要拿那個(gè)筆來(lái)回的按。雖然與同輩之間還算說(shuō)的過(guò)去吧，但是跟長(zhǎng)輩談話(huà)時(shí)這樣做是很不禮貌的。

下面我們來(lái)說(shuō)說(shuō)拜訪的基本禮儀

中華民族大都熱情好客?！坝信笞赃h(yuǎn)方來(lái)，不亦樂(lè)乎”。對(duì)來(lái)客，不管是預(yù)約好的，還首先是拜訪做客的基本禮儀。

做客有不同情況：初次登門(mén)拜訪，老朋友串串門(mén)，應(yīng)邀赴約聚會(huì)，有事求助于人等等，因而禮節(jié)也稍有不同，不過(guò)無(wú)論何種情況，作為客人的身份一樣，都要為主人著想，客隨主便，少給主人帶來(lái)不便，也就有些需遵循的大致相同的禮節(jié)。（1）注意時(shí)間的選擇。一般來(lái)說(shuō)，訪問(wèn)某人，應(yīng)事先選擇好時(shí)間，不宜選擇對(duì)方較忙或三餐時(shí)間，晚上不宜太遲。節(jié)假日和周末，本是訪問(wèn)的好時(shí)機(jī)，但如果沒(méi)有預(yù)約，也不要貿(mào)然前往，這些時(shí)間主人往往另有安排。預(yù)先約定時(shí)間，最符合禮貌。盡量不做不速之客，不請(qǐng)自到。預(yù)約好的拜訪，賓主都要守時(shí)、守約、守信。客人應(yīng)準(zhǔn)時(shí)或稍提前一點(diǎn)兒到達(dá)，因特殊情況不能赴約，應(yīng)想辦法通知對(duì)方，無(wú)聲無(wú)息地取消預(yù)約是極不禮貌的。（2）注意服裝的選擇。一般的訪問(wèn)，整潔、樸素、大方即可，不必太過(guò)華麗。蓬頭垢面、衣冠不整是對(duì)主人的不敬。去慶賀喜事，就須講究些。（3）進(jìn)門(mén)時(shí)先敲門(mén)或按門(mén)鈴。敲門(mén)要有節(jié)奏感，不輕不重，不急不慢，敲兩三下為宜。虛掩著或開(kāi)著的門(mén)也不可破門(mén)而入，給主人一個(gè)措手不及則很失禮，進(jìn)室后最好等要拜訪的人來(lái)后才落座。如果需要較長(zhǎng)時(shí)間等候，可先落座與接待者交談或看些報(bào)紙書(shū)刊雜志之類(lèi)的讀物，要拜訪的人來(lái)后應(yīng)起立寒暄。對(duì)于約好的正式拜訪，無(wú)論事情多急，拜訪的時(shí)間很緊，在門(mén)口也只能寒暄問(wèn)候，不要談?wù)}，入室落座后再談，否則會(huì)給對(duì)方留下不成熟的印象。要穿拖鞋的在門(mén)口就換好，見(jiàn)到其家人應(yīng)問(wèn)好致意，不打招呼是失禮的。（4）對(duì)主人的熱情款待表示感謝。主人敬茶或糖果等小食品時(shí)，應(yīng)起身或欠身雙手接過(guò)，并說(shuō)聲“謝謝”，若敬煙，作為學(xué)生應(yīng)婉言謝絕。（5）交談過(guò)程中，要注意交談的禮儀和技巧，談話(huà)要簡(jiǎn)要，少說(shuō)消極、沉悶的話(huà)。善于傾聽(tīng)，作出積極反應(yīng)，不要隨意中斷別人的談話(huà)?？腿嗽谥魅思也灰藮|張西望。不要隨便走進(jìn)主人的臥室，除非主人主動(dòng)邀請(qǐng)。（6）掌握好告辭的最佳時(shí)機(jī)。一般性拜訪，時(shí)間不宜太長(zhǎng)，也不宜太匆忙。一般以半小時(shí)到一小時(shí)為宜。若是事務(wù)、公務(wù)性拜訪，則可視需要決定時(shí)間的長(zhǎng)短。客人提出告辭的時(shí)間，最好是與主人的一個(gè)交談高潮之后，或者是在又有新客人來(lái)時(shí)，交談中主人若有疲勞感或有家人來(lái)提示有什么急事要辦等情況時(shí)，適時(shí)告辭較為得體。告辭時(shí)應(yīng)對(duì)主人及家人的款待表示感謝。如果主人家有長(zhǎng)輩，應(yīng)向長(zhǎng)輩告辭。綜上所述，作為客人應(yīng)遵守的基本禮節(jié)概括為：事先預(yù)約，不做不速之客；如期而至，不做失約之客；彬彬有禮，不做冒失之客；衣冠整潔，不做邋遢之客；舉止端莊，談吐文雅，不做粗俗之客；適時(shí)告辭，不做難辭之客。

關(guān)于社交禮儀還有很多我們需要學(xué)習(xí)的地方，我們應(yīng)該不斷的完善自己、充實(shí)自己。談?wù)劥髮W(xué)生的禮儀修養(yǎng)

摘要：中國(guó)自古以來(lái)一直有“禮儀之邦”之美譽(yù)。在大理提倡社會(huì)注意精神文明的今天，講文明，講禮儀，講禮貌，是每一位公民必須具體的社會(huì)公德。本文著重探討當(dāng)代大學(xué)生禮儀修養(yǎng) 的重要性及當(dāng)代大學(xué)生的禮儀現(xiàn)狀等。

關(guān)鍵詞：禮儀修養(yǎng) 禮貌大學(xué)生

大學(xué)生是知識(shí)層次較高的群體，在如今的中國(guó)社會(huì)已經(jīng)算得上是知識(shí)分子，也是中國(guó)明日發(fā)展的引領(lǐng)者、頂梁柱，在道德水準(zhǔn)上，在禮儀修養(yǎng)方面應(yīng)當(dāng)提出更高的要求。追求個(gè)性是當(dāng)代年輕人的特點(diǎn)，在追求突出個(gè)性過(guò)程中，卻有一些大學(xué)生把丑陋當(dāng)成了個(gè)性。許多不文明、不禮貌，甚至丑陋、陳腐、粗俗的東西都被當(dāng)做了“新潮”、“瀟灑”，在現(xiàn)在的大學(xué)校園里面，經(jīng)?？梢钥吹揭鹿诓徽?、行為不端者、張口罵人者、隨地吐痰者，其他的不講禮不懂儀的現(xiàn)象亦不鮮見(jiàn)，如關(guān)門(mén)之時(shí)聲震如雷、打電話(huà)從不自我介紹、不再禮讓教師、端著飯盒邊走邊吃等等。這些不良現(xiàn)象已經(jīng)不再是個(gè)別，而且有著愈加普遍的趨勢(shì)。

造成一些大學(xué)生禮儀素養(yǎng)低下的原因，大致有以下幾點(diǎn)：

第一點(diǎn)：中學(xué)時(shí)代的應(yīng)試教育副作用。在這個(gè)層面上，家長(zhǎng)，教師，乃至整個(gè)教育體系都負(fù)有不可推卸的責(zé)任。高考的指揮捧的魔力使中小學(xué)的教育是以“分?jǐn)?shù)”和“考試”為中心的教育，德育和美育長(zhǎng)期受到不應(yīng)該的冷落。學(xué)生把分?jǐn)?shù)看成是“命根”，老師把分?jǐn)?shù)看成是“法寶”，家長(zhǎng)只看學(xué)生的成績(jī)，不關(guān)心學(xué)生的心理和品格的全面發(fā)展。這種只用學(xué)習(xí)成績(jī)的名次來(lái)衡量學(xué)生的優(yōu)劣，就決定只在教學(xué)上下工夫而在塑造孩子的靈魂方面卻很少花費(fèi)時(shí)間和精力?？磥?lái)教育的制度是要大力的投入，不斷借鑒古今中外的教育制度中的合理的成分，不斷地完善一個(gè)能適應(yīng)時(shí)代發(fā)展的教育體系。

中國(guó)素以“文明古國(guó)，禮儀之邦”著稱(chēng)于世，講“禮”重“儀”是中華民族世代相傳的優(yōu)秀傳統(tǒng)，源遠(yuǎn)流長(zhǎng)的禮儀文化是先人留給我們的一筆豐厚遺產(chǎn)。在中國(guó)更加向世界開(kāi)放的今天，禮儀不僅體現(xiàn)出豐厚的歷史優(yōu)秀傳統(tǒng)，更富有鮮明的時(shí)代內(nèi)涵。隨著人與人，國(guó)與國(guó)之間交往的日益頻繁，講究禮儀，禮尚往來(lái)，對(duì)營(yíng)造和諧的人際關(guān)系，顯得尤為重要。

那么什么是文明禮儀呢？即：人與人社會(huì)交往時(shí)，把待人接物的內(nèi)心尊敬之情通過(guò)美好的儀表、儀式表達(dá)出來(lái)。從社會(huì)交往來(lái)說(shuō)，文明禮儀不僅是立身處世之本，也是一門(mén)待人交友的學(xué)問(wèn)。每個(gè)人只要置身于社會(huì)，無(wú)論從政還是經(jīng)商，日常工作還是出入重要場(chǎng)合，居家還是外出，均離不開(kāi)文明禮儀。文明禮儀無(wú)處不在，他不僅可以展現(xiàn)一個(gè)人的風(fēng)度和魅力，還體現(xiàn)了一個(gè)人的內(nèi)在學(xué)識(shí)和文化修養(yǎng)。

可以說(shuō)，禮儀是一張人際交往的名片。文明禮儀可以幫助我們“規(guī)范言談舉止，學(xué)會(huì)待人接物；塑造良好形象，贏得社會(huì)尊重；架設(shè)友誼橋梁，通向成功之路?！倍Y儀又是幫助我們獲得成功，創(chuàng)造幸福生活的“通行證”。所以說(shuō)：知禮懂禮，注重文明禮儀，是每個(gè)立足社會(huì)的基本前提之一，是人們成就事業(yè)，獲得美好人生的重要條件。

想要做一個(gè)懂文明講禮儀的人，不單單只要不隨地吐痰，不說(shuō)臟話(huà)，不亂扔廢棄物，尊老愛(ài)幼，這些都是最根本的。作為新時(shí)代的大學(xué)生，對(duì)自身修養(yǎng)必須是嚴(yán)格要求的，什么樣的場(chǎng)合說(shuō)什么樣的話(huà)做什么樣的事都是必須要仔細(xì)思量的，學(xué)好禮儀是我們大學(xué)生必須要學(xué)好的一門(mén)功課，為做文明禮貌儒雅的大學(xué)生兒奮斗！

第四篇：英語(yǔ)教案

Unit 1

Hello

第一課時(shí)

本周好習(xí)慣我養(yǎng)成：大方展示，積極發(fā)言。教學(xué)目標(biāo)：

1、聽(tīng)懂、會(huì)說(shuō) Hello./Hi, I'm...。

2、通過(guò)創(chuàng)設(shè)見(jiàn)面打招呼、自我介紹以及道別等情景，讓學(xué)生學(xué)會(huì)見(jiàn)面打招呼、自我介紹及道別的日常用語(yǔ)

3、培養(yǎng)學(xué)生樂(lè)于開(kāi)口,敢于開(kāi)口講英語(yǔ)的習(xí)慣，激發(fā)學(xué)生想學(xué)、樂(lè)學(xué)英語(yǔ)的興趣和愿望。

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)：本部分主要是見(jiàn)面打招呼、自我介紹及道別用語(yǔ)的會(huì)話(huà)學(xué)習(xí)，使學(xué)生在不同的情景中聽(tīng)懂、會(huì)說(shuō) Hello./Hi.I'm...。

教學(xué)難點(diǎn)：自我介紹用語(yǔ)I’m …的發(fā)音不容易到位，學(xué)習(xí)起來(lái)較難，教師要適時(shí)糾正，切不可挫傷孩子的學(xué)習(xí)積極性。課前準(zhǔn)備：

1、教材相關(guān)人物的面具或頭飾

2、為L(zhǎng)et's play中的擊鼓傳花游戲準(zhǔn)備相應(yīng)的道具

3、教材相配套的錄音帶

4、學(xué)生和教師各自收集一些印有外國(guó)文字的物品，如：化裝品。

5、學(xué)生收集一些在現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中已經(jīng)能用英語(yǔ)表述的物品或圖片，如：VCD。教學(xué)過(guò)程：

1、熱身(Warm-up)

（1）教師用“Hello.”問(wèn)候?qū)W生。

（2）辨認(rèn)不同國(guó)家的文字，想一想，哪種文字應(yīng)用最廣

（3）教師在此基礎(chǔ)上與學(xué)生討論一下英語(yǔ)的作用以及學(xué)習(xí)英語(yǔ)的意義。

（4）請(qǐng)學(xué)生說(shuō)說(shuō)他們?cè)诂F(xiàn)實(shí)生活中已經(jīng)了解的英語(yǔ)單詞（邊展示實(shí)物或圖片邊說(shuō)）或日常用語(yǔ)。

2、呈現(xiàn)新課、操練(Presentation/ Practice)

（1）教師播放本課的歌曲 “Hello”的錄音，自然引出師生之間的打招呼。

（2）教師利用這個(gè)機(jī)會(huì)及時(shí)向?qū)W生介紹自己Hello, I’m …/Hi, I’m …

（3）通過(guò)師生對(duì)話(huà)，鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生介紹自己Hello, I’m …/Hi, I’m …

（4）介紹本套教材中的主要人物Sarah, Chen Jie, Mike, Wu Yifan，請(qǐng)學(xué)生扮演這些人物到講臺(tái)前說(shuō)Hello!I’m …

（5）聽(tīng)錄音，或通過(guò)VCD來(lái)展示Let’s talk部分的教學(xué)內(nèi)容.3、活動(dòng)、操練(Activities/ Practice)

（1）游戲：擊鼓傳花

（2）情景表演

4、課外活動(dòng)(Add-activities)

（1）聽(tīng)錄音，仿讀對(duì)話(huà)，并在實(shí)際情景中運(yùn)用所學(xué)內(nèi)容。

（2）遇到老師、同學(xué)和家長(zhǎng)時(shí)要用打招呼；分手時(shí)要用道別。

（3）制作人物面具。教學(xué)反思：

第二課時(shí) 教學(xué)目標(biāo)：

1、進(jìn)一步鞏固打招呼、自我介紹及道別用語(yǔ)，能在不同情景中準(zhǔn)確運(yùn)用。

2、能夠聽(tīng)說(shuō)、認(rèn)讀 crayon, pencil, pen, eraser, ruler,并能用英語(yǔ)介紹文具。

3、進(jìn)一步培養(yǎng)開(kāi)口能力，初步了解一些課堂用語(yǔ)。

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)：有關(guān)文具的五個(gè)詞匯 crayon、pencil、eraser、ruler的學(xué)習(xí)，并用英語(yǔ)介紹文具。

教學(xué)難點(diǎn)：較準(zhǔn)確讀出各單詞，尤其是crayon，eraser 兩個(gè)單詞的發(fā)音。課前準(zhǔn)備：學(xué)生的面具教學(xué)過(guò)程：

1、熱身、復(fù)習(xí)(Warm-up/Revision)（1）師生共唱英語(yǔ)歌曲 “Hello”

（2）學(xué)生戴上自己喜歡的人物面具，表演見(jiàn)面打招呼或自我介紹用語(yǔ)。（3）游戲：A name train

2、呈現(xiàn)新課、操練(Presentation/ Practice)（1）教師事先安排一位學(xué)生扮演Zoom，并向?qū)W生介紹情景：今天是Zoom的生日，爸爸、媽媽為他買(mǎi)了個(gè)新書(shū)包作為生日禮物（拿出準(zhǔn)備好的實(shí)物）。Zoom打開(kāi)書(shū)包，一一拿出蠟筆、鉛筆、鋼筆、橡皮、尺子，邊拿文具邊說(shuō)英文crayon, pencil, eraser, ruler。教師用雙面膠將這些實(shí)物固定在黑板上。（2）教師教新單詞crayon, pencil, eraser, ruler。

（3）游戲：I have a(an)…………

（4）學(xué)生聽(tīng)錄音，跟讀 Let’s learn 部分的單詞。

3、活動(dòng)、操練(Activities/ Practice)（1）游戲：Matching game（2）小組競(jìng)賽：猜詞游戲

（3）讓學(xué)生聽(tīng)錄音，邊說(shuō)邊做 Let’s do 部分的活動(dòng)。

（4）分小組活動(dòng)，練習(xí)I have a(an)…………………………………（5）游戲：傳口令

4、課外活動(dòng)(Add-activities)（1）聽(tīng)說(shuō)、認(rèn)讀新單詞crayon, pencil, pen, eraser, ruler，并能用英語(yǔ)介紹文具。（2）做單詞卡片。教學(xué)反思：

第三課時(shí)

教學(xué)目標(biāo)：正確認(rèn)讀、書(shū)寫(xiě)26個(gè)大小寫(xiě)字母，會(huì)背字母表。

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)：相似字母的區(qū)分和變化較大的大寫(xiě)字母的記憶；教學(xué)難點(diǎn)：有些字母可能難以正確發(fā)音。教學(xué)思路：以講唱結(jié)合的方式，寓教于樂(lè)。

教

具：課件，黑板，字母卡片，小獎(jiǎng)品（學(xué)習(xí)用具，小東西等等）教學(xué)過(guò)程：

一、熱身、復(fù)習(xí)(Warm-up/Revision)（1）游戲：拋球

(2)復(fù)習(xí)I have a(an)…教師先發(fā)指令請(qǐng)全班共同練習(xí)，之后可請(qǐng)“小老師”帶領(lǐng)同學(xué)們進(jìn)行操練。（3）游戲：What is missing?

二、呈現(xiàn)新課(Presentation)課堂導(dǎo)入：以問(wèn)題開(kāi)始，如小朋友們以前有沒(méi)有聽(tīng)說(shuō)過(guò)26個(gè)英文字母啊？有沒(méi)有哪些朋友會(huì)讀一些字母??？

1、這節(jié)課我們來(lái)學(xué)習(xí)一首歌，首先，聽(tīng)老師先唱一遍（如果有會(huì)唱的同學(xué)可以跟老師一起唱）邊唱邊出示26個(gè)大小寫(xiě)字母的卡片。

2、接下來(lái)，老師一句一句地唱。講字母分成三組，如A----G, H-----N, O---且只出示大寫(xiě)字母。

3、A----G組老師領(lǐng)唱完后，學(xué)生分組唱（班內(nèi)可以按座位分成幾小組）。

4、H-----N組老師領(lǐng)唱完后，學(xué)生可以分男女生交替唱（重復(fù)兩遍）。

5、O------Z組老師領(lǐng)唱完后，師生合作唱。

6、老師請(qǐng)一位同學(xué)來(lái)帶著大家唱，課件出示26個(gè)字母，包括大小寫(xiě)，可以點(diǎn)唱。

7、全體齊唱一遍，可以拍手唱。

8、給與表現(xiàn)好的同學(xué)獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)。

三、趣味操練(Practice)

1、開(kāi)火車(chē)按字母表順序認(rèn)讀。

2、課件單個(gè)出示大寫(xiě)字母，點(diǎn)名認(rèn)讀。

3、連線：將大小寫(xiě)字母連起來(lái)（回答問(wèn)題時(shí)要求先大聲念出大寫(xiě)字母，再和哪一個(gè)小寫(xiě)字母相連）。

4、給表現(xiàn)好的同學(xué)獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)。

四、檢查反饋

課件出示小寫(xiě)字母，學(xué)生寫(xiě)出相應(yīng)的大寫(xiě)字母。隨后即出示對(duì)應(yīng)的大寫(xiě)字母，請(qǐng)學(xué)生對(duì)照是否正確。教學(xué)反思：

第四課時(shí) 教學(xué)目標(biāo):

1、初步學(xué)習(xí)詢(xún)問(wèn)對(duì)方的姓名及回答的用語(yǔ)What's your name? My name is...，使學(xué)

生能聽(tīng)、會(huì)說(shuō)此交際用語(yǔ)。

2、學(xué)習(xí)表達(dá)道別的說(shuō)法：Goodbye/Bye!教學(xué)重點(diǎn)：詢(xún)問(wèn)對(duì)方的姓名及回答的用語(yǔ)What’s your name? My name is… 的學(xué)習(xí)

教學(xué)難點(diǎn)：What’s your name? My name is…中name 的發(fā)音.教學(xué)過(guò)程：

1、熱身、復(fù)習(xí)(Warm-up/Revision)

(1)唱“Hello”歌

(2)師生互相問(wèn)候Hello!/Hi!

(3)學(xué)生戴著頭飾或面具，分別起立做自我介紹。

2、呈現(xiàn)新課、操練(Presentation/ Practice)

（1）老師指著自己的英文名卡說(shuō)Hello!I’m Miss/Mr….然后用My name’s….反復(fù)說(shuō)三到四遍自己的名字，速度由慢到正常。接著教師對(duì)一名學(xué)生發(fā)問(wèn)What’s your name（用清晰、緩慢的語(yǔ)調(diào)問(wèn)兩遍）邊問(wèn)邊指他/她的名卡，并可以用夸張的口型提示他/她回答My name’s….教師對(duì)第一個(gè)應(yīng)答學(xué)生應(yīng)重點(diǎn)表?yè)P(yáng)，并發(fā)給他/他小獎(jiǎng)品，以鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生認(rèn)真聽(tīng)別人的問(wèn)答，努力模仿教師說(shuō)的新句型。

（2）跟讀、模仿、操練My name’s….注意學(xué)生對(duì)name一詞中 a 的發(fā)音。

（3）跟讀、模仿What’s your name?

（4）拋球游戲

(5)教道別語(yǔ)Goodbye/Bye，告訴學(xué)生其中意思是“再見(jiàn)”或“一會(huì)見(jiàn)”。

(6)聽(tīng)錄音，或通過(guò)VCD來(lái)展示B部分Let’s talk的內(nèi)容。

3、活動(dòng)、操練(Activities/ Practice)

（1）Pair work:讓學(xué)生戴上頭飾，表演書(shū)上Let’s talk 的對(duì)話(huà)。

（2）游戲：猜一猜我是誰(shuí)

（3）Let’s play中的游戲。

4、課堂評(píng)價(jià)(Assessment)

情景再現(xiàn)

5、課外活動(dòng)(Add-activities)

（1）要求學(xué)生聽(tīng)錄音，然后模仿課本第4-7頁(yè)的內(nèi)容并伴有動(dòng)作表演。

（2）鼓勵(lì)學(xué)生用第4-7頁(yè)所學(xué)的內(nèi)容與同學(xué)和老師進(jìn)行交流。教學(xué)反思：

第五課時(shí)

教學(xué)目標(biāo):

1、學(xué)習(xí)有關(guān)學(xué)校及學(xué)習(xí)用品的詞匯bag, book, pen pencil-box,通過(guò)聽(tīng)聽(tīng)做做的活動(dòng)，讓學(xué)生練習(xí)并運(yùn)用所學(xué)的詞匯。

2、了解一些簡(jiǎn)單的指示語(yǔ)，要求學(xué)生能聽(tīng)懂并按照指令做出相應(yīng)的動(dòng)作

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)：pencil-box, book , pen, bag, 4個(gè)有關(guān)學(xué)習(xí)用品的詞匯學(xué)習(xí)。教學(xué)難點(diǎn)：本課詞匯的認(rèn)讀。教學(xué)過(guò)程：

1、熱身、復(fù)習(xí)(Warm-up/Revision)

（1）“接力活動(dòng)”：學(xué)生一個(gè)接一個(gè)進(jìn)行口語(yǔ)問(wèn)答，要求又快又好。

（2）通過(guò)圖片和單詞卡片復(fù)習(xí)學(xué)過(guò)的單詞crayon, ruler, eraser, pencil.（3）游戲： Touching game

2、呈現(xiàn)新課、操練(Presentation/ Practice)

教學(xué)單詞pencil-box, book, pen ,bag，游戲:Touch and say

教師邊做打開(kāi)書(shū)的動(dòng)作邊說(shuō)Open the book.用同樣的方法教Show me your

sharpener.Carry the bag.等句子。

（4）讓學(xué)生聽(tīng)錄音，邊說(shuō)邊做Let’s do 部分的活動(dòng)。

3、活動(dòng)、操練(Activities/ Practice)

（1）游戲：畫(huà)文具。

（2）通過(guò)游戲Simon says 來(lái)練習(xí)以show, open, close, put, carry所引導(dǎo)的祈使句。

（3）恰逢教師節(jié)，教唱歌曲《Happy Teacher’s Day》

4、課堂評(píng)價(jià)(Assessment)

學(xué)生根據(jù)錄音，拿出所聽(tīng)到的文具。

5、課外活動(dòng)(Add-activities)

（1）要求學(xué)生聽(tīng)錄音，跟讀單詞和句子，并在實(shí)際生活中自然運(yùn)用。

（2）將學(xué)習(xí)用品逐個(gè)用英語(yǔ)說(shuō)給家人聽(tīng)，并制成單詞卡片。

（3）移pencil變圖形教學(xué)反思：

第六課時(shí)

教學(xué)目標(biāo)：1.通過(guò)聽(tīng)，說(shuō)，讀，寫(xiě)復(fù)習(xí)字母和本單元的單詞。

2.正確完成Let’s check部分的聽(tīng)力作業(yè)，培養(yǎng)良好的聽(tīng)音習(xí)慣。

3.會(huì)唱Let’s sing的歌曲。

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)：能聽(tīng)，說(shuō)，認(rèn)讀本單元的單詞，并能在句子中運(yùn)用。教學(xué)難點(diǎn)：對(duì)相似英語(yǔ)字母的區(qū)分。教學(xué)過(guò)程：

熱身、復(fù)習(xí)(Warm-up/Revision)

（1 師生共唱英語(yǔ)歌曲“Hello”。

（2 復(fù)習(xí)有關(guān)文具的單詞，可通過(guò)實(shí)物和單詞卡來(lái)顯示。

（3 游戲：Let’s do

呈現(xiàn)新課(Presentation)教師從自己準(zhǔn)備的書(shū)包中拿出一本書(shū)，并指著自己說(shuō)：I have a book.隨后再掏出筆袋，對(duì)學(xué)生說(shuō)：I have a pencil-case.再?gòu)墓P袋里拿出一支鉛筆說(shuō)：I have a pencil.拿出一把尺子說(shuō)：I have a ruler.等等。待學(xué)生熟悉了I have a ….是“我有一個(gè)….”后，請(qǐng)學(xué)生用自己的文具來(lái)說(shuō)：I have a….請(qǐng)一名學(xué)生說(shuō)自己所有的物品，如果他/她說(shuō)I have a book.時(shí)，教師則舉起自己的書(shū)說(shuō)Me too!告訴學(xué)生如果你有與別人東西相同時(shí)，可說(shuō)Me too!

趣味操練(Practice)

1）Start to read

Circle the same letters 讓學(xué)生圈出相同的字母。

2）Read and count在圖片中找出一樣的文具，并且數(shù)數(shù)。

學(xué)生根據(jù)錄音，拿出所聽(tīng)到的文具。課外活動(dòng)(Add-activities)

（1）要求學(xué)生聽(tīng)錄音，跟讀單詞和句子，并在實(shí)際生活中自然運(yùn)用。

（2）將學(xué)習(xí)用品逐個(gè)用英語(yǔ)說(shuō)給家人聽(tīng)，并制成單詞卡片。教學(xué)反思:

第五篇：英語(yǔ)教案

教案編寫(xiě)模板

一、要求

1、教案請(qǐng)按下面所列格式編寫(xiě)，頁(yè)面設(shè)置為紙張，上下左右2厘米,；

2、每課時(shí)40分鐘；

3、教案于11月15日前完成并上交。

二、模板

封面格式：

A 4

小學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)法

(教案編寫(xiě)及說(shuō)課稿)

學(xué)院專(zhuān)業(yè)級(jí)班

教材名稱(chēng)：pep 小學(xué)英語(yǔ) 四年級(jí)（上）

Unit 6 At a PE lesson

學(xué)生姓名：學(xué)號(hào)：

上交日期：2011-11-1

5教案編寫(xiě)格式：

Unit 6At a PE lesson(Comic Sans MS，加粗三號(hào))

一、教學(xué)要求（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

1、能聽(tīng)得懂，會(huì)說(shuō)，會(huì)讀和會(huì)拼寫(xiě)單詞time, left, right, touch, an arm, a hand, a leg, a foot.（宋體，小四）

二、單元教材分析（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

本單元通過(guò)一堂體育課引出“按指令做動(dòng)作”這一語(yǔ)言項(xiàng)目（中文：宋體，小四；英文：Comic Sans MS，小四）

Unit 6（第一課時(shí)）(Comic Sans MS，三號(hào))

一、教學(xué)內(nèi)容（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）ARead and say

二、教學(xué)目標(biāo)（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

1．會(huì)聽(tīng)、說(shuō)、讀日常交際用語(yǔ)： Stand in a line.Let’s do some exercise.（中文：宋體，小四；英文：Comic Sans MS，小四）

三、教學(xué)重點(diǎn)（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

1．會(huì)聽(tīng)、說(shuō)、讀、寫(xiě)單詞：time, left, right, stop, touch.（中文：宋體，小四；英文：Comic Sans MS，小四）

四、教學(xué)難點(diǎn)（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

1．單詞time, back, right, with意思和句子Touch ? with ?的意義。

五、教學(xué)準(zhǔn)備（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

1．教具準(zhǔn)備：錄音機(jī)、磁帶、人體各個(gè)部位的圖片、單詞卡片和投影片。

（中文：宋體，小四；英文：Comic Sans MS，小四）

六、教學(xué)過(guò)程（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

Step 1．Free talk(Comic Sans MS，加粗四號(hào))Timing: 15 min

1.T: Good morning, boys and girls.（Comic Sans MS，小四）

七、作業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

1． Read the text three times after the tape.（Comic Sans MS，小四）

八、板書(shū)設(shè)計(jì)（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

Unit 6At a PE lesson（A）

（Comic Sans MS，小四）

九、教后記（黑體，加粗四號(hào)）

-----說(shuō)課稿內(nèi)容包括：

1.問(wèn)候語(yǔ)

2.說(shuō)教學(xué)內(nèi)容

3.說(shuō)教材

4.說(shuō)教學(xué)目的5.說(shuō)教學(xué)重點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)

6.說(shuō)教學(xué)準(zhǔn)備

7.說(shuō)教法、學(xué)法

8.說(shuō)教學(xué)流程

9.教學(xué)總結(jié)

欧美色欧美亚洲高清在线观看,国产特黄特色a级在线视频,国产一区视频一区欧美,亚洲成a 人在线观看中文

第一篇：科技英語(yǔ)教案

第二篇：科技英語(yǔ)教案

第三篇：英語(yǔ)教案

第四篇：英語(yǔ)教案

第五篇：英語(yǔ)教案

相關(guān)范文推薦

英語(yǔ)教案

英語(yǔ)教案

英語(yǔ)教案

英語(yǔ)教案

英語(yǔ)教案

英語(yǔ)教案

英語(yǔ)教案

英語(yǔ)教案