第一篇：工業(yè)控制系統(tǒng)_自動(dòng)化_中英文翻譯_畢業(yè)論文

外文資料翻譯

工業(yè)控制系統(tǒng)和協(xié)同控制系統(tǒng)

當(dāng)今的控制系統(tǒng)被廣泛運(yùn)用于許多領(lǐng)域。從單純的工業(yè)控制系統(tǒng)到協(xié)同控制系統(tǒng)（CCS），控制系統(tǒng)不停變化，不斷升級(jí)，現(xiàn)在則趨向于家庭控制系統(tǒng)，而它則是這兩者的變種。被應(yīng)用的控制系統(tǒng)的種類取決于技術(shù)要求。而且，實(shí)踐表明，經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)因素也對(duì)此很重要。任何決定都有它的優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)。工業(yè)控制要求可靠性，完整的文獻(xiàn)記載和技術(shù)支持。經(jīng)濟(jì)因素使決定趨向于協(xié)同工具。能夠親自接觸源碼并可以更快速地解決問題是家庭控制系統(tǒng)的要求。多年的操作經(jīng)驗(yàn)表明哪個(gè)解決方法是最主要的不重要，重要的是哪個(gè)可行。由于異類系統(tǒng)的存在，針對(duì)不同協(xié)議的支持也是至關(guān)重要的。本文介紹工業(yè)控制系統(tǒng)，PlC controlled turn key系統(tǒng)，和CCS工具，以及它們之間的操作。引言：

80年代早期，隨著為HERA(Hadron-Elektron-Ring-Anlage)加速器安裝低溫控制系統(tǒng)，德國電子同步加速器研究所普遍開始研究過程控制。這項(xiàng)新技術(shù)是必需的，因?yàn)榈乾F(xiàn)有的硬件沒有能力來處理標(biāo)準(zhǔn)過程控制信號(hào)，如4至20毫安的電流輸入和輸出信號(hào)。而且軟件無法在0.1秒的穩(wěn)定重復(fù)率下運(yùn)行PID控制回路。此外，在實(shí)現(xiàn)對(duì)復(fù)雜的低溫冷藏系統(tǒng)的開閉過程中，頻率項(xiàng)目顯得尤為重要。

有必要增加接口解決總線問題并增加運(yùn)算能力，以便于低溫控制。因?yàn)橐寻惭b的D / 3系統(tǒng)[1] 只提供了與多總線板串行連接，以實(shí)現(xiàn)DMA與VME的連接并用其模擬多總線板的功能。溫度轉(zhuǎn)換器的計(jì)算功能來自一個(gè)摩托羅拉MVME 167 CPU和總線適配器，以及一個(gè)MVME 162 CPU。其操作系統(tǒng)是VxWorks，而應(yīng)用程序是EPICS。

由于對(duì)它的應(yīng)用相當(dāng)成功，其還被運(yùn)用于正在尋找一個(gè)通用的解決方案以監(jiān)督他們的分布式PLC的公共事業(yè)管理。

德國電子同步加速器研究所對(duì)過程管理系統(tǒng)的篩選

集散控制系統(tǒng)（D/ 3）：

市場(chǎng)調(diào)查表明：來自GSE的D / 3系統(tǒng)被HERA低溫冷藏工廠選中。因?yàn)榧⒖刂葡到y(tǒng)（D/ 3）的特性，所以這決定很不錯(cuò)。在展示端和I / O端擴(kuò)展此系統(tǒng)的可能將有助于解決日益增加的

HERA試驗(yàn)控制的要求。制約系統(tǒng)的大小的因素不是I / O的總數(shù)，通信網(wǎng)絡(luò)的暢通與否。而通信網(wǎng)絡(luò)的暢通與否取決于不存檔的數(shù)據(jù)總量，不取決于報(bào)警系統(tǒng)中配置的數(shù)據(jù)。

擁有DCS特點(diǎn)（Cube）的SCADA系統(tǒng)：

相對(duì)于Y2K問題促使我們尋找一個(gè)升級(jí)版或者代替版來代替現(xiàn)有的系統(tǒng)而言，以上提到的D / 3系統(tǒng)有一些硬編碼的限制。由于急需給Orsi公司提供他們的產(chǎn)品，Cube開始起作用了[2]。該項(xiàng)目包括安裝功能的完全更換。這包括D / 3，以及德國電子同步加速器研究所的集成總線SEDAC和VME的溫度轉(zhuǎn)換器。該項(xiàng)目很有前景。但是因?yàn)镠ERA試驗(yàn)原定時(shí)間是有限制的，所以技術(shù)問題和組織問題也迫使計(jì)劃提前。在供應(yīng)商網(wǎng)站上的最后驗(yàn)收測(cè)試又出現(xiàn)了戲劇性的性能問題。有兩個(gè)因素引起了這些問題。第一個(gè)跟低估在1赫茲運(yùn)行的6級(jí)溫度轉(zhuǎn)換

器的CPU負(fù)荷有關(guān)。第二個(gè)由現(xiàn)有D / 3系統(tǒng)復(fù)雜的功能造成的額外負(fù)荷引起的。每個(gè)數(shù)字和模擬輸入和輸出通道在D / 3系統(tǒng)里的自身報(bào)警限值也被低估了。所有的附加功能都必須添加進(jìn)去。最后，所有網(wǎng)絡(luò)負(fù)載的報(bào)警限值，尤其是SCADA系統(tǒng)，也促使網(wǎng)絡(luò)生成了限制。

最后，與Orsi公司的合同被取消了。升級(jí)的D / 3系統(tǒng)是唯一可能的解決辦法。在2003年3月，此系統(tǒng)最后被付諸實(shí)踐。

現(xiàn)在，相比“純粹”SCADA系統(tǒng)的異質(zhì)環(huán)境，Cube有同質(zhì)配置環(huán)境的優(yōu)勢(shì)。SCADA（PVSS-Ⅱ）：

在HERA加速器上的H1實(shí)驗(yàn)中，實(shí)驗(yàn)人員為升級(jí)他們的低速控制系統(tǒng)，決定使用PVSS-Ⅱ?，F(xiàn)有的系統(tǒng)是由H1合作組的幾名成員開發(fā)的，而現(xiàn)在卻難以維持了。在CERN由聯(lián)合控制項(xiàng)目[4]進(jìn)行的廣泛調(diào)查促使他們做出使用PVSS作為代替品的決定。PVSS是一個(gè)“純粹”的監(jiān)控和數(shù)據(jù)采集系統(tǒng)（SCADA系統(tǒng)）。其核心元素叫做事件管理器。它收集的數(shù)據(jù)主要是由I/ O設(shè)備提供。它還提供附加的管理服務(wù)，如：控制經(jīng)理，數(shù)據(jù)庫管理，用戶界面，API經(jīng)理以及在建的HTTP服務(wù)器。該P(yáng)VSS腳本庫允許執(zhí)行復(fù)雜的序列以及復(fù)雜的圖形。相比其他SCADA系統(tǒng)PVSS帶有一個(gè)基本特點(diǎn)：它提供了API給設(shè)備的數(shù)據(jù)。

SCADA系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)主要缺點(diǎn)是其中的兩個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)庫，一個(gè)為PLC’s服務(wù)，另一個(gè)為SCADA系統(tǒng)服務(wù)，這兩個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)庫必須維持。集成環(huán)境將努力克服這個(gè)限制。EPICS：

在德國電子同步加速器研究所，EPICS從問題解決系統(tǒng)演化成了全集成控制系統(tǒng)。從成為低溫控制系統(tǒng)的數(shù)據(jù)收集器和數(shù)量控制器，EPICS成為了德國電子同步加速器研究所公用事業(yè)集團(tuán)使用的核心系統(tǒng)。此外，通過 Industry Pack（IP）模塊的手段，它還能運(yùn)用于通過VME板卡的任何數(shù)據(jù)。EPICS通過其完整的功能，運(yùn)用于沒有由D / 3系統(tǒng)控制的低溫冷藏系統(tǒng)。所有大約50個(gè)輸入輸出控制器運(yùn)作大約25000業(yè)務(wù)處理記錄。作為一個(gè)SCADA系統(tǒng)的EPICS：

該公共事業(yè)組（水，電，壓縮空氣，加熱和調(diào)溫）使用各種散布在整個(gè)德國電子同步加速器研究所網(wǎng)站上的PLC。IOC向客戶提供接口并采集數(shù)據(jù)。此外，如通道歸檔和圖形顯示（dm2k）會(huì)被使用。默認(rèn)名決議和目錄服務(wù)器（域名服務(wù)器）用于連接 在TCP客戶端和服務(wù)器應(yīng)用程序。所有這些都是基本的SCADA功能。所有的配置文件（圖形工具，報(bào)警處理程序和歸檔）提供了一種靈活的配置方案。德國電子同步加速器研究所公用事業(yè)集團(tuán)已制定了一套工具來創(chuàng)建IOC數(shù)據(jù)庫和配置文件。這樣，控制組提供的服務(wù)保持EPICS工具，而用戶可以精力集中在被控制的設(shè)備上了。作為一個(gè)DCS系統(tǒng)的EPICS：

作為SCADA系統(tǒng)的基本組成部分，EPICS還提供完整的輸入輸出控制器（IOC）。IOC提供所有功能DCS系統(tǒng)要求，如：實(shí)施每個(gè)記錄的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的屬性；執(zhí)行每個(gè)記錄時(shí)的報(bào)警檢查過程；控制記錄，如PID。靈活的命名方案，默認(rèn)的顯示和每個(gè)記錄的報(bào)警屬性緩和了運(yùn)作工具和IOC之間的連接。靈活的數(shù)據(jù)采集模式，支持調(diào)查模式以及發(fā)布訂閱模式。后者大大降低了信息擁堵的情況。PLC’s：

PLC’s同樣提供豐富的功能，因?yàn)橐郧八仟?dú)一無二的控制系統(tǒng)。此外，定期執(zhí)行一個(gè)確定功能的基本特征也讓他們通過以太網(wǎng)通信，包括內(nèi)置的HTTP

服務(wù)器和不同集合的通訊方案。除了通信處理器，顯示器能和PLC’s連接。智能I / O：

I / O設(shè)備上的新發(fā)展允許在更小的群體中集群I / O并把這些集群I / O渠道鏈接到控制系統(tǒng)。PLC’s對(duì)于分布式I / O已不再重要。PLC’s和智能I / O子系統(tǒng)的差別正在消失。

功能

持續(xù)不斷的問題，如為什么控制系統(tǒng)的加速器和其他高度專業(yè)化的設(shè)備聯(lián)合協(xié)同發(fā)展。但是，在極少數(shù)情況下，只通過商業(yè)的立場(chǎng)時(shí)難以回答的。在這里，我們?cè)噲D總結(jié)不同控制方法的基本功能。

前端控制器：

對(duì)控制系統(tǒng)的核心要素之一，是前端控制器。PLC’s可用于實(shí)施控制功能的設(shè)備。它的缺點(diǎn)就是復(fù)雜，難以達(dá)到控制屬性。例如確定通信協(xié)議和最后在顯示、報(bào)警和歸檔方案，一個(gè)控件的所有屬性像P，I和D參數(shù)，還有報(bào)警限制及其他附加的屬性必須得到解決。另外，這些嵌入式屬性修改是很難尋覓，因?yàn)槠渲猩婕皟蓚€(gè)或兩個(gè)以上軌道系統(tǒng)這可能是一個(gè)有力的論據(jù)是，為什么控制回路主要實(shí)施在IOC層面，而不是PLC’s層面。

I / O和控制回路

復(fù)雜的控制算法和控制回路和域名DCS控制系統(tǒng)一樣。對(duì)顯示和控件的屬性的支持是必不可少的。

頻率/國家計(jì)劃

在控制系統(tǒng)中，頻率程序可以運(yùn)行任何處理器。運(yùn)行時(shí)環(huán)境取決于相關(guān)代碼?？刂葡到y(tǒng)程序直接履行運(yùn)行前端處理器的監(jiān)控。為復(fù)雜的啟動(dòng)和關(guān)閉處理程序設(shè)立的頻率程序也可以運(yùn)行工作站。國家機(jī)器的基本功能在IEC 61131中得到了落實(shí)。編碼發(fā)電機(jī)可以產(chǎn)生C代碼。

硬件支持

對(duì)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)總線和起源于I / O的Ethernet的支持是為SCADA系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的一個(gè)基本功能。所有SCADA系統(tǒng)在市場(chǎng)商業(yè)運(yùn)作中是可行的。配置特定驅(qū)動(dòng)器和數(shù)據(jù)轉(zhuǎn)換器的集成硬件在商業(yè)環(huán)境中是一個(gè)難點(diǎn)。開放API或腳本支持有時(shí)有助于整合用戶的硬件。如果不向控制系統(tǒng)提供這些工具，就很難整合客戶硬件。新的工業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，如OPC，和OPC設(shè)施聯(lián)系，還和控制系統(tǒng)之間互相聯(lián)系。這種功能的基本條件是強(qiáng)調(diào)操作系統(tǒng)。在這種情況下，OPC更趨向于微軟的DCOM標(biāo)準(zhǔn)?；诳刂葡到y(tǒng)的UNIX很難互相連接。只有支持多平臺(tái)的控制系統(tǒng)可以在異構(gòu)環(huán)境中發(fā)揮主要作用。

由于為客戶或?qū)I(yè)硬件的支持有限，所以新的控制系統(tǒng)有理由得到發(fā)展。顯示和操作

除了前后系統(tǒng)，操作接口在控制系統(tǒng)的兼容過程中有重要的作用。因?yàn)閭€(gè)人呢工具由不同的團(tuán)隊(duì)開發(fā)，所以協(xié)作實(shí)現(xiàn)的工具包可能變動(dòng)。

1圖形

天氣顯示是任何控制系統(tǒng)的廣告招牌。商業(yè)天氣顯示也有著豐富的功能

和許多特色。開始使用所有這些特征，所有這些功能的使用人會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)，所有個(gè)別屬性的圖形對(duì)象要分別指定。一個(gè)輸入通道不只由物業(yè)的價(jià)值決定的，而且更由包括像展出范圍和報(bào)警值決定的。一再分辨所有性能可能是個(gè)非常乏味的工作。有些系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生圖形原型對(duì)象。這些原型圖形或模板很復(fù)雜，但需要一個(gè)專家來生產(chǎn)。

DCS或自定義天氣顯示程序使用常見的I / O點(diǎn)屬性集。這個(gè)預(yù)定義的命名方案填寫標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的屬性值，因此只需要進(jìn)入記錄，或設(shè)備名稱進(jìn)入配置工具。報(bào)警系統(tǒng)

警報(bào)可以很好的區(qū)分不同的控制系統(tǒng)架構(gòu)。實(shí)現(xiàn)I / O對(duì)象的這些系統(tǒng)在前后端電腦提供警報(bào)檢查。只能讀懂I / O點(diǎn)的系統(tǒng)在I / O處理過程中添加了警報(bào)檢查。I / O對(duì)象途徑在前后端系統(tǒng)的本土項(xiàng)目語言安插了警報(bào)檢測(cè)。，I / O點(diǎn)導(dǎo)向系統(tǒng)通常要在他們的腳文本語言中實(shí)現(xiàn)這種功能。這是通常效率較低且容易出錯(cuò)，因?yàn)樗袑傩员仨毐粏为?dú)配置，這導(dǎo)致了一系列特性。不僅為每個(gè)I / O點(diǎn)的錯(cuò)誤狀態(tài)結(jié)束是個(gè)人的I / O點(diǎn)，但報(bào)警限值和每個(gè)報(bào)警的輕重，應(yīng)當(dāng)限制定義為I / O點(diǎn)，如果它希望能夠改變運(yùn)行值。

這種影響在SCADA和DCS系統(tǒng)之間也形成了影響。SCADA系統(tǒng)本就讀不懂報(bào)警系統(tǒng)。DCS系統(tǒng)的優(yōu)勢(shì)在于管理人員既可以登記警報(bào)狀態(tài)，從而提前得到信息，控制蔓延到在控制系統(tǒng)周圍的變化。后一種情況是唯一可能的系統(tǒng)。趨勢(shì)和歸檔

趨勢(shì)已成為控制系統(tǒng)架構(gòu)中的一個(gè)重要的業(yè)務(wù)。趨勢(shì)是必要的跟蹤誤差條件。實(shí)現(xiàn)的數(shù)據(jù)存儲(chǔ)有能力儲(chǔ)存完整控制目標(biāo)，大部分的趨勢(shì)工具標(biāo)量數(shù)據(jù)存檔。附加特性如條件趨向或相關(guān)情節(jié)在個(gè)人實(shí)施起了影響。

4編程接口

關(guān)于開放編程接口，PLC’s和DCS系統(tǒng)有相同策略。他們運(yùn)行可靠，因?yàn)樗麄儧]有辦法整合 可定制的合作去干涉內(nèi)部處理。因此，客戶定制精品，這個(gè)極其昂貴的。

由于SCADA系統(tǒng)必須能夠 與多種I / O子系統(tǒng)連接已經(jīng)在API上建立了I / O子系統(tǒng)以整合 自定義功能。

協(xié)作系統(tǒng)尤其需要一定的開放性以實(shí)現(xiàn)各種發(fā)展組織的要求。所有級(jí)別的編程接口，例如前后端I / O，前后端處理過程和網(wǎng)絡(luò)等，是強(qiáng)制性的。

5冗余

如果冗余是指管理所有國家，I / O所有值無縫道岔當(dāng)前正在運(yùn)行，它是一個(gè)域，只有少數(shù)集散系統(tǒng)。自定義或CCS實(shí)施不提供這種功能。也許是因?yàn)榫薮笈褪聦?shí)，它是只需要在罕見的事例。此外，處理器冗余，或多余的網(wǎng)絡(luò)，或I / O子系統(tǒng)是為一定的商業(yè)集散控制系統(tǒng)指定的。

先進(jìn)的安全要求是由多余的PLC子系統(tǒng)覆蓋。這些安裝在（核）電廠。個(gè)人保護(hù)系統(tǒng)（PPS）的要求有時(shí)候會(huì)由冗余的PLC’s來滿足。在過程控制中，冗余的PLC’s只在少數(shù)情況下使用。

6命名空間

在供應(yīng)鏈系統(tǒng)中，SCADA系統(tǒng)的單位名稱空間形容成警報(bào)部分。有些SCADA系統(tǒng)（如PVSS – II）提供在少數(shù)情況下的控制對(duì)象或結(jié)構(gòu)化數(shù)據(jù)。這些對(duì)象由一系列特性（包括I / O點(diǎn)）和一套方法（宏或函數(shù)）組成。這些途徑的其一是UniNified工業(yè)控制系統(tǒng)（UNICOS）在歐洲核子研究中心[5]。

DCS系統(tǒng)和大多數(shù)習(xí)慣性/協(xié)作系統(tǒng)是有記錄的，或是設(shè)備為主。不同之處是，通常一個(gè)記錄被連接到一個(gè)單一I / O點(diǎn)，提供這樣的執(zhí)行記錄，如個(gè)人工程單元，顯示和警報(bào)限值。設(shè)備為本的方法允許連接幾個(gè)I / O點(diǎn)。而（EPICS的）記錄只服務(wù)于一組特定的內(nèi)置功能。

命名等級(jí)不特定于實(shí)施類型。它們可用于一些系統(tǒng)。分層命名方案是肯定可取的。

實(shí)施策略

表現(xiàn)完各種可能的控制方法后，該是查看控制系統(tǒng)的完成情況了。

從I / O級(jí)開始，他們必須決定是否需要商業(yè)解決。特殊的I / O不總是需要定制解決方案。信號(hào)可以被轉(zhuǎn)換成標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的信號(hào)，但是這并不適用于所有的信號(hào)。信號(hào)水平可能需要定制的發(fā)展，這必須納入整體控制架構(gòu)。信號(hào)不能被連接到標(biāo)準(zhǔn)I / O接口，也許有可能發(fā)展的I / O控制器的

允許實(shí)施現(xiàn)場(chǎng)總線接口，這能夠整合商業(yè)控制系統(tǒng)。整合水平是不可能定制前端控制器，如VME，開始發(fā)揮作用了。

Turn Key 系統(tǒng)：

在工業(yè)中，有個(gè)明顯的趨勢(shì)就是產(chǎn)生了Turn Key 系統(tǒng)。它允許對(duì)整個(gè)系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行模塊化設(shè)計(jì)。個(gè)別元件分包給幾個(gè)公司進(jìn)行本地測(cè)試。一旦交付施工現(xiàn)場(chǎng)，驗(yàn)收測(cè)試就已經(jīng)過去了，第二個(gè)階段，整合融入全球控制系統(tǒng)的子系統(tǒng)開始。雖然控制回路的詳細(xì)規(guī)格等，是現(xiàn)在子系統(tǒng)合同的一部分?？蛻舯仨毭鞔_多少信息子系統(tǒng)可以被使用。

大多數(shù)Turn Key系統(tǒng)與PLC一起交付使用。瑞士光源（SLS）的建立過程已顯示，這也是基于I/ O系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行的VME運(yùn)行 CCS的，這樣才可以成功啟用[6]。

基于系統(tǒng)的PLC：

基于系統(tǒng)的PLC是Turn Key系統(tǒng)成果。下一個(gè)明顯的方法看起來可能是除了商業(yè)PLC，就是商業(yè)SCADA系統(tǒng)。優(yōu)勢(shì)就是明顯和PLC一樣：沒有穩(wěn)定的軟編程器，僅有配置，支持和良好的文件系統(tǒng)。在德國電子同步加速器研究所，我們成功地建立了控制組和公共事業(yè)組之間的關(guān)系。盡管是EPICS編碼，但其最大的優(yōu)勢(shì)就是能調(diào)整雙方的特殊要求。

工業(yè)解決方案：

一旦工業(yè)開始支持協(xié)作控制系統(tǒng)，CCS的解決方案和商業(yè)之間的差異將漸漸變小。在KEK，公司簽訂合同為KEK-B升級(jí)提供程序員。這些程序員進(jìn)行了書面驅(qū)動(dòng)程序和應(yīng)用程序代碼的EPICS培訓(xùn)。因此，KEK-B控制系統(tǒng)是工業(yè)用和民用升級(jí)軟件的混合體。這是CCS實(shí)施中工業(yè)參與的另一個(gè)例子。

成本：

自從個(gè)人電腦出現(xiàn)后，“一臺(tái)個(gè)人電腦的總成本是多少？”這樣的問題一直使人忙碌。所有的答案不盡相同的極端?，F(xiàn)在的問題什么是一個(gè)控制系統(tǒng)的TCO可能作出類似的結(jié)果。如果你進(jìn)入商業(yè)領(lǐng)域，你要支付的初始證照費(fèi)用，而通常這是由供應(yīng)商或分包商支付的，你付錢進(jìn)行的軟件支持，可能或可能不會(huì)包括你更新證照的費(fèi)用。

如果你去尋求合作方式，你可能與公司簽合同或完成一切。而“時(shí)間與金錢說”在工業(yè)中同樣成立。你親自完成可能更自由靈活，但是有點(diǎn)難度。你 可以依靠合作，以提供新的功能和版本，或者你可以為自己作出貢獻(xiàn)。主要的區(qū)別就是要為控制系統(tǒng)計(jì)入長期成本。

德國電子同步加速器研究所粗略估計(jì)，控制應(yīng)用程序，如支持商業(yè)模式的D / 3，和支持協(xié)作模式的EPICS幾乎是相同的。在該軟件支持和升級(jí)證照的費(fèi)用，相當(dāng)于1.5倍的FTE’s。FTE’s是關(guān)于人力資源的內(nèi)容，對(duì)于支持新的硬件和升級(jí)EPICS是必要的。

結(jié)論

根據(jù)控制項(xiàng)目不同的規(guī)模和要求，整合的商業(yè)解決方案和基于協(xié)作應(yīng)用程序的解決方案在百分之零到一百都有可能。這適用于長遠(yuǎn)的技術(shù)支持。在安全問題上的特殊需要或人力資源的缺乏可能會(huì)擴(kuò)大商機(jī)。接口專業(yè)硬件，掌控在手的談判或商業(yè)解決方案的初始成本有可能促使大規(guī)模的合作。只要如EPICS的協(xié)作途徑，保持最新并運(yùn)行如商業(yè)方案一樣穩(wěn)定和強(qiáng)勁，它們就能在互補(bǔ)共生的控制世界中占有一席之地。

INDUSTRIAL AND COLLABORATIVE CONTROL SYSTEMS

-A COMPLEMENTARY SYMBIOSIS –

Looking at today?s control system one can find a wide variety of implementations.From pure industrial to collaborative control system(CCS)tool kits to home grown systems and any variation in-between.Decisions on the type of implementation should be driven by technical arguments Reality shows that financial and sociological reasons form the complete picture.Any decision has it?s advantages and it?s drawbacks.Reliability, good documentation and support are arguments for industrial controls.Financial arguments drive decisions towards collaborative tools.Keeping the hands on the source code and being able to solve problems on your own and faster than industry are the argument for home grown solutions or open source solutions.The experience of many years of operations shows that which solution is the primary one does not matter, there are always areas where at least part of the other implementations exist.As a result heterogeneous systems have to be maintained.The support for different protocols is essential.This paper describes our experience with industrial control systems, PLC controlled turn key systems, the CCS tool kit EPICS and the operability between all of them.-

INTRODUCTION

th Process controls in general started at DESY in the early 80with the installation of the cryogenic control system for the accelerator HERA(Hadron-Elektron-Ring-Anlage).A new technology was necessary because the existing hardware was not capable to handle standard process controls signals like 4 to 20mA input and output signals and the software was not designed to run PID control loops at a stable repetition rate of 0.1 seconds.In addition sequence programs were necessary to implement startup and shutdown procedures for the complex cryogenic processes like cold boxes and compete compressor streets.Soon it was necessary to add interfaces to field buses and to add computing power to cryogenic controls.Since the installed D/3 system[1] only provided an documented serial connection on a multibus board, the decision was made to implement a DMA connection to VME and to emulate the multibus board?s functionality.The necessary computing power for temperature conversions came from a Motorola MVME 167 CPU and the field bus adapter to the in house SEDAC field bus was running on an additional MVME 162.The operating system was VxWorks and the application was the EPICS toolkit.Since this implementation was successful it was also implemented for the utility controls which were looking for a generic solution to supervise their distributed PLC?s.A SELECTION OF PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS AT DESY

DCS(D/3)

As a result of a market survey the D/3 system from GSE was selected for the HERA cryogenic plant.The decision was fortunate because of the DCS character of the D/3.The possibility to expand the system on the display-and on the I/O side helped to solve the increasing control demands for HERA.The limiting factor for the size of the system is not the total number of I/O but the traffic on the communication network.This traffic is determined by the total amount of archived data not by the data configured in the alarm system.The technical background of this limitation is the fact that archived data are polled from the display servers whereas the alarms are pushed to configured destinations like alarm-files,(printer)queues or displays.SCADA Systems with DCS Features(Cube)

The fact that the D/3 system mentioned above had some hard coded limitations with respect to the Y2K problem was forcing us to look for an upgrade or a replacement of the existing system.As a result of a call for tender the company Orsi with their product Cube came into play [2].The project included a complete replacement of the installed functionality.This included the D/3 as well as the integration of the DESY field bus SEDAC and the temperature conversion in VME.The project started promising.But soon technical and organizational problems were pushing the schedule to it?s limits which were determined by the HERA shutdown scheduled at that time.The final acceptance test at the vendors site showed dramatic performance problems.Two factors could be identified as the cause of these problems.The first one was related to the under estimated CPU th load of the 6grade polynomial temperature conversion running at 1 Hz.The second one was the additional CPU load caused by the complex functionality of the existing D/3 system.Here it was underestimated that each digital and analog input and output channel had it?s own alarm limits in the D/3 system.In a SCADA like system as Cube the base functionality of a channel is to read the value and make it available to the system.Any additional functionality must be added.Last not least the load on the network for polling all the alarm limits – typically for a SCADA system – was also driving the network to it?s limits.Finally the contract with Orsi was cancelled and an upgrade of the D/3 system was the only possible solution.It was finally carried out in march 2003.In any case it should be mentioned that the Cube approach had the advantage of a homogeneous configuration environment(for the Cube front end controllers)– compared with heterogeneous environments for ?pure? SCADA systems.SCADA(PVSS-II)The H1 experiment at the HERA accelerator decided to use PVSS-II for an upgrade of their slow control systems[3].The existing systems were developed by several members of the H1 collaboration and were difficult to maintain.The

decision to use PVSS as a replacement was driven by the results of an extensive survey carried out at CERN by the Joint Controls Project [4].PVSS is a ?pure? Supervisory And Data Acquisition System(SCADA).It provides a set of drivers for several field buses and generic socket libraries to implement communication over TCP/IP.The core element is the so called event manager.It collects the data(mostly by polling)from the I/O devices and provides an event service to the attached management services like: control manager, database manager, user interface, API manager and the built in HTTP server.The PVSS scripting library allows to implement complex sequences as well as complex graphics.Compared with other SCADA systems PVSS comes with one basic feature: it provides a true object oriented API to the device?s data.One major disadvantage of SCADA systems is the fact that two databases, the one for the PLC and the one for the SCADA system must be maintained.Integrated environments try to overcome this restriction.EPICS

EPICS has emerged at DESY from a problem solver to a fully integrated control system.Starting from the data collector and number cruncher for the cryogenic control system, EPICS made it?s way to become the core application for the DESY utility group.In addition it is used wherever data is available through VME boards or by means of Industry Pack(IP)modules.For those cryogenic systems which are not controlled by the D/3 system EPICS is used with it?s complete functionality.In total about 50 Input Output Controller(IOC)are operational processing about 25 thousand records.1 EPICS as a SCADA System

The utility group(water, electrical power, compressed air, heating and air conditioning)is using a variety of PLC?s spread out over the whole DESY site.EPICS is used to collect the data from these PLC?s over Profibus(FMS and DP)and over Ethernet(Siemens H1 and TCP).The IOC?s provide the interfaces to the buses and collect the data.The built in alarm checking of the EPICS records is used to store and forward alarm states to the alarm handler(alh)of the EPICS toolkit.In addition tools like the channel archiver and the graphic display(dm2k)are used.The default name resolution(by UDP broadcast)and the directory server(name server)are used to connect client and server applications over TCP.All of these are basically SCADA functions.The textual representation of all configuration files(for the IOC, the graphic tool, the alarm handler and the archiver)provides a flexible configuration scheme.At DESY the utility group has developed a set of tools to create IOC databases and alarm configuration files from Oracle.This way the controls group provides the service to maintain the EPICS tools and the IOC?s while the users can concentrate on the equipment being controlled.EPICS as a DCS System

Besides the basic components of a SCADA system EPICS also provides a full flavoured Input Output Controller(IOC).The IOC provides all of the function a DCS system requires, such as: a standard set of properties implemented in each record, built in alarm checking processed during the execution of each record;control records like PID etc.;configuration tools for the processing engine.The flexible naming scheme and the default display and alarm properties for each record ease the connection between the operator tools and the IOC?s.The flexible data acquisition supports the poll mode as well as the publish subscribe mode.The latter reduces the traffic drastically.PLC?s

PLC?s provide nowadays the same rich functionality as it was known from stand alone control systems in the past.Besides the basic features like the periodic execution of a defined set of functions they also allow extensive communication over Ethernet including embedded http servers and different sets of communication programs.Besides the communication processors, display processors can be linked to PLC?s to provide local displays which can be comprised as touch panels for operator intervention and value settings.These kind of PLC?s are attractive for turn key systems which are commissioned at the vendors site and later integrated into the customers control system.Intelligent I/O

New developments in I/O devices allow to ?cluster? I/O in even smaller groups and connect theses clustered I/O channels directly to the control system.PLC?s are not any more necessary for distributed I/O.Simple communication processors for any kind of field buses or for Ethernet allow an easy integration into the existing controls infrastructure.Little local engines can run IEC 61131 programs.The differences between PLC?s and intelligent I/O subsystems fade away.FUNCTIONALITY

The ever lasting question why control systems for accelerators and other highly specialized equipment are often home grown or at least developed in a collaboration but only in rare cases commercial shall not be answered here.We try to summarize here basic functionalities of different controls approaches.Front-end Controller

One of the core elements of a control system is the front-end controller.PLC?s can be used to implement most of the functions to control the equipment.The disadvantage is the complicated access to the controls properties.For instance all of the properties of a control loop like the P, I and D parameter, but also the alarm limits and other additional properties must be addressed individually in order to identify them in the communication protocol and last not least in the display-, alarm-and archive programs.In addition any kind of modifications of these

embedded properties is difficult to track because two or more systems are involved.This might be one strong argument why control loops are mainly implemented on the IOC level rather than PLC?s.1 I/O and Control Loops

Complex control algorithms and control loops are the domain of DCS alike control systems.The support for sets of predefined display and controls properties is essential.If not already available(like in DCS systems)such sets of generic properties are typically specified throughout a complete control system(see namespaces).2 Sequence/ State programs

Sequence programs can run on any processor in a control system.The runtime environment depends on the relevance of the code for the control system.Programs fulfilling watchdog functions have to run on the front-end processor directly.Sequence programs for complicated startup and shutdown procedures could be run on a workstation as well.The basic functionality of a state machine can be even implemented in IEC 61131.Code generators can produce ?C? code which can be compiled for the runtime environment.3 Supported Hardware

The support for field buses and Ethernet based I/O is a basic functionality for SCADA type systems it is commercially available from any SCADA system on the market.The integration of specific hardware with specific drivers and data conversion is the hard part in a commercial environment.Open API?s or scripting support sometimes help to integrate custom hardware.If these tools are not provided for the control system it is difficult – if not impossiblewhich are extremely expensive – or forget about it and use the system as a black box.Since SCADA systems by definition must be able to communicate with a variety of I/O subsystems they already have some built in API?s which allow to integrate custom functionality.Specially collaborative systems need a certain openness to fulfill all the requirements from various development groups.Programming interfaces on all levels like font-end I/O, front-end processing, networking etc.are mandatory.A clear advantage for this type of system.Redundancy

If redundancy means the seamless switch which takes over all the states and all the values of the I/O and all states of all programs currently running, it is a domain of only a few DCS systems.Custom or CCS implementation do not provide this kind of functionality.Maybe because of the immense effort and the fact that it is only required in rare cases.Besides processor redundancy, redundant networks or I/O subsystems are available for certain commercial DCS systems.Again – a domain which is not covered by SCADA or CCS implementations.Advanced safety requirements may be covered by redundant PLC subsystems.These are for instance installed in(nuclear)power plants.Requirements for Personal Protection Systems(PPS)can sometimes only be fulfilled by redundant PLC?s.In process controls redundant PLC?s are only used in rare cases.6 Namespace

The flat namespace of SCADA systems has already been described in the alarm section.Some SCADA systems(like PVSS-II)provide the notion of control objects or structured data which is a rare case.In all other cases so called field objects must be specified.These are objects which consist of a list of properties(implemented as I/O points)and a set of methods(implemented asmacros or function calls).One of these approaches is the UniNified Industrial COntrol System(UNICOS)at CERN [5].DCS systems and most of the custom/ collaborative systems are record – or device oriented.The difference being that typically one record is connected to a

single I/O point and provides this way all sub features of a record implementation like individual engineering units, display-and alarm limits.The device oriented approach allows to connect several I/O points.The major difference being the fact that an object oriented device implementation provides methods and states for a device while(EPICS)records only serve a certain set of built in functions.Naming hierarchies are not specific to a type of implementation.They are available for some systems of any kind.For sure hierarchical naming schemes are desirable.IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

After having shown all the possible controls approaches it is time to have a look at the implementation of control systems.Starting from the I/O level one has to decide whether commercial solution are required, feasible or wanted.Special I/O does not always require custom solution for the font-end controller.Signals can be converted into standard signals but this does not apply for all kinds of signals.Resolution, repetition rates and signal levels might require custom developments which must be integrated into the overall control architecture.Even if the signals can not be connected to standard I/O interfaces it might be possible to develop I/O controllers which implement a field bus interface which allow the integration with commercial control systems.Once this level of integration is not possible custom front-end controllers like VME crates come into play.Besides the decision whether special I/O requires dedicated custom solutions one has to decide who will do which part of the work? Does for instance the necessity of VME crates prohibit the delivery of a ?turn key? system built by industry? Or does a PLC based front-end system require a commercial SCADA system for high level controls? Turn Key Systems

It is a clear trend in industry to deliver turn key systems.It allows a modular design of the whole system.Individual components can be subcontracted to several companies and tested locally.Once delivered to the construction site the primary acceptance tests have already been passed and the second phase, to integrate the subsystem into the global control system begins.While the detailed specification of control loops etc.is now part of the subsystems contract, the customer has to specify clearly how much information of the subsystem must be made available, what the data structures will look like and which connection(field bus/ Ethernet)will be used.Most turn key systems are delivered with PLC?s.The construction of the Swiss Light Source(SLS)has shown that also a VME based I/O system running a CCS – in this case EPICS – can be successfully commissioned [6].PLC Based Systems

PLC based systems are a consequence of the turn key ansatz.The next obvious approach might be to look besides commercial PLC?s also for commercial SCADA systems.The advantage is clearly the same like for the PLC: stable software, no programming – only configuration, support and good documentation.At DESY we have successfully established a relation between the controls group which provides a CCS service based on EPICS and the utility group which uses the EPICS configuration tools to set up their control environment.The big advantage though being that the EPICS code can be adjusted to the special requirements from both sides.Industrial Solutions

The difference between CCS solutions and commercial solutions is fading away as soon as industry starts to deliver and support collaborative control systems.At KEK a company was contracted to supply programmers for the KEK-B upgrade.These programmers were trained in writing drivers and application code for EPICS.As a result the KEK-B control system is a mixture of software developed partly by industry and partly in house.This is another example for an industrial involvement for a CCS implementation.COST

The question: “Was is the total cost of ownership(TCO)of a PC?” has kept people busy since PC?s exist.The answers vary to all extremes.The question what is the TCO of a control system might give similar results.If you go commercial you have to pay for the initial licenses the implementation which is typically carried out by the supplier or by a subcontractor, and you pay for the on going software support which might or might not include the update license fee.If you go for a collaborative approach, you might contract a company or implement everything on your own.A question of ?time and money? as industry says.You will have more freedom and flexibility for your implementations but also a steeper learning curve.You can rely on the collaboration to provide new features and versions or you can contribute yourself.A major difference calculating the long term costs for a control system.At DESY one can roughly estimate that the(controls application)-support for a commercial approach – here D/3is nearly the same.The software support and upgrade license fee is equivalent to one and a half FTE?s – which is about the manpower necessary to support new hardware and to upgrade EPICS.CONCLUSIONS

Depending on the size and the requirements for a controls project the combination of commercial solutions and solutions based on a collaborative approach is possible in any rate between 0 and 100 percent.This applies for all levels from implementation to

long term support.Special requirements on safety issues or a lack of manpower might turn the scale commercial.The necessity to interface special hardware, special timing requirements, the ?having the code in my hands? argument or the initial costs for commercial solutions will turn the scale collaborative.As long as collaborative approaches like EPICS stay up to date and run as stable and robust as commercial solutions, both will keep their position in the controls world in a complementary symbiosis.

第二篇：土木工程畢業(yè)論文中英文翻譯

外文翻譯

班級(jí)：xxx 學(xué)號(hào)：xxx 姓名：xxx

一、外文原文：

Structural Systems to resist lateral loads Commonly Used structural Systems With loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts.Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts.Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved.Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows: 1.Moment-resisting frames.2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4.Tube-in-tube structures.5.Core-interactive structures.6.Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems.Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings.These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights.This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture.To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed

without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect.In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here.The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.Moment-Resisting Frames Perhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints.Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads.In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriate computer programs;analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis.Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.Braced Frames The braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings.The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints.It is used commonly in conjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs.And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis.Shear walls The shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems.The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally(but not always)concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width.Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element.Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high.The system, intrinsically more economical than steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade.The system has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls.Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls.Framed or Braced Tubes The concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings.The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration.Because those columns that resist

lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two-dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes.The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories.Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses.This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher.However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall;the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems.Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers.Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided.Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations, as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.Tube-in-Tube Structures The tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wall in resisting over-turning and shearing forces.The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube.The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness.The tubes need not be of the same character;that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy.In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders(i.e, the webs of the framed tube)while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns(i.e, the flanges of the framed tube).In a

braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane(i.e, the floor slabs),then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube.However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or even higher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring.This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems.This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced(i.e, shear-stiff)tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed(i.e, shear-flexible)tube.Core Interactive Structures Core interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame.Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero.The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well.Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” structure.Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations;these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core.Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about

5/8 of the height of the tube.The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shear stiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building.The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements: 1.The structural system is 94 ft(28.6m)wide, 196ft(59.7m)long, and 601ft(183.3m)high.2.Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft(9.4m)by 40 ft(12.2m), centered 90 ft(27.4m)apart in the long direction of the building.3.The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shear stiffness in the long direction.4.A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the building perimeter.5.The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shear stiffness for the center50ft(15.2m)of each of the long sides.6.A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7.A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building 8.The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twin steel-plate tubes, because the shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.Cellular structures A classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago, a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes.While the Sears Tower contains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening.The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression

△=ΣfL/E For buildings of 12 ft(3.66m)floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi(138MPa), the shortening of a column under load is 15(12)(12)/29,000 or 0.074in(1.9mm)per story.At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to 3.7 in.(94mm)less than its unstressed length.Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between.the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations.In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress

the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulating the weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.二、原文翻譯：

抗側(cè)向荷載的結(jié)構(gòu)體系

常用的結(jié)構(gòu)體系

若已測(cè)出荷載量達(dá)數(shù)千萬磅重，那么在高層建筑設(shè)計(jì)中就沒有多少可以進(jìn)行極其復(fù)雜的構(gòu)思余地了。確實(shí)，較好的高層建筑普遍具有構(gòu)思簡單、表現(xiàn)明晰的特點(diǎn)。

這并不是說沒有進(jìn)行宏觀構(gòu)思的余地。實(shí)際上，正是因?yàn)橛辛诉@種宏觀的構(gòu)思，新奇的高層建筑體系才得以發(fā)展，可能更重要的是：幾年以前才出現(xiàn)的一些新概念在今天的技術(shù)中已經(jīng)變得平常了。

如果忽略一些與建筑材料密切相關(guān)的概念不談，高層建筑里最為常用的結(jié)構(gòu)體系便可分為如下幾類：

1． 抗彎矩框架。

2． 支撐框架，包括偏心支撐框架。3． 剪力墻，包括鋼板剪力墻。4． 筒中框架。5． 筒中筒結(jié)構(gòu)。6． 核心交互結(jié)構(gòu)。

7． 框格體系或束筒體系。

特別是由于最近趨向于更復(fù)雜的建筑形式，同時(shí)也需要增加剛度以抵抗幾力和地震力，大多數(shù)高層建筑都具有由框架、支撐構(gòu)架、剪力墻和相關(guān)體系相結(jié)合而構(gòu)成的體系。而且，就較高的建筑物而言，大多數(shù)都是由交互式構(gòu)件組成三維陳列。

將這些構(gòu)件結(jié)合起來的方法正是高層建筑設(shè)計(jì)方法的本質(zhì)。其結(jié)合方式需要在考慮環(huán)境、功能和費(fèi)用后再發(fā)展，以便提供促使建筑發(fā)展達(dá)到新高度的有效結(jié)構(gòu)。這并不是說富于想象力的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)就能夠創(chuàng)造出偉大建筑。正相反，有許多例優(yōu)美的建筑僅得到結(jié)構(gòu)工程師適當(dāng)?shù)闹С志捅粍?chuàng)造出來了，然而，如果沒有天賦甚厚的建筑師的創(chuàng)造力的指導(dǎo)，那么，得以發(fā)展的就只能是好的結(jié)構(gòu)，并非是偉大的建筑。無論如何，要想創(chuàng)造出高層建筑真正非凡的設(shè)計(jì)，兩者都需要最好的。

雖然在文獻(xiàn)中通?？梢砸姷接嘘P(guān)這七種體系的全面性討論，但是在這里還值得進(jìn)一步討論。設(shè)計(jì)方法的本質(zhì)貫穿于整個(gè)討論。設(shè)計(jì)方法的本質(zhì)貫穿于整個(gè)討論中。

抗彎矩框架

抗彎矩框架也許是低，中高度的建筑中常用的體系，它具有線性水平構(gòu)件和垂直構(gòu)件在接頭處基本剛接之特點(diǎn)。這種框架用作獨(dú)立的體系，或者和其他體系結(jié)合起來使用，以便提供所需要水平荷載抵抗力。對(duì)于較高的高層建筑，可能會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)該本系不宜作為獨(dú)立體系，這是因?yàn)樵趥?cè)向力的作用下難以調(diào)動(dòng)足夠的剛度。

我們可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合適的計(jì)算機(jī)程序進(jìn)行結(jié)構(gòu)分析。所謂的門架法分析或懸臂法分析在當(dāng)今的技術(shù)中無一席之地，由于柱梁節(jié)點(diǎn)固有柔性，并且由于初步設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)該力求突出體系的弱點(diǎn)，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸設(shè)計(jì)是司空慣的。當(dāng)然，在設(shè)計(jì)的后期階段，實(shí)際地評(píng)價(jià)結(jié)點(diǎn)的變形很有必要。

支撐框架

支撐框架實(shí)際上剛度比抗彎矩框架強(qiáng)，在高層建筑中也得到更廣泛的應(yīng)用。這種體系以其結(jié)點(diǎn)處鉸接或則接的線性水平構(gòu)件、垂直構(gòu)件和斜撐構(gòu)件而具特色，它通常與其他體系共同用于較高的建筑，并且作為一種獨(dú)立的體系用在低、中高度的建筑中。

尤其引人關(guān)注的是，在強(qiáng)震區(qū)使用偏心支撐框架。

此外，可以利用STRESS，STRUDL，或一系列二維或三維計(jì)算機(jī)分析程序中的任何一種進(jìn)行結(jié)構(gòu)分析。另外，初步分析中常用中心距尺寸。

剪力墻

剪力墻在加強(qiáng)結(jié)構(gòu)體系剛性的發(fā)展過程中又前進(jìn)了一步。該體系的特點(diǎn)是具有相當(dāng)薄的，通常是（而不總是）混凝土的構(gòu)件，這種構(gòu)件既可提供結(jié)構(gòu)強(qiáng)度，又可提供建筑物功能上的分隔。

在高層建筑中，剪力墻體系趨向于具有相對(duì)大的高寬經(jīng)，即與寬度相比，其高度偏大。由于基礎(chǔ)體系缺少應(yīng)力，任何一種結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)件抗傾覆彎矩的能力都受到體系的寬度和構(gòu)件承受的重力荷載的限制。由于剪力墻寬度狹狹窄受限，所以需要以某種方式加以擴(kuò)大，以便提從所需的抗傾覆能力。在窗戶需要量小的建筑物外墻中明顯地使用了這種確有所需要寬度的體系。

鋼結(jié)構(gòu)剪力墻通常由混凝土覆蓋層來加強(qiáng)以抵抗失穩(wěn)，這在剪切荷載大的地方已得到應(yīng)用。這種體系實(shí)際上比鋼支撐經(jīng)濟(jì)，對(duì)于使剪切荷載由位于地面正上方區(qū)域內(nèi)比較高的樓層向下移特別有效。這種體系還具有高延性之優(yōu)點(diǎn)，這種特性在強(qiáng)震區(qū)特別重要。

由于這些墻內(nèi)必然出同一些大孔，使得剪力墻體系分析變得錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜?？梢酝ㄟ^桁架模似法、有限元法，或者通過利用為考慮剪力墻的交互作用或扭轉(zhuǎn)功能設(shè)計(jì)的專門計(jì)處機(jī)程序進(jìn)行初步分析

框架或支撐式筒體結(jié)構(gòu)：

框架或支撐式筒體最先應(yīng)用于IBM公司在Pittsburgh的一幢辦公樓，隨后立即被應(yīng)用于紐約雙子座的110層世界貿(mào)易中心摩天大樓和其他的建筑中。這種系統(tǒng)有以下幾個(gè)顯著的特征：三維結(jié)構(gòu)、支撐式結(jié)構(gòu)、或由剪力墻形成的一個(gè)性質(zhì)上差不多是圓柱體的閉合曲面，但又有任意的平面構(gòu)成。由于這些抵抗側(cè)向荷載的柱子差不多都被設(shè)置在整個(gè)系統(tǒng)的中心，所以整體的慣性得到提高，剛度也是很大的。

在可能的情況下，通過三維概念的應(yīng)用、二維的類比，我們可以進(jìn)行筒體結(jié)構(gòu)的分析。不管應(yīng)用那種方法，都必須考慮剪力滯后的影響。

這種最先在航天器結(jié)構(gòu)中研究的剪力滯后出現(xiàn)后，對(duì)筒體結(jié)構(gòu)的剛度是一個(gè)很大的限制。這種觀念已經(jīng)影響了筒體結(jié)構(gòu)在60層以上建筑中的應(yīng)用。設(shè)計(jì)者已經(jīng)開發(fā)出了很多的技術(shù)，用以減小剪力滯后的影響，這其中最有名的是桁架的應(yīng)用?？蚣芑蛑问酵搀w在40層或稍高的建筑中找到了自己的用武之地。除了一些美觀的考慮外，桁架幾乎很少涉及與外

墻聯(lián)系的每個(gè)建筑功能，而懸索一般設(shè)置在機(jī)械的地板上，這就令機(jī)械體系設(shè)計(jì)師們很不贊成。但是，作為一個(gè)性價(jià)比較好的結(jié)構(gòu)體系，桁架能充分發(fā)揮它的性能，所以它會(huì)得到設(shè)計(jì)師們持續(xù)的支持。由于其最佳位置正取決于所提供的桁架的數(shù)量，因此很多研究已經(jīng)試圖完善這些構(gòu)件的位置。實(shí)驗(yàn)表明：由于這種結(jié)構(gòu)體系的經(jīng)濟(jì)性并不十分受桁架位置的影響，所以這些桁架的位置主要取決于機(jī)械系統(tǒng)的完善，審美的要求，筒中筒結(jié)構(gòu)：

筒體結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)能使外墻中的柱具有靈活性，用以抵抗顛覆和剪切力?！巴仓型病边@個(gè)名字顧名思義就是在建筑物的核心承重部分又被包圍了第二層的一系列柱子，它們被當(dāng)作是框架和支撐筒來使用。配置第二層柱的目的是增強(qiáng)抗顛覆能力和增大側(cè)移剛度。這些筒體不是同樣的功能，也就是說，有些筒體是結(jié)構(gòu)的，而有些筒體是用來支撐的。

在考慮這種筒體時(shí)，清楚的認(rèn)識(shí)和區(qū)別變形的剪切和彎曲分量是很重要的，這源于對(duì)梁的對(duì)比分析。在結(jié)構(gòu)筒中，剪切構(gòu)件的偏角和柱、縱梁（例如：結(jié)構(gòu)筒中的網(wǎng)等）的彎曲有關(guān)，同時(shí)，彎曲構(gòu)件的偏角取決于柱子的軸心壓縮和延伸（例如：結(jié)構(gòu)筒的邊緣等）。在支撐筒中，剪切構(gòu)件的偏角和對(duì)角線的軸心變形有關(guān)，而彎曲構(gòu)件的偏角則與柱子的軸心壓縮和延伸有關(guān)。

根據(jù)梁的對(duì)比分析，如果平面保持原形（例如：厚樓板），那么外層筒中柱的軸心壓力就會(huì)與中心筒柱的軸心壓力相差甚遠(yuǎn)，而且穩(wěn)定的大于中心筒。但是在筒中筒結(jié)構(gòu)的設(shè)計(jì)中，當(dāng)發(fā)展到極限時(shí)，內(nèi)部軸心壓力會(huì)很高的，甚至遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)大于外部的柱子。這種反常的現(xiàn)象是由于兩種體系中的剪切構(gòu)件的剛度不同。這很容易去理解，內(nèi)筒可以看成是一個(gè)支撐（或者說是剪切剛性的）筒，而外筒可以看成是一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)（或者說是剪切彈性的）筒。

核心交互式結(jié)構(gòu)：

核心交互式結(jié)構(gòu)屬于兩個(gè)筒與某些形式的三維空間框架相配合的筒中筒特殊情況。事實(shí)上，這種體系常用于那種外筒剪切剛度為零的結(jié)構(gòu)。位于Pittsburgh的美國鋼鐵大樓證實(shí)了這種體系是能很好的工作的。在核心交互式結(jié)構(gòu)中，內(nèi)筒是一個(gè)支撐結(jié)構(gòu)，外筒沒有任何剪切剛度，而且兩種結(jié)構(gòu)體系能通過一個(gè)空間結(jié)構(gòu)或“帽”式結(jié)構(gòu)共同起作用。需要指出的是，如果把外部的柱子看成是一種從“帽”到基礎(chǔ)的直線體系，這將是不合適的；根據(jù)支撐核心的彈性曲線，這些柱子只發(fā)揮了剛度的15%。同樣需要指出的是，內(nèi)柱中與側(cè)向力有關(guān)的軸向力沿筒高度由拉力變?yōu)閴毫?，同時(shí)變化點(diǎn)位于筒高度的約5/8處。當(dāng)然，外柱也傳

遞相同的軸向力，這種軸向力低于作用在整個(gè)柱子高度的側(cè)向荷載，因?yàn)檫@個(gè)體系的剪切剛度接近于零。

把內(nèi)外筒相連接的空間結(jié)構(gòu)、懸臂梁或桁架經(jīng)常遵照一些規(guī)范來布置。美國電話電報(bào)總局就是一個(gè)布置交互式構(gòu)件的生動(dòng)例子。

1、結(jié)構(gòu)體系長59.7米，寬28.6米，高183.3米。

2、布置了兩個(gè)筒，每個(gè)筒的尺寸是9.4米×12.2米，在長方向上有27.4米的間隔。

3、在短方向上內(nèi)筒被支撐起來，但是在長方向上沒有剪切剛度。

4、環(huán)繞著建筑物布置了一個(gè)外筒。

5、外筒是一個(gè)瞬時(shí)抵抗結(jié)構(gòu)，但是在每個(gè)長方向的中心15.2米都沒有剪切剛度。

6、在建筑的頂部布置了一個(gè)空間桁架構(gòu)成的“帽式”結(jié)構(gòu)。

7、在建筑的底部布置了一個(gè)相似的空間桁架結(jié)構(gòu)。

8、由于外筒的剪切剛度在建筑的底部接近零，整個(gè)建筑基本上由兩個(gè)鋼板筒來支持。

框格體系或束筒體系結(jié)構(gòu)：

位于美國芝加哥的西爾斯大廈是箱式結(jié)構(gòu)的經(jīng)典之作，它由九個(gè)相互獨(dú)立的筒組成的一個(gè)集中筒。由于西爾斯大廈包括九個(gè)幾乎垂直的筒，而且筒在平面上無須相似，基本的結(jié)構(gòu)體系在不規(guī)則形狀的建筑中得到特別的應(yīng)用。一些單個(gè)的筒高于建筑一點(diǎn)或很多是很常見的。事實(shí)上，這種體系的重要特征就在于它既有堅(jiān)固的一面，也有脆弱的一面。

這種體系的脆弱，特別是在結(jié)構(gòu)筒中，與柱子的壓縮變形有很大的關(guān)系，柱子的壓縮變形有下式計(jì)算：

△=ΣfL/E 對(duì)于那些層高為3.66米左右和平均壓力為138MPa的建筑，在荷載作用下每層柱子的壓縮變形為15（12）/29000或1.9毫米。在第50層柱子會(huì)壓縮94毫米，小于它未受壓的長度。這些柱子在50層的時(shí)候和100層的時(shí)候的變形是不一樣的，位于這兩種體系之間接近于邊緣的那些柱需要使這種不均勻的變形得以調(diào)解。

主要的結(jié)構(gòu)工作都集中在布置中。在Melbourne的Rialto項(xiàng)目中，結(jié)構(gòu)工程師發(fā)現(xiàn)至少有一幢建筑，很有必要垂直預(yù)壓低高度的柱子，以便使柱不均勻的變形差得以調(diào)解，調(diào)解的方法近似于后拉伸法，即較短的柱轉(zhuǎn)移重量到較高的鄰柱上。

第三篇：中英文翻譯--工業(yè)機(jī)器人-精品

Industrial robots There are variety of definitions of the term robot.Depending on the definition used, the number of robot installations worldwide varies widely.Numerous single-purpose machines are used in manufacturing plants that might appear to be robots.These machines are hardwried to perform a single function and cannot be reprogrammed to preform a different function.Such single-purpose machines do not fit the definition for industrial robots that is becoming widely accepted.this definition was developed by the Robot Institute of America.A robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional mainipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.Note that this definition contains the words reprogrammable and multifunctional.It is these two characteristics that separate the ture industrial robot from the various single-purpose machines used in modern manufacturing firms.The term “reprogrammable” implies two things: The robot operates according to a written program, and this program can be rewritten to accommodate a variety of manufactureing tasks.The term “multifunctional” means that the robot can, through reprogramming and the use of different end-effectors, perform a number of different manufacturing tasks.Definitions written around these two critical characteristics are becoming the accpted definitions among manufacturing professionals.The first articulated arm came about in 1951 and was used by the U.S.Atomic Energy Commission.In 1954, the first programmable robot was designed by George Devol.It was based on two important technologies:(1)Numerical control(NC)technology.(2)Romote manipulator technology.Numerical contorl technology provided a form of machine control ideally suited to robots.It allowed for the control of motion by stored programs.These programs contain date points to which the sequentially moves, timing signals initiate action and to stop movement, and logic staements to allow for decision making.Remote manipulator technology allowed a machine to be more than just another NC machine.It allowed such machines to become robots that can perform a variety of manufacturing tasks in both inaccessible and unsafe environments.By merging these two technologies, Devol developed the first industrial robot, an unsophisticated programmable materials handling machine.The first commerically produced robot was developed in 1959.In 1962, General Motors Corporation.This robot was produced by Unimation.A major step forword in robot control occurred in 1973 with the development of the T-3 industrial robot by Cincinnati Milacron.The T-3 robot was the first commercially produced industrial robot controlled by a minicomputer.Numerical control and remote manipulator technology prompted the wide-scale development and use of industrial robots.But major technological developments do not take place simply because of such new capabilities.Something must provide the impetus for taking advantage of these capabilities.In the case of industrial robots, the impetus was economics.The rapid inflation of wages experienced in the 1970s tremendously increased the personnel costs of manufacturing firms.At the same time, foreign competition became a serious problem for U.S.manufacturers.Foreign manufacturers who had undertaken automation on a wide-scale basis, such as those in Japan, began to gain an increasingly large share of the U.S.and world market for manufactured goods, particularly automobiles.Through a variety of automation techniques including robots, Japanese manufacturers, beginning in the 1970s, were able to produce better automobiles more cheaply than nonautomated U.S.manufacturers.Consequently, in order to survive, U.S.manufacturers were forced to consider any technological developments that could help improve productivity.It became imperative to produce better products at lower costs in order to be competitive with foreign manufacturers.Other factors such as the need to find better ways of performing dangerous manufacturing tasks contributed to the development of industial robots.However, the principal rationale has always been, and is still, improved productivity.One of the principal advantages of robots is that they can be used in settings that are dangerous to humans.Welding and parting are examples of applications where robots can be used more safely than humans.Even though robots are closely associated with safety in the workplace, they can, in themselves, be dangerous.Robots and robot cells must be carefully designed and configured so that they do not endanger human workers and other machines.Robot work envelops should be accurately calculated and a danger zone surrounding the envelope clearly marked off.Red flooring strips and barries can be used to keep human workers out of a robot’s work envelope.Even with such precautions it is a good idea to have an automatic shutdown system in situations where robots are used.Such a system should have the capacity to sense the need for an automatic shutdown of operations.Fault-tolerant computers and redundant systems can be installed to ensure proper shutdown of robotics systems to ensure a safe enviroment.About componets of a robot system, the componets of a robot system could be discussed either from a systems point of view.Physically, we could divide the system, and controller(computer).Likewise, the robot itself could be partitioned anthropomorphically into base, shoulder, elbow, wrist, gripper, and tool.Most of these terms require little explanation.Consequently, we will describe the components of a robot system from the point of view of information transfer.That is, what information or signal enters the component;what logical or arithmetic operation does the component perform;and what information or signal does the component produce? It is important to note that the same physical component may performs many different information processing operations(e.g., a central computer performs many different calculations on different data).Likewise, two physically separate components many perform identical informations(e.g., the shoulder and elbow actuators both convert signals to motion in very similar ways).中文：

工業(yè)機(jī)器人

有許多關(guān)于機(jī)器人這個(gè)術(shù)語的定義。采用不同的定義，全世界各地機(jī)器人的數(shù)量就會(huì)發(fā)生很大的改變。在制造工廠中使用的許多但用途機(jī)器可能會(huì)看起來像機(jī)器人。這些機(jī)器是硬連線的，用來完成單一的工作，不能通過重新編程的方法去完成不同的工作。這種單用途的機(jī)器不能滿足被人們?nèi)找鎻V泛接受的關(guān)于工業(yè)機(jī)器人的定義。這個(gè)定義是由美國機(jī)器人協(xié)會(huì)提出的: 機(jī)器人是一個(gè)可以改編程序的多功能操作器，被設(shè)計(jì)用來按預(yù)先編制的，能夠完成多種作業(yè)的運(yùn)動(dòng)程序運(yùn)送材料，零件，工具或者專用設(shè)備。

注意在這個(gè)定義中包含有“可以改編程序”和“多功能”這兩個(gè)詞。正是這兩個(gè)詞將真正的機(jī)器人與現(xiàn)代制造工廠中使用的單一用途的機(jī)器區(qū)分開來?！翱梢愿木幊绦颉边@個(gè)術(shù)語意味著兩件事：機(jī)器人根據(jù)編寫的程序工作，以及可以通過重新編程來適應(yīng)不同種類的制造工作的需要。

“多功能”這個(gè)詞意味著機(jī)器人能通過編程和使用不同的末端執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)，來完成不同的制造工作。圍繞著兩個(gè)關(guān)鍵特征所撰寫的定義正在變成為制造業(yè)的專業(yè)人員接受的定義。

第一個(gè)帶有活動(dòng)關(guān)節(jié)的手臂于1951年被研制出來，由美國原子能委員會(huì)使用。在1954年，第一個(gè)可以編程的機(jī)器人由喬治·狄弗設(shè)計(jì)出來。他基于下面來兩項(xiàng)重要技術(shù)：

（1）數(shù)字控制（NC）技術(shù)。（2）遠(yuǎn)程操作器技術(shù)。

數(shù)字控制技術(shù)提供了一種非常適合機(jī)器人的機(jī)器控制技術(shù)。它可以通過存儲(chǔ)的程序?qū)\(yùn)動(dòng)進(jìn)行控制。這些程序包含機(jī)器人進(jìn)行順序運(yùn)動(dòng)的數(shù)據(jù)，開始運(yùn)動(dòng)和停止運(yùn)動(dòng)的時(shí)間控制信號(hào)，以及作出決定所需要的邏輯語句。

遠(yuǎn)程操作器技術(shù)使得一臺(tái)機(jī)器的性能超出一臺(tái)數(shù)控機(jī)器。它可以使這種機(jī)器能夠在不容易進(jìn)入和不安全的環(huán)境中完成各種制造任務(wù)。通過融合了上述兩種技術(shù)，狄弗研制出第一個(gè)機(jī)器人，它是一個(gè)不復(fù)雜的，可以編程的物料運(yùn)送機(jī)器人。

第一臺(tái)商業(yè)化生產(chǎn)的機(jī)器人在1959年研制成功。通用汽車公司在1962年安裝了第一臺(tái)用于生產(chǎn)線上的工業(yè)機(jī)器人，它是尤尼梅森公司生產(chǎn)的。在1973年，辛辛提那·米蘭克朗公司研制出T-3工業(yè)機(jī)器人，在機(jī)器人的控制方面取得了較大的進(jìn)展。T-3機(jī)器人是第一臺(tái)商業(yè)化生產(chǎn)的采用計(jì)算機(jī)控制的機(jī)器人。

數(shù)字控制技術(shù)和遠(yuǎn)程操作器技術(shù)推動(dòng)了大范圍的機(jī)器人研制和應(yīng)用。但是主要的技術(shù)進(jìn)步并不僅僅是由于這些新的應(yīng)用能力而產(chǎn)生的，而是必須有利用這些能力所得到的效益來提供動(dòng)力。就工業(yè)機(jī)器人而言，這個(gè)動(dòng)力是經(jīng)濟(jì)性。

在20世紀(jì)70年代中，工資的快速增長大大增加了制造業(yè)的企業(yè)中的人工費(fèi)用。與此同時(shí)，來自國外的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)成為美國制造業(yè)所面臨的嚴(yán)重考驗(yàn)。諸如日本等外國的制造廠家在廣泛的應(yīng)用了自動(dòng)化技術(shù)之后，其工業(yè)產(chǎn)品，特別是汽車，在美國和世界市場(chǎng)中占據(jù)了日益增大的份額。

通過采用包括機(jī)器人在內(nèi)的各種自動(dòng)化技術(shù)，從70年代開始，日本的制造廠家能夠比沒有采用自動(dòng)化技術(shù)的美國制造廠家生產(chǎn)更多的和更便宜的汽車。隨后，為了生存，美國制造廠家進(jìn)行競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，必須以比較低的成本，生產(chǎn)出更好的產(chǎn)品。其他的因素，注入尋找能夠更好的完成帶有危險(xiǎn)性的制造工作的方式也促進(jìn)了工業(yè)機(jī)器人的發(fā)展。但是，主要的理由一直是，而且現(xiàn)在仍然是提高生產(chǎn)率。

機(jī)器人的一個(gè)優(yōu)點(diǎn)是它們可以在相對(duì)于人類來說是危險(xiǎn)的環(huán)境中工作。采用機(jī)器人進(jìn)行焊接和切斷工作室比由人工來完成這些工作更安全的例子。盡管機(jī)器人與工作地點(diǎn)的安全密切相關(guān)，它們本身也可能是危險(xiǎn)的。

應(yīng)該仔細(xì)的設(shè)計(jì)和配置機(jī)器人和機(jī)器人單元，使它們不會(huì)傷害人類和其他機(jī)器。應(yīng)該精確的計(jì)算出機(jī)器人的工作范圍，并且在這個(gè)范圍的四周清晰地標(biāo)出危險(xiǎn)區(qū)域。可以采用在地上劃出紅顏色的線和設(shè)置障礙物以阻止工人進(jìn)入機(jī)器人的工作范圍。

即使有了這些預(yù)防措施，在使用機(jī)器人的場(chǎng)地中設(shè)置一個(gè)自動(dòng)停止工作的系統(tǒng)仍然不失為一個(gè)好主意。機(jī)器人這個(gè)系統(tǒng)應(yīng)該具有能夠檢測(cè)出是否有需要自動(dòng)停止工作的要求的能力。為了保證能有一個(gè)安全的環(huán)境，應(yīng)當(dāng)安裝容錯(cuò)計(jì)算機(jī)和冗余系統(tǒng)來保證在適當(dāng)?shù)臅r(shí)候停止機(jī)器人的工作。

關(guān)于機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)的組成部分，可以從物質(zhì)的觀點(diǎn)也可以從系統(tǒng)的觀點(diǎn)來討論機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)的組成部分。從物質(zhì)上看，我們可以將機(jī)器人分為機(jī)器人，電源系統(tǒng)和控制器（計(jì)算機(jī)）。機(jī)器人本身可以像人一樣被分為基座，肩，肘，腕，抓持器和工具。這些術(shù)語中的大部分不需要做任何解釋。

因此，我們將根據(jù)信息傳遞的觀點(diǎn)來描述機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)的組成部分。也就是，什么信息或者信號(hào)進(jìn)入計(jì)算機(jī)的組成部分，這個(gè)組成部分進(jìn)行何種邏輯或者算術(shù)運(yùn)算，這個(gè)組成部分產(chǎn)生什么信息或者信號(hào)？應(yīng)該認(rèn)識(shí)到，同一個(gè)組成部分可以完成許多不同的信息處理工作（例如，中心計(jì)算機(jī)可以根據(jù)不同的數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行許多不同種類的計(jì)算），這一點(diǎn)是很重要的。與之相似，在結(jié)構(gòu)上分開的兩個(gè)組成部分可以進(jìn)行相同的信息操作（例如，肩部和肘部的執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)用非常相似的方式將信息轉(zhuǎn)換為運(yùn)動(dòng)）。

注：出自《機(jī)械工程專業(yè)英語》

第四篇：煤礦自動(dòng)化控制系統(tǒng)

煤礦自動(dòng)化控制系統(tǒng) >> 主、副井提升自動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)

主、副井提升自動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)一、系統(tǒng)概述：

礦井提升機(jī)常被人們稱為礦山的咽喉，是礦山最重要的關(guān)鍵設(shè)備，是地下礦井與外界的唯一通道，肩負(fù)著提升煤炭、礦石、下放材料、升降人員和設(shè)備等的重要運(yùn)輸責(zé)任，其電控技術(shù)的發(fā)展對(duì)促進(jìn)礦井生產(chǎn)效率的提高和安全作業(yè)，無疑具有極其重大的影響。近年來，隨著我國經(jīng)濟(jì)的快速發(fā)展和對(duì)礦山資源需求的高速增長，對(duì)礦山生產(chǎn)技術(shù)提出了越來越高的要求。因此為使用現(xiàn)代化信息技術(shù)，充分發(fā)揮煤礦管理信息網(wǎng)絡(luò)和各生產(chǎn)控制系統(tǒng)應(yīng)有的功效，實(shí)現(xiàn)監(jiān)管控一體化的理想格局，并達(dá)到減員增效的目的；我公司特為現(xiàn)礦井提升機(jī)配置新型工業(yè)監(jiān)控系統(tǒng)，組成原煤生產(chǎn)運(yùn)輸?shù)募斜O(jiān)控系統(tǒng)，由地面計(jì)算機(jī)統(tǒng)一管理，對(duì)主副井提升電控系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行自動(dòng)化控制。

二、系統(tǒng)功能原理圖：

（主井定量裝載提升系統(tǒng)圖）（副井操車提升系統(tǒng)圖）

（定量裝載流程圖）

（箕斗提升及卸載流程圖）

（箕斗定量裝載上位機(jī)主畫面圖）

三、系統(tǒng)功能：

我國目前正在服務(wù)的礦井提升機(jī)的電控系統(tǒng)主要有以下四種方案：交直交變頻調(diào)速系統(tǒng)、轉(zhuǎn)子電路串電阻的交流調(diào)速系統(tǒng)、直流發(fā)電機(jī)與直流電動(dòng)機(jī)組成的GM直流調(diào)速系統(tǒng)和晶閘管整流裝置供電的V-M直流調(diào)速系統(tǒng)。公司本系統(tǒng)以安全、可靠、高效、經(jīng)濟(jì)為出發(fā)點(diǎn)，以可靠性原則為依據(jù)，使系統(tǒng)不僅適用于煤礦井下有瓦斯，煤塵爆炸危險(xiǎn)的惡劣環(huán)境，也適用于地面惡劣環(huán)境，而且它可完成提升行程的測(cè)量和設(shè)定；本系統(tǒng)實(shí)現(xiàn)了對(duì)提升過程的程序控制，精度高，甚至可以取消爬行段；實(shí)現(xiàn)了速度、電流以及矢量的數(shù)字交換等，對(duì)提升機(jī)進(jìn)行閉環(huán)調(diào)節(jié)；實(shí)現(xiàn)行程、速度等重要參數(shù)及提升狀態(tài)的監(jiān)視；具有良好的控制監(jiān)視系統(tǒng)；實(shí)現(xiàn)了顯示、記錄和打印等有關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)的全部自動(dòng)化，并能和全礦井監(jiān)控系統(tǒng)聯(lián)網(wǎng)運(yùn)行。在配備一至二名巡檢員之后，各點(diǎn)無需再配備專門人員，所有監(jiān)控均由集控室來操作完成。因此該系統(tǒng)明顯降低了設(shè)備故障率、簡化了操作、減輕了工人勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度、提高了生產(chǎn)運(yùn)行的安全可靠性、最大限度地縮減裝卸載的時(shí)間，達(dá)到了提高產(chǎn)量，實(shí)現(xiàn)增效的目的。

四、系統(tǒng)組成與特點(diǎn)：

1、本集控系統(tǒng)由監(jiān)控主站和上井口PLC（提升）、下井口PLC（定量或信號(hào)）的監(jiān)控分站、視頻監(jiān)控子系統(tǒng)組成。

2、地面監(jiān)控主站：監(jiān)控主站由上位工控機(jī)、不間斷電源、信號(hào)傳輸接口和集控軟件、視頻監(jiān)控子系統(tǒng)等部分組成。該主站可單機(jī)監(jiān)控各設(shè)備，并可通過以太網(wǎng)接口與全礦網(wǎng)絡(luò)聯(lián)接。主站設(shè)在地面集控室，為2臺(tái)工業(yè)PC機(jī)。

上位機(jī)系統(tǒng)：上位機(jī)系統(tǒng)含工控機(jī)、大屏幕LCD、打印機(jī)、不間斷電源等，2臺(tái)工控機(jī)的配置完全相同，組成同時(shí)工作的冗余系統(tǒng)。平時(shí)，可1臺(tái)作為操作員站工作于監(jiān)控方式、另1臺(tái)作為工程師站工作于管理方式，也可2臺(tái)都工作于監(jiān)控方式，均可實(shí)現(xiàn)對(duì)運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)設(shè)備的監(jiān)控和開、停各運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)。

組態(tài)軟件：上位機(jī)組態(tài)軟件選用SIMENS公司W(wǎng)INCC6.0（正版）實(shí)時(shí)監(jiān)控組態(tài)軟件，工作于Window 2000平臺(tái)，完成所需的圖形監(jiān)控、動(dòng)態(tài)圖形顯示、歷史數(shù)據(jù)采集、狀態(tài)趨勢(shì)圖、自診斷、報(bào)警等諸多功能。集控系統(tǒng)的組網(wǎng)功能，上位PC機(jī)可通過以太網(wǎng)接口與全礦綜合自動(dòng)化網(wǎng)絡(luò)連接，實(shí)現(xiàn)信息共享。

3、監(jiān)控分站：在上井口和下井口分別設(shè) KJD24Z 可編程控制機(jī)，實(shí)現(xiàn)各系統(tǒng)設(shè)備的監(jiān)控及自動(dòng)控制； 通過PROFIBUS總線接口與監(jiān)控主站連接。此可編程控制機(jī)為本系統(tǒng)的核心主控單元，它采用高性能進(jìn)口西門子PLC技術(shù)，從根本上提高了系統(tǒng)的工作可靠性及使用壽命。其多 CPU 并行處理技術(shù)、多重抗干擾技術(shù)、模塊化結(jié)構(gòu)和高防護(hù)等級(jí)設(shè)計(jì)，配以電源繼電器箱、各種傳感器保護(hù)裝置、通信信號(hào)裝置以及與驅(qū)動(dòng)裝置相應(yīng)的控制設(shè)備構(gòu)成適用于各種類型提升系統(tǒng)的高可靠性電控成套設(shè)備。并具備完善的保護(hù)和通信信號(hào)聯(lián)絡(luò)功能。

4、變頻、高開通信軟件：選用本公司開發(fā)的實(shí)時(shí)監(jiān)控通信軟件，工作于PC平臺(tái)，通過RS485總線完成對(duì)高開柜的保護(hù)模塊（PA150微機(jī)綜合保護(hù)）及高壓變頻控制器的數(shù)據(jù)采集及控制任務(wù)，及時(shí)將所需的數(shù)據(jù)、歷史數(shù)據(jù)記錄、故障及動(dòng)作記錄參數(shù)融入WINCC組態(tài)系統(tǒng)中，實(shí)現(xiàn)實(shí)時(shí)在線式的遠(yuǎn)程監(jiān)控功能。

5、高開柜、低壓配電柜：高開室內(nèi)安裝多臺(tái)高開柜，采用雙回路供電，其中2臺(tái)是進(jìn)線柜，1臺(tái)PT柜，電機(jī)啟動(dòng)柜（根據(jù)電機(jī)臺(tái)數(shù)確定）；高開柜內(nèi)使用小車式高壓BC開關(guān)，具有運(yùn)行穩(wěn)定，更換方面，維護(hù)簡單等特點(diǎn)；高開柜的線路和設(shè)備保護(hù)選用PA150微機(jī)綜合保護(hù)裝置，具有檢測(cè)精度高，保護(hù)動(dòng)作反應(yīng)快，數(shù)據(jù)處理記錄功能強(qiáng)大等特點(diǎn)。在集控室配置多臺(tái)GGD低壓配電柜，采用雙回路供電，低壓配電柜主要為提升電控保護(hù)系統(tǒng)和盤型閘泵站電機(jī)提供電源，同時(shí)也為小型負(fù)荷提供電源。

6、提升系統(tǒng)保護(hù)及數(shù)據(jù)采集：采用智能數(shù)據(jù)采集技術(shù)、其通過采集模塊以RS485總線與可編程控制機(jī)進(jìn)行通信，實(shí)時(shí)在線不間斷地采集現(xiàn)場(chǎng)保護(hù)數(shù)據(jù)；本系統(tǒng)保護(hù)不但動(dòng)作靈敏度高、反應(yīng)及時(shí)；而且在安裝施工及維護(hù)中，大大節(jié)約電纜的使用量、減少施工工程進(jìn)度和日常維護(hù)量。

7、提升系統(tǒng)故障保護(hù): ⑴、立即安全制動(dòng)故障。該類故障綜合在硬軟件安全電路中, 安全電路正常時(shí)吸合, 有緊急故障時(shí)釋放, 一旦安全電路釋放, 就會(huì)立即封鎖變頻器、跳制動(dòng)油泵, 并控制油壓系統(tǒng)電磁閥實(shí)施安全制動(dòng)、抱安全閘。主要安全制動(dòng)故障有: ① 轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)故障。如主回路和控制回路電源故障, 主電機(jī)過熱、堵轉(zhuǎn), 變頻器故障等;②過卷故障;③超速故障。如等速、超速、減速段定點(diǎn)超速和連續(xù)超速等;④ 緊急故障;⑤ 液壓制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)故障。如制動(dòng)油泵跳, 系統(tǒng)油壓高等;⑥錯(cuò)向;⑦測(cè)速軸編碼器斷線;⑧松繩故障。

⑵、先電氣制動(dòng)、后安全制動(dòng)故障。故障發(fā)生后, 轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)會(huì)自動(dòng)進(jìn)行減速, 當(dāng)速度降到爬行速度時(shí)會(huì)立即轉(zhuǎn)為緊急制動(dòng)。故障主要有事故停車和閘瓦磨損等。⑶、完成本次開車后, 不允許再次開車故障。開車前如出現(xiàn)這類故障, 則開不起車;如在運(yùn)行過程中出現(xiàn), 則允許本次開車完成, 但不允許下次開車, 除故障解除。故障主要有電機(jī)過熱報(bào)警、液壓站油溫過高等。

8、視頻監(jiān)控子系統(tǒng)：在提升系統(tǒng)重要崗點(diǎn)安裝防爆廣角度紅外攝像頭，進(jìn)行現(xiàn)場(chǎng)信息采集，以光纖為載體傳入集控室主機(jī)柜，經(jīng)視頻分配器輸出至各監(jiān)視器和顯示服務(wù)器，實(shí)現(xiàn)了各崗點(diǎn)設(shè)備運(yùn)行狀態(tài)和生產(chǎn)情況的24小時(shí)全天候監(jiān)控，發(fā)現(xiàn)問題可以及時(shí)處理，有效降低了事故發(fā)生率，提高了生產(chǎn)效率。9.系統(tǒng)特點(diǎn)主要概括：

⑴、主、副井提升信號(hào)及自動(dòng)裝卸載各自具有集控、自動(dòng)、手動(dòng)三種工件方式，手動(dòng)方式用于裝卸載的調(diào)試和檢修。信號(hào)在檢修狀態(tài)只有慢車信號(hào)。

⑵、自動(dòng)裝載定量、定容、定時(shí)保護(hù)及顯示。

⑶、故障自動(dòng)報(bào)警功能，及傳感器的故障自診斷。

⑷、提升次數(shù)記憶功能和提升信號(hào)的斷電記憶功能。

⑸、有工業(yè)光纖環(huán)網(wǎng)冗余通訊功能。

⑹、上、下井口信號(hào)間的閉鎖功能、檢測(cè)箕斗的裝卸載位置異常功能。

⑺、防止二次裝載保護(hù)功能。

⑻、主、副井提升信號(hào)及自動(dòng)裝卸載有上位機(jī)系統(tǒng)、能監(jiān)測(cè)各個(gè)設(shè)備的運(yùn)行狀態(tài)、故障記憶查詢、產(chǎn)量的累計(jì)及報(bào)表、空載、滿載、超載的標(biāo)定，及定量斗假余煤的校零功能。

⑼、與絞車控制回路的閉鎖功能、及PROFIBUS-DP軟件通訊回路閉鎖。

⑽、有聯(lián)絡(luò)呼叫功能。⑾、有井上下煤倉煤位的連續(xù)實(shí)時(shí)監(jiān)測(cè)功能。

⑿、有與全礦井綜合自動(dòng)化的以太網(wǎng)接口。

⒀、系統(tǒng)有供電電源的絕緣監(jiān)測(cè)與電壓監(jiān)測(cè)功能。

⒁、箕斗的卸載狀態(tài)監(jiān)視功能，檢測(cè)箕斗是否卸空。

⒂、有對(duì)裝載皮帶的溫度、煙霧、跑偏、堆煤、斷帶及拉線急停等八大保護(hù)功能。

⒃、有對(duì)動(dòng)力負(fù)荷的保護(hù)上位機(jī)監(jiān)測(cè)功能，如缺相,短路,堵轉(zhuǎn),過載,相不平衡,漏電等故障進(jìn)行監(jiān)測(cè)保護(hù)。

⒄、整個(gè)系統(tǒng)的通過網(wǎng)絡(luò)訪問維護(hù)功能。

五、依據(jù)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)及規(guī)范：

GB3836.1-2000爆炸性氣體環(huán)境用電氣設(shè)備 第1部分：通用要求 GB3836.2-2000爆炸性氣體環(huán)境用電氣設(shè)備 第1部分：隔爆型“d”

GB3836.4-2000爆炸性氣體環(huán)境用電氣設(shè)備 第1部分：本質(zhì)安全型“ｉ” GB4942.2 低壓電器外殼防護(hù)等級(jí)

MT209 煤礦通信、檢測(cè)、控制用電工電子產(chǎn)品通用技術(shù)要求 煤礦安全規(guī)程（2004）

第五篇：行政管理專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文中英文翻譯

新公共管理的現(xiàn)狀

歐文·E·休斯

(澳大利亞莫納什大學(xué)管理系)

毫無疑問,世界上許多國家,無論是發(fā)達(dá)國家還是發(fā)展中國家,在20世紀(jì)80年代后期和90年代初期都開始了一場(chǎng)持續(xù)的公共部門管理變革運(yùn)動(dòng)。這場(chǎng)改革運(yùn)動(dòng)至今仍在很多方面繼續(xù)對(duì)政府的組織和管理產(chǎn)生著影響。人們對(duì)于這些改革的看法眾說紛紜,莫衷一是。批評(píng)家尤其是英國和美國的批評(píng)家們認(rèn)為,新模式存在著各種各樣的問題,而且也不具有國際普遍性的改革意義,公共管理不可能被稱為范式。批評(píng)幾乎涵蓋了變化的各個(gè)方面。大多數(shù)批評(píng)都屬于學(xué)術(shù)上的吹毛求疵。不同的思想流派討論著細(xì)枝末節(jié);學(xué)術(shù)期刊上的文章也越來越抽象,遠(yuǎn)離現(xiàn)實(shí)。同時(shí),公共管理者在實(shí)踐中不斷推動(dòng)和實(shí)施著這項(xiàng)變化和改革。正如我在其他文章中所認(rèn)為的那樣,在大多數(shù)國家,傳統(tǒng)的公共行政模式已經(jīng)為公共管理模式所取代。公共部門的變革回應(yīng)了幾個(gè)相互聯(lián)系的重大現(xiàn)實(shí)問題,包括:職能公共部門提供公共服務(wù)的低效率;經(jīng)濟(jì)理論的變化;私營部門相關(guān)變化產(chǎn)生的影響,尤其是全球化作為一種經(jīng)濟(jì)力量的興起;技術(shù)變化使得分權(quán)同時(shí)又能更好地控制全局成為可能。行政管理可以分為三個(gè)鮮明的發(fā)展階段:前傳統(tǒng)階段、公共行政傳統(tǒng)模式階段和公共管理改革階段。每個(gè)階段都有自己的管理模式。從上一個(gè)階段過渡到下一個(gè)階段并非輕而易舉,從傳統(tǒng)的公共行政到公共管理的過渡至今尚未完成。但這只是時(shí)間的問題。因?yàn)樾履Ｊ奖澈蟮睦碚摶A(chǔ)非常強(qiáng)大。這場(chǎng)變革運(yùn)動(dòng)以“新公共管理”著稱,盡管這個(gè)名稱引起了爭(zhēng)論,然而它不但在蓬勃發(fā)展著,而且是對(duì)大多數(shù)發(fā)達(dá)國家已經(jīng)采取的管理模式的最佳表述。傳統(tǒng)的行政模式相對(duì)于它所處的時(shí)代是一項(xiàng)偉大的改革,但是,那個(gè)時(shí)代已經(jīng)過去了。

一、前傳統(tǒng)模式

很顯然,在19世紀(jì)末官僚體制理論尚未健全之前,已經(jīng)存在著某種形式的行政管理。公共行政已經(jīng)有很長的歷史了,它與政府這一概念以及文明的興起一樣歷史悠久。正如格拉登(Glad2den)指出的那樣,行政的某種模式自從政府出現(xiàn)之后就一直存在著。首先是創(chuàng)始者或領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者賦予社會(huì)以可能,然后是組織者或行政者使之永恒。行政或事務(wù)管理是所有社會(huì)活動(dòng)中的中間因素,雖然不是光彩奪目,但對(duì)社會(huì)的持續(xù)發(fā)展卻是至關(guān)重要的。公認(rèn)的行政體制在古埃及就已經(jīng)存在了,其管轄范圍從每年的尼羅河泛濫引起的灌溉事務(wù)到金字塔的建造。中國在漢朝就采用了儒家規(guī)范,認(rèn)為政府應(yīng)當(dāng)是民選的,不是根據(jù)出身,而是根據(jù)品德和能力,政府的主要目標(biāo)是謀取人民的福利。在歐洲,各種帝國——希臘、羅馬、神圣羅馬、西班牙等首先是行政帝國,它們由中央通過各種規(guī)則和程序進(jìn)行管理。韋伯認(rèn)為,中世紀(jì)“現(xiàn)代”國家的發(fā)展同時(shí)伴隨著“官僚治理結(jié)構(gòu)的發(fā)展”。盡管這些國家以不同的方式進(jìn)行管理,但它們具有共同的特點(diǎn),這可以稱為前現(xiàn)代。也就是說,早期的行政體制本質(zhì)上是人格化的,或者說是建立在韋伯所說的“裙帶關(guān)系”的基礎(chǔ)上,也就是說以效忠國王或大臣等某個(gè)特定的人為基礎(chǔ),而不是非人格化的;以效忠組織或國家為基礎(chǔ)而不是以個(gè)人為基礎(chǔ)。盡管存在著這么一種觀點(diǎn),即認(rèn)為行政管理本身不為人贊許的特點(diǎn)僅僅來自于傳統(tǒng)模式,但早期的做法常常導(dǎo)致謀求個(gè)人利益的貪污行為或?yàn)E用職權(quán)。在早期行政體制下,我們現(xiàn)在看來覺得很奇怪的做法曾是當(dāng)時(shí)執(zhí)政政府職能的普遍行為。那些一心走仕途的人往往依靠朋友或親戚獲取工作或買官,這就是說先以錢來收買海關(guān)官員或稅收官員,然后再向客戶伸手要錢,從而既回收了最初的買官投資成本,又可以大賺一筆。美國19世紀(jì)的“政黨分肥制度”意味著在執(zhí)政黨發(fā)生了變化的同時(shí),政府中的所有行政職位也發(fā)生了變化。前現(xiàn)代官僚體制是“個(gè)人的、傳統(tǒng)的、擴(kuò)散的、同類的和特殊的”,而按照韋伯的論證,現(xiàn)代官僚體制應(yīng)當(dāng)是“非人格化的、理性的、具體的、成就取向的和普遍的”。個(gè)人化政府往往是低效率的:裙帶關(guān)系意味著無能的而不是能干的人被安排到領(lǐng)導(dǎo)崗位上;政黨分肥制常常導(dǎo)致腐敗,此外還存在著嚴(yán)重的低效率。傳統(tǒng)行政模式的巨大成功使得早期做法看起來很奇怪。專業(yè)化、非政治化行政在我們看來是如此順理成章,以至難以想象到會(huì)有別的制度存在。西方的行政制度即使簡單到通過考試選拔官員的想法,也是直到1854年英國的諾思科特—屈維廉報(bào)告出臺(tái)后才開始建立,盡管這種制度在中國早已通行很久了。

二、傳統(tǒng)的公共行政模式

在19世紀(jì)末期,另外一種模式開始在全世界流行,這就是所謂的傳統(tǒng)行政模式。它的主要理論基礎(chǔ)來源于幾個(gè)國家的學(xué)者,即,美國的伍德羅·威爾遜和德國的馬克斯·韋伯,人們把他們和官僚制模式相聯(lián)系;弗雷德里克·泰勒系統(tǒng)地闡述了科學(xué)管理理論,該理論也來源于對(duì)美國私營部門的運(yùn)用,為公共行政提供了方 法。與其他理論家不同,泰勒沒有著力關(guān)注公共部門,可是他的理論卻在該領(lǐng)域具有廣泛影響。這三位理論家是傳統(tǒng)公共行政模式的主要影響者。對(duì)于其他國家來說,還要加上諾思科特和屈維廉,他們對(duì)美國之外的國家的行政尤其是威爾遜的行政體制產(chǎn)生了重要影響。在19世紀(jì)中期,諾思科特和屈維廉最先提出了通過考試和品德來任命官員的主張,并提出了無偏見和行政中立的觀點(diǎn)。傳統(tǒng)的行政模式有以下幾個(gè)主要特點(diǎn): 1.官僚制。政府應(yīng)當(dāng)根據(jù)等級(jí)、官僚原則進(jìn)行組織。德國社會(huì)學(xué)家馬克斯·韋伯對(duì)官僚制度有一個(gè)經(jīng)典的、清晰的分析。雖然這種官僚制思想在商業(yè)組織和其他組織中采用過,但它在公共部門得到了更好和更長久的執(zhí)行。

2.最好的工作方式和程序都在詳盡全面的手冊(cè)中加以規(guī)定,以供行政人員遵循。嚴(yán)格地遵守這些原則將會(huì)為組織運(yùn)行提供最好的方式。

3.官僚服務(wù)。一旦政府涉足政策領(lǐng)域,它將成為通過官僚體制提供公共產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)的提供者。

4.在政治、行政二者的關(guān)系中,行政管理者一般認(rèn)為政治與行政事務(wù)是可以分開的。行政就是貫徹執(zhí)行指令,而任何事關(guān)政策或戰(zhàn)略事務(wù)的決定都應(yīng)當(dāng)由政治領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者做出,這可以確保民主責(zé)任制。

5.公共利益被假定為公務(wù)員個(gè)人的惟一動(dòng)機(jī),為公眾服務(wù)是無私的付出。6.職業(yè)化官僚制。公共行政被看作是一種特殊活動(dòng),因而要求公務(wù)員保持中立、默默無聞、終身雇用以及平等地服務(wù)于任何一個(gè)政治領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人。

7.行政任務(wù)的書面含義是執(zhí)行他人的指令而不承擔(dān)由此而致的個(gè)人責(zé)任。通過對(duì)比早期的行政模式,我們可以更好地理解韋伯體系的主要優(yōu)點(diǎn)和不同點(diǎn)。韋伯制度和它以前的各種模式最重要的區(qū)別在于:以規(guī)則為基礎(chǔ)的非人格化的制度取代了人格化的行政管理制度。一個(gè)組織及其規(guī)則要比組織中的任何個(gè)人都重要。官僚制度就其運(yùn)作以及如何對(duì)客戶做出反應(yīng)方面必須是非人格化的。正如韋伯所論證的那樣“:將現(xiàn)代公職管理歸并為各種規(guī)定深深地觸及了它的本質(zhì)?，F(xiàn)代公共行政理論認(rèn)為,以法令形式來命令執(zhí)行某些事務(wù)的權(quán)威已被合法地授予了公共機(jī)關(guān)。這并沒有授予某機(jī)構(gòu)具體情況下通過指令實(shí)施某種事務(wù)的權(quán)力。它只能是抽象地管制某種事務(wù)。與此形成鮮明對(duì)比的是,通過個(gè)人特權(quán)和賦予特許權(quán)管制所有事務(wù)。后者的情況完全是由世襲制支配的,至少就這些事務(wù)不是不可 3 被侵犯的傳統(tǒng)而言是這種情況。”

這一點(diǎn)非常重要。早期的行政管理以人際關(guān)系為基礎(chǔ),個(gè)人要忠誠于親戚、保護(hù)人、領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人或政黨,而不是對(duì)體制負(fù)責(zé)。有時(shí),早期行政管理在政治上是比較敏感的,因?yàn)樾姓C(jī)關(guān)的人員是任命的,他們更是政客的臂膀或主流階級(jí)。但是,它也常常是專制的,專制的行政可能是不公平的,特別是對(duì)那些不能夠或者不愿意投入個(gè)人政治游戲的人來說更是如此。一個(gè)以韋伯原則為基礎(chǔ)的非人格化的制度可以完全消除專制——至少在理想情況下是如此。檔案的存在、前例原則的參照和法律依據(jù)意味著在相同的環(huán)境中總是會(huì)做出相同的決策。在這種情況下不僅效率更高,而且公民和官僚等級(jí)制中的人員都知道自己所處的立場(chǎng)。

其他的差別均與此相聯(lián)系。在各種規(guī)定和非人格化的基礎(chǔ)上,會(huì)很自然地形成嚴(yán)格的等級(jí)制度。等級(jí)制度及其規(guī)定在個(gè)人離開組織后保持不變。雖然韋伯強(qiáng)調(diào)的是整個(gè)制度,但他也注意到了官僚制組織中的個(gè)人任期和條件。

傳統(tǒng)行政模式獲得了極大的成功,它為全世界各國政府所廣泛采用。無論是從理論上還是從實(shí)踐上看,它都顯示出了優(yōu)勢(shì)。與以前腐敗盛行的制度相比,它更具效率,而且職業(yè)化公務(wù)員的思想對(duì)個(gè)人以及業(yè)余服務(wù)都是一個(gè)巨大的進(jìn)步。然而,該模式現(xiàn)在也暴露出了問題,這些問題表明該模式即使不能說已經(jīng)過時(shí)了,也可以說即將過時(shí)。

公共行政的理論支柱已經(jīng)難以描述政府現(xiàn)實(shí)了。政治控制理論已經(jīng)問題重重。行政意味著遵從他人的指令,因此要求有一個(gè)秩序井然的收發(fā)方法。指令的發(fā)出者與實(shí)施者之間有一個(gè)明確的劃分。但是這并不現(xiàn)實(shí),并且隨著公共服務(wù)規(guī)模和領(lǐng)域的擴(kuò)大而愈加不可能。傳統(tǒng)模式的另一理論支柱——官僚制理論也不再被認(rèn)為是組織的特別有效形式。正式的官僚體制可能有它的優(yōu)勢(shì),但人們也認(rèn)為它往往培養(yǎng)墨守成規(guī)者而不是創(chuàng)新者;鼓勵(lì)行政人員規(guī)避風(fēng)險(xiǎn)而不是勇于冒險(xiǎn),鼓勵(lì)他們浪費(fèi)稀缺資源而不是有效利用。韋伯曾把官僚制看成是“理想類型”,但現(xiàn)在這種理想類型卻培養(yǎng)了惰性、喪失進(jìn)取心、導(dǎo)致平庸和低效率,這些被認(rèn)為是公共部門的特有病。它也由此遭受批評(píng)。實(shí)際上“,官僚”這個(gè)詞在今天更多地被看成是低效率的同義詞。

三、新公共管理模式

20世紀(jì)八九十年代,在公共部門出現(xiàn)了一種針對(duì)傳統(tǒng)行政模式的缺陷的新 管理方法。這種方法可以緩解傳統(tǒng)模式的某些問題,同時(shí)也意味著公共部門運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)方面發(fā)生了引人注目的變化。這種新的管理方法有很多名稱“:管理主義”、“新公共管理”“、以市場(chǎng)為基礎(chǔ)的公共行政”“、后官僚制典范”或“企業(yè)型政府”。到90年代后期,人們?cè)絹碓絻A向于使用“新公共管理”的概念。

盡管新公共管理的名稱眾多,但對(duì)于公共部門管理發(fā)生的實(shí)際變化而言,人們還是有一種共識(shí)。第一,無論這種模式叫什么,它都代表著一種與傳統(tǒng)公共行政不同的重大變化,它更為關(guān)注結(jié)果的實(shí)現(xiàn)和管理者的個(gè)人責(zé)任。第二,它明確表示要擺脫古典官僚制,從而使組織、人事、任期和條件更加靈活。第三,它明確規(guī)定了組織和人事目標(biāo),這就可以根據(jù)績效指標(biāo)測(cè)量工作任務(wù)的完成情況。同樣,還可以對(duì)計(jì)劃方案進(jìn)行更為系統(tǒng)的評(píng)估,也可以比以前更為嚴(yán)格地確定政府計(jì)劃是否實(shí)現(xiàn)了其預(yù)定目標(biāo)。第四,高級(jí)行政管理人員更有可能帶有政治色彩地致力于政府工作,而不是無黨派或中立的。第五,政府更有可能受到市場(chǎng)的檢驗(yàn),將公共服務(wù)的購買者與提供者區(qū)分開,即將“掌舵者與劃槳者區(qū)分開”。政府介入并不一定總是指政府通過官僚手段行事。第六,出現(xiàn)了通過民營化和市場(chǎng)檢驗(yàn)、簽訂合同等方式減少政府職能的趨勢(shì)。在某種情況下,這是根本性的。一旦發(fā)生了從過程向結(jié)果轉(zhuǎn)化的重要變革,所有與此相連的連續(xù)性步驟就都是必要的。

霍姆斯(Holmes)和尚德(Shand)對(duì)這次改革的特點(diǎn)作了一個(gè)特別有用的概括。他們把新公共管理視作范式,這種好的管理方法具有以下特點(diǎn):(1)這是一種更加富有戰(zhàn)略性或結(jié)構(gòu)導(dǎo)向型的決策方法(強(qiáng)調(diào)效率、結(jié)果和服務(wù)質(zhì)量)。(2)分權(quán)式管理環(huán)境取代了高度集中的等級(jí)組織結(jié)構(gòu)。這使資源分配和服務(wù)派送更加接近供應(yīng)本身,由此可以得到更多相關(guān)的信息和來自客戶及其他利益團(tuán)體的反饋。(3)可以更為靈活地探索代替直接供應(yīng)公共產(chǎn)品的方法,從而提供成本節(jié)約的政策結(jié)果。(4)關(guān)注權(quán)威與責(zé)任的對(duì)應(yīng),以此作為提高績效的關(guān)鍵環(huán)節(jié),這包括強(qiáng)調(diào)明確的績效合同的機(jī)制。(5)在公共部門之間和內(nèi)部創(chuàng)造一個(gè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性的環(huán)境。(6)加強(qiáng)中央戰(zhàn)略決策能力,使其能夠迅速、靈活和低成本地駕馭政府對(duì)外部變化和多元利益做出反應(yīng)。(7)通過要求提供有關(guān)結(jié)果和全面成本的報(bào)告來提高責(zé)任度和透明度。(8)寬泛的服務(wù)預(yù)算和管理制度支持和鼓勵(lì)著這些變化的發(fā)生。

新公共管理并沒有認(rèn)為實(shí)現(xiàn)某結(jié)果有一條最好的途徑。管理者在被賦予責(zé)任之前并沒有被告知如何獲得結(jié)果。決定工作方式是管理者的一個(gè)職責(zé),如果沒有 5 實(shí)現(xiàn)預(yù)定的目標(biāo),管理者對(duì)此應(yīng)當(dāng)承擔(dān)責(zé)任。

四、結(jié)論

政府管理在過去的一百五十年里經(jīng)歷了三種模式。首先是人格化或前現(xiàn)代行政模式,當(dāng)該模式日益暴露其缺陷以及出于提高效率的目的,它就被第二種模式即傳統(tǒng)的官僚行政模式所取代。同樣,當(dāng)傳統(tǒng)行政模式問題重重時(shí),它就為第三種模式即新公共管理取代,從政府轉(zhuǎn)向替代性市場(chǎng)。20世紀(jì)80年代以來,市場(chǎng)的主導(dǎo)地位就如同20世紀(jì)20年代到60年代官僚制度居主導(dǎo)地位一樣。在任何一種政府制度中,官僚和市場(chǎng)都是共存的,只是在某個(gè)階段一種形式占主導(dǎo)地位,而在另一階段,另一種形式占主導(dǎo)地位。新公共管理時(shí)代是官僚制日益削弱而市場(chǎng)在公共行政領(lǐng)域占據(jù)統(tǒng)治地位的時(shí)期。

在現(xiàn)實(shí)中,市場(chǎng)和官僚體制相互需要,相互補(bǔ)充。新公共管理不可能完全代替官僚制,正如1989年以前的東歐,官僚制不可能代替市場(chǎng)一樣。但新公共管理運(yùn)動(dòng)表明的是,早期傳統(tǒng)官僚制的許多功能都可以而且現(xiàn)在經(jīng)常由市場(chǎng)來執(zhí)行。在一個(gè)官僚制作為組織原則日益削弱的環(huán)境下,市場(chǎng)解決方案就會(huì)被推出。當(dāng)然不是所有的市場(chǎng)藥方都能成功,但這不是問題的核心。政府將從新公共管理這一工具箱中探尋到解決方案。如果這些方案行之無效,政府就會(huì)從同一來源中尋找其他方案。政府管理背后的理論基礎(chǔ)已經(jīng)發(fā)生了變革,我們完全可以用“范式”這一術(shù)語來描述它。在公共行政學(xué)術(shù)界,有許多對(duì)新公共管理持否定態(tài)度的批評(píng)家。但是他們的批評(píng)對(duì)迅速開展的政府改革影響很小。在新公共管理模式之后,會(huì)出現(xiàn)另一種新的模式,但肯定不會(huì)回到傳統(tǒng)的行政模式。The New Public Management Situation

Owen E.Hughes Monash University Management(Australia)

No doubt, many countries in the world, and both developed countries and developing countries, in the late 1980s and early 1990s began a continuous public sector management reform movement.The reform movement is still in many aspects government continue to the organization and management of the influence.People in these reforms view repudiating them.Critics especially in Britain and the United States, critics say the new mode of various problems exist, but also does not have the international prevailing reform of public management, could not be called paradigm.Criticism from almost every aspect of the change.Most of the academic criticism belong to the mouth.Different schools of thought in detail discussion, The academic journal articles and abstraction, from reality.At the same time, in the practice of public management and implementation of the reform and the change.As I in other articles in the thought, in most countries, the traditional public administrative mode for public management mode has been replaced.The reform of public department responded to the realities of several interrelated problems, including: the function of public sector provide public services of low efficiency, Economic theory of change, Private sector related changes impact of globalization, especially as a kind of economic power, Technology changes made decentralization and better control globally becomes possible.The administrative management can be divided into three stages: the development of distinct phases, and public administration before traditional pattern and public management reform stage.Each stage has its own management mode.From a stage of transition to the next stage is not easy, from the traditional public administration to public administration has not yet completed the transition.But it was only a matter of time.Because the new mode of theoretical basis is very strong.The new public management movement “, ”although this name, but it is not only a debate in the booming, and in most developed countries have taken the best management mode of expression.The traditional administrative mode than it's age is a great reform, but that time has passed.A traditional pattern Obviously, in the late 19th century bureaucracy system theory, not sound already exists some form of administrative management.Public administration has a long history, and it is the concept of a government and the rise of civilization as history.As the case Glad2den Osama bin laden(point), a model of administrative since the government appears has existed.First is endowed with founder or leader, then is the social or administrative person to organizers of eternity.Administration management or business is all in social activities, although not among factors, but the glow of social sustainable development is of vital importance.Recognized administrative system in ancient Egypt is already exists, its jurisdiction from the Nile flooding caused by the year to build the pyramids irrigation affairs.China is adopted in the han dynasty, Confucian norms that government should be elected, not according to the background, but according to the character and ability, the government's main goal is to seek the welfare of the people.In Europe, various empirebegan to establish in China, although the system has long passage.The traditional public administrative pattern In the late 19th century, additionally one kind of pattern on the world popular, this is the so-called traditional administrative pattern.Its main theoretical basis from several countries, namely, the American scholars and Germany Woodrow Wilson of Max Weber's, people put their associated with bureaucracy model, Frederick Tyler systematically elaborated the scientific management theory, the theory of the private sector from America, for public administration method was provided.And the other theorists, Taylor without focusing on public sector, but his theory was influential in this field.The three traditional public administration mode is theorist of main effect.In other countries, plus G..M.Trevelyan and North America, the state administration of administrative system, especially the Wilson has produced important influence.In the 19th century, the north G..M.Trevelyan and put forward through the examination and character, and appointed officials put forward bias and administrative neutral point of view.The traditional administrative pattern has the following features: 1.The bureaucracy.The government shall, according to the principle of bureaucratic rank and organization.The German sociologist Max Weber bureaucracy system of a classic, and analysis.Although the bureaucracy in business organizations and other tissues, but it is in the public sector got better and longer.2.The best way of working and procedures are in full manual detail codes, for administrative personnel to follow.Strictly abide by these principles will run for the organization provides the best way.3.Bureaucratic service.Once the government policy areas in, it will be through the bureaucracy to provide public products and service providers.4.In political and administrative two relations, political and administrative managers generally think of administrative affairs can be separated.Administration is the implement instruction, and any matter policy or strategic affairs shall be decided by the political leaders, which can ensure that the democratic system.5.Public interests are assumed to individual civil servants, the only motive for public service is selfless paying.6.Professional bureaucracy.Public administration is viewed as a kind of special activities, thus requirements, obscure, civil servants neutral equal employment and lifelong service to any political leaders.7.The administrative task is to carry out the meaning of the written instructions and not others assume the personal responsibility.Through the comparison of the early administrative pattern, we can better understand the main advantages and Webber system differences.Webber system and it is the most important mode of various before the difference: the rule-based impersonal system replaced the personification of administrative management system.An organization and its rules than any of the people are important organization.Bureaucracy is its operation and how to respond to customer must is personified.As Weber has demonstrated that the modern office management “, will be incorporated into various regulations deeply touched it.The modern public administration by law theory, to command certain affairs authority has been awarded the legitimate public authority.This does not grant an institution specific cases through some instructions.It only matters is abstractly control some issues.In contrast, through personal privileges and give concession regulation of all affairs.The latter is completely dominated by the hereditary system, at least these affairs is not the traditional infringement is this situation.” It is very important.Early administration based on personal relationships, be loyal to relatives, protect, leaders or political, rather than on the system.Sometimes, the early administration is politically sensitive, because of the administrative organs of the staff is appointed, they also politicians arms or mainstream class.However, it is often autocratic, autocratic administration may be unfair, especially for those who can't or unwilling to input personal and political game.One of the basic principles for with weber impersonal system to completely eliminate autocraticbureaucracy theory is no longer considered particularly effective form of organization.Formal bureaucracy could have its advantages, but people think it often training to routineer and innovators, Encourage executives rather than risk aversion risk-taking, encourage them to waste instead of effective use of scarce resources.Webb was the bureaucracy is regarded as an ideal type “, ”but now this ideal type is inert, cultivate the progressive, leads to low efficiency, these mediocrity and is believed to be the public sector of the special disease.It is also criticized.Actually, the word “bureaucracy in today's more likely as low efficiency of synonyms.The new public management mode In the 1980s, the public sector is a traditional administrative pattern of new management methods of defects.This method can alleviate some of the problems of traditional pattern, also means that the public sector operation aspects has changed significantly.The new management method has many names: management of ”individualism“, ”the new public administration“, based on the market of public administration ”, after the bureaucracy model “or” entrepreneurial government “.To the late 1990s, people tend to use ”and the concept of new public administration“.Although the new public management, but for many of the names of public management of department of actual changes happened, people still have a consensus.First, no matter what, it is called mode with traditional represents a significant change of public administration, different more attention and managers of the individual responsibility.Second, it is clear to get rid of the classical bureaucracy, thereby organization, personnel, term and conditions more flexible.Third, it stipulates the organization and personnel, and it can target according to the performance indicators measuring task completion.Also, to plan the assessment system for more than ever before, and also can be more strictly determine whether the government plans to achieve its objectives.Fourth, the senior executives are more likely to color with political government work, rather than independent or neutral.Fifth, the more likely the inspection by the market, buyers of public service provider and distinguish ”helmsman, with the rower to distinguish“.Government intervention is not always refers to the government by means of bureaucracy.Sixth, appeared through privatization and market means such as inspection, contract of government function reduce trend.In some cases, it is fundamental.Once happened during the transformation from the important changes to all connected with this, the continuity of the steps are necessary.Holmes and Shand as a useful characteristics of generalization.They put the new public management paradigm, the good as management method has the following features:(1)it is a more strategic or structure of decision-making method(around the efficiency, quality and service).(2)decentralization type management environment replaced concentration level structure.The resource allocation and service delivery closer to supply, we can get more itself from the customers and related information and other interest groups.(3)can be more flexible to replace the method of public products supply directly, so as to provide cost savings of the policy.(4)concerned with the responsibility, authority as the key link of improving performance, including emphasize clear performance contract mechanism.(5)in the public sector, and between internal to create a competitive environment.(6)strengthen the strategic decision-making ability, which can quickly, flexible and low cost to manage multiple interests outside change and the response.(7)by request relevant results and comprehensive cost reports to improve transparency and responsibility.(8)general service budget and management system to support and encourage the change.The new public management and realize a result that no one in the best way.Managers in endowed with responsibility and without being told to get results.Decision is a management job duties, if not for achieving goals, managers should assume responsibility.Conclusion The government management over the past 150 years experienced three modes.First is the personification of modern administrative mode, or when the pattern of its defects and increasingly exposed to improve efficiency, it is the second mode of traditional bureaucracy model is replaced.Similarly, when the traditional administrative mode problems, it is the third model is the new public management, from the government to alternative market.Since 1980s, the dominance of the market as the 1920s to 1960s dominant bureaucracy.In any kind of government, market and bureaucratic system are coexisting, just a form at some stage dominant, and in another stage of another kind of form, the dominant.The new public management is increasingly weakened and bureaucracy in the public administration field market dominant period.In reality, the market and bureaucracy, mutual complement each other.The new public management may not be completely replace the bureaucracy, as in 1989, the eastern Europe before bureaucracy could not instead of the market.But the new public management movement is early traditional bureaucracy, many functions can be and often by market now.In a bureaucracy system for organizational principle is weakened environment, market solutions will be launched.Of course not all market prescription can succeed, but this is not the issue.The government of new public management will be a toolbox dowsed solutions.If the scheme of the ineffective, the government will from the same source for other solutions.The theory behind the government management has already happened, we can use the term ”paradigm" to describe it.In public administration academia, many of the new public management denial of critics.But their criticism of the government reform quickly.In the new public management mode, another a kind of new mode, but certainly not returned to the traditional administrative pattern.