第一篇：室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)中英文翻譯【適用于畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯】

畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)英文資料翻譯

Translation of the English Documents for Graduation Design

課題名稱

院（系）專 業(yè) 姓 名 學(xué) 號(hào) 起訖日期 指導(dǎo)教師

2011 年 02 月 20 日

Interior Design

Susan Yelavich

Interior design embraces not only the decoration and furnishing of space, but also considerations of space planning, lighting, and programmatic issues pertaining to user behaviors, ranging from specific issues of accessibility to the nature of the activities to be conducted in the space.The hallmark of interior design today is a new elasticity in typologies, seen most dramatically in the domestication of commercial and public spaces.Interior design encompasses both the programmatic planning and physical treatment of interior space: the projection of its use and the nature of its furnishings and surfaces, that is, walls, floors, and ceilings.Interior design is distinguished from interior decoration in the scope of its purview.Decorators are primarily concerned with the selection of furnishings, while designers integrate the discrete elements of décor into programmatic concerns of space and use.Interior designers generally practice collaboratively with architects on the interiors of spaces built from the ground up, but they also work independently, particularly in the case of renovations.There is also a strong history of architect-designed interiors, rooted in the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, the total work of art, that came out of the Arts & Crafts movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.It is no accident that its strongest proponents(from Frank Lloyd Wright to Mies van der Rohe)extended their practices to include the realm of interiors during the nascency of the interior-design profession.Indeed, it was a defensive measure taken by architects who viewed formal intervention by an interior decorator or designer as a threat to the integrity of their aesthetic.Today, apart from strict modernists like Richard Meier who place a premium on homogeneity, architects who take on the role of interior designer(and their numbers are growing)are more likely to be eclectic in philosophy and practice, paralleling the twenty-first century's valorization of plurality.Nonetheless, the bias against interior designers and the realm

of the interior itself continues to persist.Critical discussions of the interior have been hampered by its popular perception as a container of ephemera.Furthermore, conventional views of the interior have been fraught with biases: class biases related to centuries-old associations with tradesmen and gender biases related to the depiction of the decorating profession as primarily the domain of women and gay men.As a result, the credibility of the interior as an expression of cultural values has been seriously impaired.However, the conditions and the light in which culture-at-large is understood are changing under the impact of globalization.The distinctions between “high” culture and “l(fā)ow” culture are dissipating in a more tolerant climate that encourages the cross-fertilization between the two poles.Likewise, there are more frequent instances of productive borrowings among architecture, design, and decoration, once considered exclusive domains.And while the fields of architecture, interior design, and interior decoration still have different educational protocols and different concentrations of emphasis, they are showing a greater mutuality of interest.Another way to think of this emergent synthesis is to substitute the triad of “architecture, interior design, and decoration” with “modernity, technology, and history.” One of the hallmarks of the postmodern era is a heightened awareness of the role of the past in shaping the present.In the interior, this manifests itself in a renewed interest in ornament, in evidence of craft and materiality, and in spatial complexities, all running parallel to the ongoing project of modernity.Even more significantly, there is a new elasticity in typologies.Today, the traditional typologies of the interior—house, loft, office, restaurant, and so on—strain to control their borders.Evidence of programmatic convergences can clearly be seen in public and commercial spaces that aspire to be both more user-friendly and consumer-conscious.Growing numbers of private hospitals(in competition for patients)employ amenities and form languages inspired by luxury spas;at the same time, many gyms and health clubs are adopting the clinical mien of medical facilities to convince their clients of the value of their services.The same relaxation of interior protocols can be seen in offices that co-opt the informal, live-work ethic of the artist's loft, and in hotels that use the language(and contents)of galleries.Similarly, increasing numbers of grocery stores and bookstores include spaces and furniture for eating and socializing.Likewise, there is a new comfort with stylistic convergences in interiors that appropriate and recombine disparate quotations from design history.These are exemplified in spaces such as Rem Koolhaas' Casa da Musica(2005)in Porto, Portugal(with its inventive use of traditional Portuguese tiles), and Herzog & de Meuron's Walker Art Center(2005)in Minneapolis, Minnesota(where stylized acanthus-leaf patterns are used to mark gallery entrances).These interiors make an art out of hybridism.They do not simply mix and match period furnishings and styles, but refilter them through a contemporary lens.Another hallmark of the contemporary interior is the overt incorporation of narrative.Tightly themed environments persist in retail spaces such as Ralph Lauren's clothing stores and in entertainment spaces like Las Vegas casinos.However, a more playful and less linear approach to narrative is increasingly common.Of all the typologies of the interior, the residence has been least affected by change, apart from ephemeral trends such as outdoor kitchens and palatial bathrooms.However, the narrative of the residence dominates interior design at large.It has become the catalyst for rethinking a host of spaces once firmly isolated from it, ranging from the secretary's cubicle, to the nurse's station, to the librarian's reading room.Considerations such as the accommodation of personal accessories in the work space, the use of color in hospitals, and the provision of couches in libraries are increasingly common, to cite just three examples.The domestication of such environments(with curtains and wallpaper, among other residential elements)provides more comfort, more reassurance, and more pleasure to domains formerly defined by institutional prohibitions and social exclusions.Unquestionably, these changes in public and commercial spaces are indebted to the liberation movements of the late 1960s.The battles fought against barriers of race, class, gender, and physical ability laid the groundwork for a larger climate of hospitality and accommodation.It is also possible to detect a wholly other agenda in the popularity of the residential model.The introduction of domestic amenities into commercial spaces, such as recreation spaces in office interiors, can also be construed as part of a wider attempt to put a more acceptable face on the workings of free-market capitalism.In this view, interior design dons the mask of entertainment.There is nothing new about the charade.Every interior is fundamentally a stage set.Nor is it particularly insidious—as long as the conceit is transparent.Danger surfaces，however, when illusion becomes delusion—when design overcompensates for the realities of illness with patronizing sentiment, or when offices become surrogate apartments because of the relentless demands of a round-the-clock economy.In these instances, design relinquishes its potential to transform daily life in favor of what amounts to little more than a facile re-branding of space.Another force is driving the domestication of the interior and that is the enlarged public awareness of design and designers.There is a growing popular demand for design as amenity and status symbol, stimulated by the proliferation of shelter magazines, television shows devoted to home decorating, and the advertising campaigns of commercial entities such as Target and Ikea.In the Western world, prosperity, combined with the appetite of the media, has all but fetishized the interior, yielding yet another reflection of the narcissism of a consumer-driven society.On the one hand, there are positive, democratic outcomes of the growing public profile of design that can be seen in the rise of do-it-yourself web sites and enterprises like Home Depot that emphasize self-reliance.It can also be argued, more generally, that the reconsideration of beauty implicit in the valorization of design is an ameliorating social phenomenon by virtue of its propensity to inspire improvement.On the other hand, the popularization of interior design through personas such as Philippe Starck, Martha Stewart, and Barbara Barry has encouraged a superficial understanding of the interior that is more focused on objects than it is on behaviors and interactions among objects.For all the recent explosion of interest in interior design, it remains, however, a fundamentally conservative arena of design, rooted as it is in notions of enclosure, security, and comfort.This perception has been exacerbated by the growth of specialized practices focused, for example, on healthcare and hospitality.While such firms offer deep knowledge of the psychology, mechanics, and economies of particular environments, they also perpetuate distinctions that hinder a more integral approach to the interior as an extension of architecture and even the landscape outside.One notable exception is the growth of design and architecture firms accruing expertise in sustainable materials and their applications to the interior.At the same time that design firms are identifying themselves with sustainability and promoting themselves as environmentalists, a movement is building to incorporate environmental responsibility within normative practice.Over the past four decades, efforts have intensified to professionalize the field of interior design and to accord it a status equal to that of architecture.In the US and Canada the Council for Interior Design Accreditation, formerly known as FIDER, reviews interior design education programs at colleges and universities to regulate standards of practice.Furthermore, the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design(ICSID)embraces interior design within its purview, defining it as part of “intellectual profession, and not simply a trade or a service for enterprises.”

Yet, the education of interior designers remains tremendously variable, with no uniformity of pedagogy.Hence, interior design continues to be perceived as an arena open to the specialist and the amateur.This perception is indicative of both the relatively short history of the profession itself and the broader cultural forces of inclusion and interactivity that mark a global society.原文來源：

Board of International Research in Design，Design Dictionary Perspectives on Design Terminology，Birkh?user Verlag AG 2008

第二篇：室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)在環(huán)境上可持續(xù)的實(shí)踐

摘要：本文旨在探討在現(xiàn)代室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)準(zhǔn)則未保障環(huán)境可持續(xù)發(fā)展的前提下，室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師如何運(yùn)用促使環(huán)境可持續(xù)的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)方案。為了給可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)的教育戰(zhàn)略提供基礎(chǔ)，本文研究環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)的實(shí)踐。

關(guān)鍵詞：可持續(xù)發(fā)展；可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)；室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)實(shí)踐

1引言

目前，室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師已經(jīng)認(rèn)識(shí)到可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)的重要性，開始著手解決環(huán)境問題。盡管一些室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師在設(shè)計(jì)中采用環(huán)保的解決方案，但研究、探討在還未完成它的可持續(xù)發(fā)展設(shè)計(jì)準(zhǔn)則時(shí)這些方案如何作為設(shè)計(jì)組件而適用。這一實(shí)踐將為可持續(xù)發(fā)展的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)教育戰(zhàn)略提供基礎(chǔ)。室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)教育工作者會(huì)鑒別不常用的可持續(xù)設(shè)計(jì)元件，發(fā)展提高對(duì)具體元件認(rèn)識(shí)的教學(xué)方法，同時(shí)繼續(xù)教育課程也可開發(fā)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)從業(yè)者。因此，本研究探討環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)的實(shí)踐。

1．1環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)

室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)已被定義為創(chuàng)造性問題的解決過程：一個(gè)具有創(chuàng)造性、建設(shè)性行為的過程。它是一種有意識(shí)的思考過程，將學(xué)術(shù)知識(shí)與想象力結(jié)合在一起。其設(shè)計(jì)過程可以被看作是一系列的步驟或階段順序，既有傳統(tǒng)的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)方法，也包括利用規(guī)劃、原理圖設(shè)計(jì)、設(shè)計(jì)開發(fā)、合同文件和合同管理等可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)，在設(shè)計(jì)完成之前，我們需要在各階段都花心思。在傳統(tǒng)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)準(zhǔn)則中，室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師創(chuàng)造、發(fā)展、交流那些具有功能性和審美情趣的室內(nèi)環(huán)境解決方案。室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師通過這個(gè)過程以求達(dá)到功能性質(zhì)量的室內(nèi)空間，并為人類的感官提供美學(xué)感受。在室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)工程中，成本是做決定時(shí)另一重要的方面。然而，環(huán)境問題和支持環(huán)境可持續(xù)設(shè)計(jì)的需求已經(jīng)納入了傳統(tǒng)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)準(zhǔn)則的范圍內(nèi)。

研究表明在傳統(tǒng)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)準(zhǔn)則中，裝潢材料主要根據(jù)客戶的喜好、需求、美學(xué)和成本二選擇，材料對(duì)環(huán)境的影響并未視為像其他選擇標(biāo)準(zhǔn)同等重要。室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師在選擇材料是往往根據(jù)制造商的銷售資料而很少尋找相互矛盾的信息。許多室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師對(duì)材料性能影響環(huán)境的知識(shí)只有有限認(rèn)識(shí)。對(duì)于設(shè)計(jì)的發(fā)展，環(huán)境問題在室內(nèi)材料和產(chǎn)品的選擇和說明中是尤為重要的。

能否實(shí)現(xiàn)可持續(xù)發(fā)展, 重視創(chuàng)造環(huán)境可持續(xù)發(fā)展的設(shè)計(jì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)等因素是十分重要的，但這并不意味著可以忽視其他傳統(tǒng)的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。環(huán)境、經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)必須長(zhǎng)期彼此保持平衡，可持續(xù)發(fā)展。盡管就像Firey所說，是什么構(gòu)筑了可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)沒有單方面的定義，但在環(huán)境、經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)中存在連續(xù)的權(quán)衡和談判。因此，本文旨在將可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)定義為一種將所有系統(tǒng)和材料與整體效果相結(jié)合的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)，以求減少對(duì)環(huán)境和居住者的負(fù)面影響，增加建筑物對(duì)環(huán)境、經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)的積極作用。但是需指出目前環(huán)境問題在設(shè)計(jì)過程階段還為有

重要影響。

2材料和方法

2．1研究和樣本

通過一個(gè)以互聯(lián)網(wǎng)為基礎(chǔ)、全國(guó)范圍的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)從業(yè)人員調(diào)查，來檢查國(guó)家環(huán)境可持續(xù)發(fā)展的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)實(shí)踐。本研究是針對(duì)專業(yè)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)機(jī)構(gòu)即美國(guó)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)所的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)從業(yè)人員。美國(guó)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)所是全球室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師及室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)行業(yè)的領(lǐng)先專業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)。美國(guó)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)所擁有超過四萬名會(huì)員，由2萬名室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師、學(xué)生和產(chǎn)業(yè)的合作伙伴組成。本研究樣品從美國(guó)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)所的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師（特別是其電子郵件地址是可行的設(shè)計(jì)師）中抽選。美國(guó)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)所中大約65%的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師使用電子郵件。會(huì)員郵件列表并未包含個(gè)人或?qū)I(yè)信息，考慮到反應(yīng)率而確定樣本的取樣，此樣本隨機(jī)選擇。

2．2調(diào)查內(nèi)容

此次調(diào)查信息來自于同一時(shí)段，問卷共提出了35個(gè)問題，包括設(shè)計(jì)師的信息、環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)實(shí)踐等。為了減低問卷的模糊率，初稿事先測(cè)試了20名室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)從業(yè)人員，并根據(jù)結(jié)果修改問卷，同時(shí)最后結(jié)果將事先的統(tǒng)計(jì)排除在外。

調(diào)查問卷的格式采用封閉式的問題，也就是些眾所周知的問題，要求受訪者在研究員提供的方案中選擇形式和尺度。問卷的開頭是說明，下面分為兩個(gè)部分。

第一部分是真實(shí)的多項(xiàng)選擇題了解被訪者的個(gè)人信息和專業(yè)證書。個(gè)人信息包括就業(yè)和實(shí)踐的地區(qū)。第二部分集中在環(huán)境可持續(xù)發(fā)展的室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)實(shí)踐活動(dòng)。這一部分的問題以能源、環(huán)境設(shè)計(jì)的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)階層(LEED)綠色建筑等級(jí)系統(tǒng)和明尼蘇達(dá)州的狀態(tài)可持續(xù)發(fā)展建筑方針而發(fā)展。

2．3環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)

在建筑物使用期限內(nèi)，最大限度地減少室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)在環(huán)境系統(tǒng)的消極影響，增大其積極作用。

2．4室內(nèi)環(huán)境質(zhì)量

提供一個(gè)生理和心理健康的室內(nèi)環(huán)境。

2．5室內(nèi)材料

利用室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)材料，減少資源浪費(fèi)及其對(duì)環(huán)境的影響。室內(nèi)環(huán)境質(zhì)量報(bào)表包括九項(xiàng)特征，包括四項(xiàng)室內(nèi)空氣質(zhì)量特征和五項(xiàng)人類幸福特征。

2.5.1室內(nèi)空氣質(zhì)量

滿足室內(nèi)空氣質(zhì)量的最低要求；避免房屋使用者產(chǎn)生環(huán)境煙霧；防止在建設(shè)和改造過程中產(chǎn)生室內(nèi)空氣質(zhì)量問題；指定環(huán)保的材料和家具。

2.5.2人類幸福

提供一個(gè)高水平的對(duì)制熱、通風(fēng)和照明的獨(dú)立控制；提供適當(dāng)?shù)闹茻釛l件；通過引入陽(yáng)光和景觀，將室內(nèi)空間和外部環(huán)境聯(lián)系起來；提供適當(dāng)?shù)恼彰鳁l件，并將這些條件通過節(jié)能的方法控制起來；提供適當(dāng)?shù)穆晫W(xué)條件。

室內(nèi)材料具有十四項(xiàng)基于生命周期的特征，包括三項(xiàng)減少輸入、四項(xiàng)管理輸出和七項(xiàng)生命周期設(shè)計(jì)的特征。

2.5.2.1減少輸入

盡可能減少材料使用的數(shù)量；促進(jìn)材料分解，以便循環(huán)和重復(fù)使用；詳細(xì)說明新舊材料。

2.5.2.2管理輸出

發(fā)展和執(zhí)行一個(gè)管理廢舊材料的計(jì)劃；減少并循環(huán)利用廢舊包裹；提供一個(gè)方便材料分類、收集和儲(chǔ)存的區(qū)域。

2.5.2.3生命周期設(shè)計(jì)

詳細(xì)說明循環(huán)利用的材料；詳細(xì)說明當(dāng)?shù)刂圃斓牟牧?；詳?xì)說明可快速再生的材料；詳細(xì)說明木質(zhì)材料，以便對(duì)森林管理負(fù)責(zé)；詳細(xì)說明持久、耐用的材料；詳細(xì)說明可重復(fù)使用、循環(huán)利用和生物降解的材料；詳細(xì)說明低生命周期影響的室內(nèi)材料。

為了每份報(bào)表，要求受訪者根據(jù)當(dāng)前的規(guī)模把它評(píng)價(jià)為三大類，分類根據(jù)運(yùn)用的頻率，對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)師以及設(shè)計(jì)師所在公司起作用。

2．6 數(shù)據(jù)收集及分析

使用郵件或互聯(lián)網(wǎng)調(diào)查是為了迅速覆蓋更多的區(qū)域，他們通過可靠的網(wǎng)絡(luò)管理工具回答管理報(bào)告。這個(gè)研究的電子郵件通過發(fā)放樣品，再讓他們到指定的網(wǎng)站來完成調(diào)查。為了獲得高的反應(yīng)率，將有三封郵件，一封初始郵件，兩周時(shí)候?qū)⒂械诙忄]件，第三封郵件將作為提示完成問卷進(jìn)行發(fā)送，最后使用描述性統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)分析研究。此次統(tǒng)計(jì)分布在室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師的特點(diǎn)和環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)實(shí)踐的中心趨向的頻率和比例上。

3討論

室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師認(rèn)為環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)是重要的，但并不總是把它付諸實(shí)踐。環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)將不被運(yùn)用于室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)工程中是有不同原因的。需要努力獲取知識(shí)并將環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)用于工程中將是很浪費(fèi)時(shí)間和壓力的項(xiàng)目計(jì)劃。室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師可能會(huì)認(rèn)為可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)需要額外的室內(nèi)環(huán)境系統(tǒng)及材質(zhì)，為此將會(huì)付出更高的代價(jià)。但是，如果顧客不要求或不熟悉這樣的方法，結(jié)果將會(huì)不同，顧客將會(huì)被鼓勵(lì)使用環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)解決方案。

這次調(diào)查研究顯示，可持續(xù)室內(nèi)材料在環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)組件上的運(yùn)用比在室內(nèi)環(huán)境質(zhì)量上運(yùn)用的更少。它同樣表明室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師還未意識(shí)到環(huán)境問題已經(jīng)關(guān)系到室內(nèi)材料的整個(gè)生命周期。因此，提高對(duì)可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)重要性以及室內(nèi)材料對(duì)整個(gè)生命周期影響的意識(shí)的教學(xué)方法對(duì)裝潢材料類本科生和在繼續(xù)教育課程的實(shí)踐者都是十分必要的。

此次研究將會(huì)成為激勵(lì)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)從業(yè)者去進(jìn)行環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)實(shí)踐的決定因素。研究表明，雖然室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師認(rèn)為環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)十分重要，但是他在室內(nèi)工程中的運(yùn)用卻沒有達(dá)到認(rèn)知的同等水平。決定為什么室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師有將環(huán)境特征運(yùn)用到他們的設(shè)計(jì)世界的動(dòng)

機(jī)的原因?qū)?huì)直接促進(jìn)環(huán)境可持續(xù)發(fā)展的實(shí)踐。雖然室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師已經(jīng)意識(shí)到環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)的重要性，但是考慮到可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)的花費(fèi)又使他們氣餒。這項(xiàng)調(diào)查研究被設(shè)計(jì)成環(huán)境與經(jīng)濟(jì)研究可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)的統(tǒng)一體?？沙掷m(xù)裝潢材料，是一種不常見的環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)用組件，通過綠色項(xiàng)目裝潢材料的實(shí)例才能進(jìn)行。如果這種實(shí)踐的優(yōu)勢(shì)更加明顯，環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)實(shí)踐的特征也許才能更廣泛地應(yīng)用。這項(xiàng)研究工程被設(shè)計(jì)成用來考察和分析那些表明使用環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)方法底線的數(shù)據(jù)。

4結(jié)論

雖然室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)師承認(rèn)環(huán)境可持續(xù)設(shè)計(jì)的重要性，但它在室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)工程中的應(yīng)用并沒有達(dá)到它重要性認(rèn)知的同等水平?？沙掷m(xù)裝飾材料在環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)組件上的運(yùn)用比在室內(nèi)空氣質(zhì)量和人類幸福上運(yùn)用的更少。在室內(nèi)空氣質(zhì)量、環(huán)境煙草上的控制是最常見的應(yīng)用特點(diǎn)，而低揮發(fā)材料的使用是最少的。隨著系統(tǒng)可控性越來越少被使用，相對(duì)地，在人類幸福、獲得日光和景觀、有效的照明、適當(dāng)?shù)穆晫W(xué)控制和熱舒適性方面的應(yīng)用越來越常見。在減少輸入方面，減少材料的使用是最常見的應(yīng)用特點(diǎn)；在管理輸出方面，減少和處置危險(xiǎn)廢物是最常見的；在生命周期設(shè)計(jì)中，常見的是堅(jiān)固耐用、本地材料。然而，建筑廢物管理、低生命周期影響的材料是可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)最不常見的應(yīng)用特點(diǎn)。

更多有關(guān)環(huán)境型、經(jīng)濟(jì)型和社會(huì)型可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)的研究，有助于進(jìn)一步改良可持續(xù)設(shè)計(jì)的知識(shí)主體。了解國(guó)家環(huán)境可持續(xù)室內(nèi)設(shè)計(jì)是十分重要的，這項(xiàng)研究已經(jīng)為此作出一份貢獻(xiàn)。

第三篇：食品安全外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯(適用于畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯+中英文對(duì)照)

w 論食品供應(yīng)鏈管理和食品質(zhì)量安全

上世紀(jì)90年代以來,供應(yīng)鏈管理已成為學(xué)術(shù)界和實(shí)業(yè)界關(guān)注的熱門話題,特別是供應(yīng)鏈管理成功地應(yīng)用于IBM、P&G、DELL 等公司的經(jīng)營(yíng)管理以后,食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品行業(yè)也紛紛效仿并借助供應(yīng)鏈管理這一工具來提高自身的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力。1996年,Zuurbier等學(xué)者在一般供應(yīng)鏈的基礎(chǔ)上，首次提出了食品供應(yīng)鏈概念，并認(rèn)為食品供應(yīng)鏈管理是農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品生產(chǎn)銷售等組織,為了降低食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品物流成本、提高其質(zhì)量安全和物流服務(wù)水平而進(jìn)行的垂直一體化運(yùn)作模式。如今,在美國(guó)、英國(guó)、加拿大和荷蘭等農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)較為發(fā)達(dá)的國(guó)家,這一管理模式已經(jīng)廣為應(yīng)用,并逐漸成為當(dāng)今學(xué)術(shù)研究的重點(diǎn)課題。

對(duì)食品供應(yīng)鏈管理的研究大致經(jīng)歷了三個(gè)階段：第一階段為商流管理階段，研究范圍包括農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品加工企業(yè)的產(chǎn)出到消費(fèi)者消費(fèi)前的商流階段，其研究?jī)?nèi)容通常被包含在營(yíng)銷范疇內(nèi)；第二階段為集成物流管理階段，農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的物流管理從市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷中分離出來，且向上游擴(kuò)展到農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品生產(chǎn)企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)加工過程，強(qiáng)調(diào)生產(chǎn)應(yīng)以市場(chǎng)需求為導(dǎo)向和對(duì)整個(gè)物流環(huán)節(jié)的成本控制；第三階段為供應(yīng)鏈一體化管理階段，研究范圍進(jìn)一步向上游延伸到農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的最上游企業(yè)(如種子供應(yīng)商等)，延伸的目的是為了跟蹤和追溯農(nóng)產(chǎn)品食品質(zhì)量安全問題，以便快速和有效地發(fā)現(xiàn)并解決問題。本文介紹了不同食品供應(yīng)鏈的生產(chǎn)物流系統(tǒng)特點(diǎn)，并對(duì)食品供應(yīng)鏈與食品質(zhì)量安全管理的發(fā)展進(jìn)行了分析和探討。

一．食品供應(yīng)鏈管理的產(chǎn)生原因

近年來，食品供應(yīng)鏈的產(chǎn)生和發(fā)展是人們對(duì)食品消費(fèi)的要求不斷提高的必然結(jié)果。具體而言，產(chǎn)生的原因主要有：(1)消費(fèi)者對(duì)食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的新鮮度要求越來越高，并要求食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品交貨期、生產(chǎn)期越短越好。(2)消費(fèi)者對(duì)食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量要求也越來越高，迫使食品生產(chǎn)企業(yè)實(shí)行食品供應(yīng)鏈管理，以保證穩(wěn)定的上游原料供應(yīng)和下游的銷售渠道暢通。(3)消費(fèi)者對(duì)食品的質(zhì)量安全也越來越關(guān)注。為了滿足消費(fèi)者對(duì)食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品在種類和數(shù)量上的要求，企業(yè)不斷尋求和研發(fā)新技術(shù)，而新技術(shù)和新方法的過度使用(如殺蟲劑、激素、抗生素和轉(zhuǎn)

w 基因技術(shù)等)，在滿足了消費(fèi)者需求的同時(shí)，也不可避免地對(duì)人體產(chǎn)生了危害從而引起食品質(zhì)量安全問題。這是因?yàn)槭袌?chǎng)中買賣雙方信息不對(duì)稱,消費(fèi)者在購(gòu)買食品或農(nóng)產(chǎn)品時(shí)，不了解產(chǎn)品的衛(wèi)生、環(huán)保和安全信息。因此，企業(yè)有必要在生產(chǎn)過程的各個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)對(duì)產(chǎn)品進(jìn)行檢驗(yàn)和檢測(cè)并及時(shí)向消費(fèi)者披露這些信息。(4)食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品企業(yè)迫于政府、相關(guān)社會(huì)組織和消費(fèi)者的要求和壓力，不得不按食品供應(yīng)鏈來進(jìn)行運(yùn)作。例如，歐盟管理法規(guī)第178號(hào)規(guī)定，從2004年起在歐盟范圍內(nèi)銷售的所有食品，都要實(shí)行食品供應(yīng)鏈跟蹤與追溯；同樣在美國(guó)，食品與藥品管理局規(guī)定，在美國(guó)國(guó)內(nèi)外從事食品生產(chǎn)、加工和包裝等的部門以及相關(guān)組織，在2003年12月12日前要向食品與藥品管理局進(jìn)行登記，以便進(jìn)行食品安全跟蹤與追溯，未登記者就不許從事食品生產(chǎn)和銷售。由此可見，食品供應(yīng)鏈管理是在市場(chǎng)內(nèi)在動(dòng)力和政府外在壓力的情況下促成的。

二．食品供應(yīng)鏈生產(chǎn)物流系統(tǒng)

食品供應(yīng)鏈的形成是與其物流系統(tǒng)的內(nèi)容不斷變化密切相關(guān)的,特別是在食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)物流系統(tǒng)不斷演變的情況下,為人們創(chuàng)建高效率的食品供應(yīng)鏈管理范式提供了基礎(chǔ)。根據(jù)食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品物流的發(fā)展階段,典型的食品供應(yīng)鏈可劃分為啞鈴型、T型、對(duì)稱型和混合型四種類型。

1.啞鈴型食品供應(yīng)鏈。這種類型的食品供應(yīng)鏈嚴(yán)格來說是一種準(zhǔn)供應(yīng)鏈。它的特點(diǎn)是供應(yīng)鏈較短,連接位于兩端的交易主體很多,而中間鏈節(jié)少且交易主體也較少，呈現(xiàn)為啞鈴型。由于上游生產(chǎn)者擁有的技術(shù)條件較差、產(chǎn)量低和品種少，故上游聚集了為數(shù)眾多的農(nóng)產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)者；同時(shí)，由于產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)地離市場(chǎng)較近且只提供單一農(nóng)產(chǎn)品，也又使得鏈中參與交易的主體大多為農(nóng)產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)者，他們?cè)谑袌?chǎng)上進(jìn)行直接交易，而少有聯(lián)系生產(chǎn)者和消費(fèi)者之間的中間商，因此，種植業(yè)者直接將食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品銷售給消費(fèi)者。在發(fā)展中國(guó)家,特別是靠近城鎮(zhèn)地區(qū)的蔬菜供應(yīng),一般都采用這種類型的供應(yīng)鏈。

2.T型食品供應(yīng)鏈。這種類型的食品供應(yīng)鏈一般適用于食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)地和銷售地相距較遠(yuǎn)，消費(fèi)需求差異較大的情況。由于農(nóng)產(chǎn)品易腐爛，農(nóng)產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)者不可能直接銷售自己的產(chǎn)品,需要通過必要的中間商提供服務(wù),如第三方物流、農(nóng)產(chǎn)品深加工商和批發(fā)商等所提供的相應(yīng)服務(wù)。這種類型的供應(yīng)鏈，上游聚

w 集了較多的農(nóng)產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)者,而在中游環(huán)節(jié)對(duì)產(chǎn)地生產(chǎn)情況比較了解,又在銷售地占有一定渠道優(yōu)勢(shì)的銷售商卻較少。因此,T型食品供應(yīng)鏈的上游種植業(yè)者眾多,而中下游中間商和銷售商較少且集中,供應(yīng)鏈的形狀呈現(xiàn)為 T型。與啞鈴型食品供應(yīng)鏈相比,它的鏈條較長(zhǎng),食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的銷售表現(xiàn)為間接性和增值服務(wù)性。這種類型的食品供應(yīng)鏈在中國(guó)較為普遍，在中國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)化不發(fā)達(dá)的地區(qū),由于缺乏一端連接上游農(nóng)戶，另一端聯(lián)結(jié)銷售市場(chǎng)、專門從事農(nóng)產(chǎn)品加工的龍頭企業(yè)以及相應(yīng)的中間環(huán)節(jié)，農(nóng)產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)往往和市場(chǎng)需求相脫節(jié)。因此T型食品供應(yīng)鏈由于中間環(huán)節(jié)缺位和低水平的物流運(yùn)作，易出現(xiàn)上游農(nóng)戶盲目生產(chǎn)而下游農(nóng)產(chǎn)品銷售困難的現(xiàn)象。

3.對(duì)稱型食品供應(yīng)鏈。隨著新興銷售業(yè)態(tài)的出現(xiàn),銷售渠道日益被大型專業(yè)市場(chǎng)和超市所壟斷,農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品的傳統(tǒng)銷售形式也被超市所取代,而且這種趨勢(shì)越來越明顯,同時(shí)由于技術(shù)水平的提高,農(nóng)產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)也趨向于由少數(shù)種植商集約經(jīng)營(yíng)。Boselie.D通過對(duì)泰國(guó)皇家阿荷生鮮超市食品供應(yīng)鏈管理的調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn),曼谷有50%的食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品是在大型超市(如7-

11、皇家阿荷、家樂福、Sainsburry和TESCO)售出的。這些大型超市為了滿足市場(chǎng)對(duì)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品品質(zhì)一致性和供應(yīng)穩(wěn)定性的要求，對(duì)供應(yīng)商進(jìn)行了嚴(yán)格的篩選。因此，皇家阿荷生鮮超市實(shí)施食品供應(yīng)鏈管理后，將供應(yīng)商從原來的250家減少為60家左右，使物流系統(tǒng)更加高效和簡(jiǎn)潔。隨著上游農(nóng)產(chǎn)品供應(yīng)商數(shù)目的銳減和超市連鎖店的不斷擴(kuò)張，這種食品供應(yīng)鏈的上游供應(yīng)商與下游超市連鎖店的數(shù)目呈現(xiàn)對(duì)稱增長(zhǎng)之態(tài)勢(shì)。在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家及物流發(fā)展較為成熟的大城市里，這種食品供應(yīng)鏈經(jīng)常表現(xiàn)為集中采購(gòu)、統(tǒng)一流通配送和減少不增值的物流環(huán)節(jié),以實(shí)現(xiàn)節(jié)約成本的精益物流戰(zhàn)略。

4.混合型食品供應(yīng)鏈。隨著市場(chǎng)食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品消費(fèi)需求的多樣化，食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品加工的比重也在逐步提高。據(jù)有關(guān)統(tǒng)計(jì)表明，美國(guó)2002未加工和加工蔬菜的比例為15%和85%；水果為30%和70%。其他國(guó)家的情況也大致如此。大型超市為了適應(yīng)消費(fèi)需求的顯著變化，將原先由獨(dú)立企業(yè)從事的專業(yè)化生產(chǎn)的增值環(huán)節(jié)進(jìn)行“內(nèi)部化”，專門建立大型加工及配送中心，對(duì)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品進(jìn)行清洗、分類、深度加工、包裝和配送等增值業(yè)務(wù)，同時(shí)通過在大型加工中心實(shí)施HACCP和GMP加工質(zhì)量和衛(wèi)生安全認(rèn)證，來保證食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的品質(zhì)安全。這個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)是前述三個(gè)食品供應(yīng)鏈中所沒有的，這是大型超市和連鎖店對(duì)市場(chǎng)需求作出快速反

w 應(yīng)的結(jié)果。隨著上游供應(yīng)商實(shí)力和優(yōu)勢(shì)的增強(qiáng)，加工中心的部分功能，如清洗、分類和深度加工等環(huán)節(jié)又向供應(yīng)商回流，使得加工中心的重點(diǎn)放在處理和不斷擴(kuò)大的農(nóng)產(chǎn)品數(shù)量和種類業(yè)務(wù)上。因此，這種食品供應(yīng)鏈?zhǔn)且环N綜合型、多品種、大批量和多頻次的混合型供應(yīng)鏈體系。這種食品供應(yīng)鏈更關(guān)注消費(fèi)者的滿意度，通過加工中心來對(duì)市場(chǎng)需求作出快速反應(yīng)，并實(shí)時(shí)對(duì)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品進(jìn)行“量身定制”和深度加工，以實(shí)現(xiàn)不同于精益物流的靈捷物流戰(zhàn)略。

三．食品供應(yīng)鏈跟蹤與食品質(zhì)量安全

近年來，由于食品供應(yīng)鏈合作的重點(diǎn)由原來的保證供貨質(zhì)量逐步轉(zhuǎn)向加強(qiáng)食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量安全，如瘋牛病、口蹄疫和轉(zhuǎn)基因食品等的出現(xiàn)。農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品質(zhì)量安全的跟蹤離不開食品供應(yīng)鏈管理，因此基于質(zhì)量安全的食品供應(yīng)鏈跟蹤成了食品供應(yīng)鏈管理的重點(diǎn)和難點(diǎn)。Golan.E等通過對(duì)美國(guó)生鮮農(nóng)產(chǎn)品、谷類和油菜以及牛肉制品的調(diào)查研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，三者經(jīng)食品供應(yīng)鏈跟蹤后，在食品質(zhì)量安全方面出現(xiàn)了很大的差異。而分析這些差異，他們又發(fā)現(xiàn)三種農(nóng)產(chǎn)品食品供應(yīng)鏈管理的共性，即存在三種驅(qū)動(dòng)力。這也是企業(yè)實(shí)施食品供應(yīng)鏈管理時(shí)需要分析考察的問題：

1.有利于食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品差別化營(yíng)銷，以提高食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的銷量。通過那些細(xì)小的或不能直接發(fā)現(xiàn)的食品質(zhì)量安全的特性，可區(qū)別不同類型的農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品。因?yàn)樵谑称泛娃r(nóng)產(chǎn)品市場(chǎng)上不僅存在大量單一的谷類和肉類產(chǎn)品，而且也有根據(jù)消費(fèi)者不同的偏好和口味量身定制的食品。有些農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品的質(zhì)量可能容易判別，而另一些則不容易直接判別，甚至在消費(fèi)之后也不能馬上發(fā)現(xiàn)其質(zhì)量問題。例如，轉(zhuǎn)基因食用油，如未進(jìn)行標(biāo)識(shí)，消費(fèi)者就很難判別食用油是否由非轉(zhuǎn)基因大豆加工而成。因此，對(duì)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品的安全質(zhì)量和品質(zhì)進(jìn)行細(xì)分，是差別化營(yíng)銷的必要前提。

2.有利于農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品質(zhì)量安全的跟蹤，減少食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品召回成本。許多企業(yè)已利用食品供應(yīng)鏈跟蹤系統(tǒng)，來最大限度地減少食品安全體系缺陷可能造成的潛在損失。供應(yīng)商通常有著很強(qiáng)的經(jīng)濟(jì)驅(qū)動(dòng)性，當(dāng)發(fā)現(xiàn)食品有安全隱患和質(zhì)量問題時(shí)，他們往往會(huì)采取措施，避免食品質(zhì)量安全問題給企業(yè)自身或品牌帶來負(fù)面的影響?；谑称饭?yīng)鏈的跟蹤能幫助企業(yè)縮短確認(rèn)和清理有問題食品的時(shí)

w 間，為此，國(guó)外許多企業(yè)將相關(guān)標(biāo)識(shí)信息揭示在食品包裝上，以便利消費(fèi)者的識(shí)別和認(rèn)定。例如，在美國(guó)大多數(shù)要求召回的食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品都被公布在美國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)部食品安全和檢驗(yàn)服務(wù)的官方網(wǎng)站上，以便消費(fèi)者根據(jù)食品包裝的標(biāo)識(shí)信息來判定有問題的食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品。有些企業(yè)則通過使用先進(jìn)RSS條碼系統(tǒng)和EAN/UCC全球統(tǒng)一標(biāo)識(shí)系統(tǒng)，更為具體地揭示食品供應(yīng)鏈的標(biāo)識(shí)信息，如每種產(chǎn)品的種子、施肥、使用抗生素的情況、生產(chǎn)時(shí)間、生產(chǎn)線、生產(chǎn)地、生產(chǎn)所使用的技術(shù)和生產(chǎn)次序，等等。因此某種產(chǎn)品一旦出現(xiàn)問題，這些標(biāo)識(shí)信息將能夠發(fā)揮很大的作用。

目前，歐盟已經(jīng)采用EAN/UCC系統(tǒng)，成功地開展了對(duì)牛肉、蔬菜等食品追蹤的研究。通過采用EAN/UCC-128條碼符號(hào)、GLN(全球位置碼)可以對(duì)食品供應(yīng)鏈全過程中的產(chǎn)品及其屬性信息和參與方信息等進(jìn)行有效的標(biāo)識(shí)。在對(duì)食品跟蹤與追溯時(shí)，要求供應(yīng)鏈中的每一道加工環(huán)節(jié)，不僅要對(duì)自己所加工完成的產(chǎn)品進(jìn)行標(biāo)識(shí)，還要采集所需加工的食品原料上的已有標(biāo)識(shí)信息，并將其全部信息標(biāo)識(shí)在加工完成的產(chǎn)品上，以備下一道加工環(huán)節(jié)或消費(fèi)者使用，從而有效地解決了供應(yīng)鏈各環(huán)節(jié)之間的聯(lián)系比較脆弱、實(shí)施跟蹤和追溯難度大的問題，也為企業(yè)減少因缺乏明確信息而將混在優(yōu)質(zhì)食品中的劣質(zhì)食品連同優(yōu)質(zhì)食品一同處理的可能性。

3.有利于提高和改善供應(yīng)方的物流管理。對(duì)于企業(yè)來說，管理生產(chǎn)物流和跟蹤相關(guān)零售信息(如條形碼)，能幫助企業(yè)了解其食品供應(yīng)鏈的物流流出狀況，以便對(duì)供應(yīng)鏈上游物流的流入進(jìn)行有效管理。特別是有些企業(yè)采用了基于質(zhì)量安全的食品供應(yīng)鏈的高新技術(shù)追溯系統(tǒng)，如農(nóng)場(chǎng)主使用電子耳標(biāo)識(shí)和相關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)收集卡來跟蹤食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的免疫記錄、健康記錄和飼養(yǎng)記錄等。這些食品供應(yīng)鏈的信息也能使食品或農(nóng)產(chǎn)品在市場(chǎng)上獲得與其質(zhì)量相符的價(jià)格。

然而，對(duì)所有食品和農(nóng)產(chǎn)品都實(shí)施食品供應(yīng)鏈的質(zhì)量安全跟蹤是沒有必要的。Van Weele根據(jù)市場(chǎng)對(duì)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品和食品信息的需求，確定食品供應(yīng)鏈信息跟蹤的寬度、深度和精度。同理，企業(yè)對(duì)食品供應(yīng)鏈信息跟蹤的寬度、深度和精度也反映出其對(duì)基于質(zhì)量安全的食品供應(yīng)鏈的成本和收益的一種綜合取向。因?yàn)樾畔⒏櫟膶挾取⑸疃群途葲Q定著企業(yè)整合食品供應(yīng)鏈的投入和成本。只有當(dāng)收益大于成本時(shí)，企業(yè)所選擇的寬度、深度和精度才是實(shí)施供應(yīng)鏈質(zhì)量安全跟蹤的動(dòng)力和保證。

w Discussion on food supply chain management and food quality and safety

Since the 1990s, supply chain management has become the academic and business circles hot topic, especially in supply chain management successfully applied to IBM, P & G, DELL, etc.after the company's management, food and agricultural industries have followed suit and Supply chain management with a tool to improve their competitiveness.1996, Zuurbier and other scholars in general, on the basis of the supply chain, first proposed the concept of the food supply chain, and that the food supply chain management of agricultural and food production and marketing organization, food and agricultural products in order to reduce logistics costs and improve its quality and safety and logistics service level and for vertical integration mode of operation.Now, in the U.S., UK, Canada and the Netherlands and other more developed countries, agricultural production, this management model has been widely used, and gradually become the focus of academic research project.The food supply chain management research has gone through three stages: the first stage of the business flow management phase, the study of agricultural products and food processing enterprises, including the output of consumer spending to business before the flow phase, the content of their research is often included In the marketing context;the second stage of integrated logistics management phase, agricultural marketing, logistics management separate from, and to extend to the upstream producers of agricultural and food production process, emphasizing the production should be based on market demand and cost control throughout the supply chain;the third stage of supply chain integration management phase, the study extends further upstream to the most upstream agricultural enterprises(such as seed suppliers, etc.), the purpose is to extend the tracking and tracing of food quality and safety of

w agricultural products issues in order to quickly and effectively identify and solve problems.This article describes the production of different food supply chain logistics system characteristics, and the food supply chain management with the development of food quality and safety are analyzed and discussed.One.Food causes of supply chain management In recent years, the food supply chain, production and development of people's increasing demands for food consumption, the inevitable result.Specifically, the causes are:(1)the consumer fresh food and agricultural products have become increasingly demanding and require delivery of food and agricultural products, the production period as short as possible.(2)consumers of food and agricultural products quality requirements have become more sophisticated, forcing food manufacturers to implement the food supply chain management to ensure a stable supply of raw materials upstream and downstream sales channels.(3)food quality and safety of consumers are increasingly concerned about.In order to meet consumer demand for food and agricultural products in the type and quantity requirements, companies continue to seek and develop new technologies, and new technologies and new methods of excessive use(such as pesticides, hormones, antibiotics and genetically modified technology, etc.)to meet the consumer demand, but also inevitably produced a hazard causing human food quality and safety issues.This is because buyers and sellers in the market information asymmetry, consumers in the purchase of food or agricultural products, the products do not understand the health, environmental and safety information.Therefore, enterprises need in all aspects of the production process inspection and testing of products and timely disclosure of information to consumers.(4)food and agricultural companies forced the government, Relevant social

w organizations and consumer demands and pressure to press the food supply chain to operate.For example, EU regulations No.178, as from 2004 in all EU-wide sales of food, must be implemented to track and trace food supply chain;the same in the United States Food and Drug Administration regulations in the United States and abroad engaged in food production, processing and packaging departments and related organizations in the December 12, 2003 to register the Food and Drug Administration for food safety tracking and tracing, on the allowed unregistered persons engaged in food production and sales.Thus, the food supply chain management is inherent in the market dynamics and the external pressure the government to promote the case.Two.Food supply chain, production logistics system The formation of the food supply chain logistics system with the changing content of closely related, particularly in the food and agricultural production logistics system evolving situation, for people to create a highly efficient food supply chain management paradigm provides the basis.According to food and agricultural products logistics stage of development, typical of the food supply chain can be divided into dumbbell-shaped, T-, symmetric and mixed four types.1．dumbbell food supply chain.This type of food supply chain is a quasi-strict supply chain.It is characterized by a shorter supply chain, connecting the main lot located at both ends of the transaction, while the middle of the main chain are few and fewer transactions, showing the dumbbell type.Upstream producers have poor technical conditions, production is low and less variety, it gathered a large number of upstream agricultural producers;the same time, products from the market to close and only a single farm, it also makes the chain in Most of the main trading agricultural producers, their direct trading in the market, and little

w contact between producers and consumers, middlemen, so growers sell directly to consumers food and agricultural products.In developing countries, especially near urban areas, the supply of vegetables, generally using this type of supply chain.2.T type of food supply chain.This type of food supply chains are generally applicable to food and agricultural production and sales of land to the far distance, consumer demand quite different situation.As perishable agricultural products, agricultural producers can not sell their products directly, through intermediaries to provide the necessary services, such as third-party logistics, agricultural processors and wholesalers provide appropriate services.This type of supply chain, upstream gathered more producers, and in the middle part of a better understanding of the origin of production, but also in the sales channels to occupy a certain advantage, but fewer vendors.Therefore, T-food supply chain and many growers, brokers and sellers and less downstream and concentrated, showing the shape of the supply chain for the T-type.And dumbbell-shaped compared to the food supply chain, which chain is longer, the sales performance of food and agricultural products and value-added services for the indirect nature.This type of food supply chains more common in China, China's agriculture industry in less developed regions, due to lack of upstream farmers to connect one end, other end of the link sales market, specializing in the processing of agricultural products among leading enterprises and the corresponding part of agricultural production often out of line with market demand.Therefore, T-middle part of the food supply chain as a low level of absence and logistics operation, prone to upstream farmers and downstream production of agricultural products sold blindly difficult phenomenon.3．symmetric food supply chain.With the emergence of new sales formats, distribution channels are increasingly large-scale professional market

w and supermarket monopoly, the traditional sales of agricultural products and food forms have been replaced by supermarkets, and this trend is more and more obvious, and because of its technological level of agricultural products production also tends to intensive management by a few growers.Boselie.D Ahe by the Royal Thai supermarket fresh food supply chain management survey found that 50% of Bangkok's food and agricultural products in large supermarkets(such as 7-11, Royal Ahe, Carrefour, Sainsburry and TESCO)sold of.These large supermarkets in order to meet the market for agricultural products, quality consistency and supply stability requirements, the supplier of a rigorous screening.Therefore, the implementation of the Royal Ahe supermarket fresh food supply chain management, will be vendors from the original 250 was reduced to about 60, so that the logistics system more efficient and concise.With the upper reaches of the sharp drop in the number of suppliers of agricultural products and the continuous expansion of the supermarket chain, this food supply chain, upstream suppliers and downstream number of supermarket chains showed symmetrical growth trend.Logistics development in developed and more mature cities, this has been expressed in the food supply chain, centralized purchasing, reduce non-uniform flow distribution and value-added logistics sectors, in order to achieve cost savings of lean logistics strategy.4．mixed food supply chain.With consumer demand for food and agricultural products market diversification, the proportion of food and agricultural processing has gradually improved.According to the statistics that the United States in 2002 raw and processed vegetables for 15% and 85%;fruit of 30% and 70%.Other countries also generally the case.Large supermarkets in order to meet consumer demand significant changes to the original by an independent enterprise engaged in specialized production of value-added aspects of “internal” and

w specifically the establishment of large-scale processing and distribution center for agricultural products for cleaning, sorting, in-depth processing, packaging and distribution and other value-added services, through the implementation of HACCP in a large processing center and GMP certification process quality and health and safety, to ensure the quality of food and agricultural safety.The link is above three does not have the food supply chain, which is large supermarkets and chain stores to respond quickly to market demands results.With upstream suppliers to enhance the strength and advantages of the processing center part of the function, such as cleaning, sorting and depth of processing and other sectors Youxiang supplier back, making the processing center focused on the processing of agricultural products and expanding the number and type of business.Therefore, this food supply chain is a comprehensive, multi-species, multi-frequency high-volume and mix of supply chain system.This food supply chain are more concerned about customer satisfaction, through the processing centers to respond quickly to market demand, and real-time on agricultural products and foodstuffs “tailored” and depth of processing, in order to achieve different from the lean agile logistics logistics strategy.Three.Food supply chain tracking and food quality and safety In recent years, the focus of the food supply chain collaboration to ensure delivery of quality from the gradual move to reinforce the quality and safety of food and agricultural products, such as BSE, foot and mouth disease and the emergence of genetically modified foods.Agricultural products and food quality and safety of track without food supply chain management, so based on quality and safety of the food supply chain to track the food supply chain management has become important and difficult.Golan.E by the United States and other fresh produce, meat products，w cereals and oilseed rape, and survey findings, three by the food supply chain tracking, food quality and safety in that there are great differences.The analysis of these differences, they also found that three agricultural products common food supply chain management, that there are three driving forces.This is also the corporate implementation of the food supply chain management requires analysis examines the question: 1．will help differentiate the marketing of food and agricultural products to improve food and agricultural sales.Through those small or can not be directly found in food quality and safety features, can distinguish between different types of agricultural products and food.Because in the food and agricultural products on the market not only in large single grains and meat products, but also based on consumer preferences and tastes of different tailor-made food.Some agricultural products and food quality may be easier to distinguish, while others are not easy to directly determine, even after the consumer can not immediately find its quality.For example, transgenic edible oil, if not identified, the consumer it is difficult to determine whether the oil processed from non-genetically modified soybeans.Therefore, the quality of agricultural products and food safety and quality of the segmentation is a necessary prerequisite for differentiated marketing.2.is conducive to quality and safety of agricultural products and food tracking, reducing the cost of food and agricultural products recall.Many companies have used the food supply chain tracking systems to minimize food safety system deficiencies may result in potential losses.Suppliers often have a strong economy driven, when discovered food safety hazards and quality problems are, they tend to take measures to avoid food quality and safety issues to the companies themselves, or have a negative impact on the brand.Based on the food supply chain tracking can help businesses identify and reduce the time to clean up the food in question, for many

w foreign companies to reveal identifying information related to food packaging, to facilitate the identification of consumers and identified.For example, in the United States requested the recall of most food and agricultural products have been released in the United States Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service's official website for consumers based on food packaging, identification information to determine the question of food and agricultural products.Some companies are using advanced RSS bar code system and EAN / UCC Global unified identification system, more specifically reveal the identity of the food supply chain information, such as the product of each seed, fertilizer, use of antibiotics, production time, production lines, production , the production technology used and the production order, and so on.Therefore, a product if there are problems, these identification information will be able to play a significant role.Currently, the EU has adopted EAN / UCC system, successfully carried out on beef, vegetables and other food tracking research.By using EAN/UCC-128 bar code symbol, GLN(Global Location Number)to the food supply chain and the whole process of product attribute information and participants information for effective identification.Tracking and traceability in the food, the requirements of the supply chain process in every aspect, not only to complete the processing of their products for identification, but also to collect the necessary processing of food materials has been on the identification information, and all information identified in the processing of finished products, to prepare for the next part of a process or consumer use, in order to effectively solve the supply chain link between the weak, difficult to track and trace the problem, but also for companies to reduce by lack of clear information and good food will be mixed in with the poor quality of food processing with the possibility of high-quality food.w 3．will help enhance and improve the supply side of logistics management.For businesses, the management of production logistics and track-related retail information(such as bar code), to help businesses understand their food supply chain, logistics and outflow conditions for the supply chain for effective management of logistics flows.In particular, some businesses have adopted based on the quality and safety of the food supply chain of high-tech tracking system, such as farmers use electronic ear identification cards and related data collection to track the immunization records of food and agricultural products, health records and breeding records.The food supply chain information can also make food or agricultural products in the market for its consistent quality and price.However, the implementation of all food and agricultural products quality and safety of the food supply chain tracking is not necessary.Van Weele, according to market information on agricultural and food needs of the food supply chain information to determine the track width, depth and accuracy.Similarly, companies in the food supply chain information to track width, depth and accuracy also reflects on the quality and safety of its food supply chain costs and benefits of an integrated approach.Because the information track width, depth and accuracy of a determinant of business investment in the food supply chain integration and cost.Only when the benefits outweigh the costs, the firm chosen width, depth and accuracy is the implementation of supply chain quality and safety of track power and assurance.

第四篇：畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

經(jīng)濟(jì)增速放緩對(duì)中國(guó)銀行業(yè)的影響顯現(xiàn) Lagging Indicators: China's Banks and the Slowdown

摘要: Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?Not nec...Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?

Not necessarily.The banks have a tendency to be lagging indicators.Only after a certain amount of time has passed will China's macro situation show up on the bottom line.Take, for example, bad loans.They're finally growing, incrementally, after years of declining.Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd., the nation's largest bank by assets, saw its

nonperforming loans rise by 3.82 billion yuan(about $606 million)in the fourth quarter;China Construction Bank Corp., the No.2 bank on the mainland, reported a 6.27 billion yuan rise in such loans.Bank of China Ltd.'s bad loans in the fourth quarter rose 1.39 billion yuan.(In China, nonperforming loans are those that have at least a 30% chance of turning sour.)

Smaller banks also saw some increases in bad loans.China Minsheng Banking Corp., the

country's largest non-state-owned bank, posted a rise of 200 million yuan in nonperforming loans in 2011.Such loans at Industrial Bank Co.grew by 99 million yuan last year.More tellingly, data from the Chinese banking regulator showed that the nonperforming loan ratio in the nation's banking sector edged up 0.1 percentage point in the fourth quarter from the third quarter, the first rise in the past six years.The regulator didn't give a reason, but the earnings reports from Chinese banks this week offered some cues: The property market might be the culprit.China Construction Bank said among the total, its nonperforming loans related to the real estate sector surged 20% over the same period.Minsheng Bank said the nonperforming ratio of its real estate financing businesses was 1.72%, well above its overall bad loan ratio of 0.63%.Home prices have been under pressure for about two years, but it's only now do we see a sign of it in banks' statements.The question is whether investors see a few more problem numbers down the road.In three years starting 2009, banks in China issued a total of 25 trillion yuan of

renminbi-denominated loans, with roughly 40% of the lending going to government-initiated infrastructure projects and the property sector.'The second quarter of this year will be one of the peak seasons for the repayment of property loans and local government borrowings.With a slowing economy, we can expect that higher nonperforming loans are on the cards,' GF Securities analyst Mu Hua said in a recent note.According to Noah Wealth Management, a Chinese financial service company, a total of 117.25 billion yuan of property trust products will be due this year, well above the 47.05 billion yuan last year, putting huge pressure on property developers' cash flows.Besides property, analysts say local government borrowings will present a bigger challenge to banks.Banking executives have estimated that a third of China's 10.7 trillion yuan government debt will be due this year and the next.Standard & Poor's analyst Liao Qiang said he believes Beijing will likely give some regulatory forbearance to local government debt to prevent a surge in banks' bad loans.'Nevertheless, property developers and manufacturers in industries with a supply glut will continue to face policy-induced refinancing uncertainties from time to time,' he said.Monday in Hong Kong, China Construction Bank Chairman Wang Hongzhang said he's optimistic about the bank's asset quality, given China's economic growth is likely to remain solid.'Nonperforming loan levels are controllable.Even though they are higher than before, the amount is small and [the rise] is likely to be temporary,' he said.Agence France-Presse/Getty Images

中資銀行凈利潤(rùn)去年創(chuàng)下新高，似乎并沒有受到中國(guó)這一世界第二大經(jīng)濟(jì)體經(jīng)濟(jì)增速放緩的影響。這是否意味著，銀行業(yè)可以免受經(jīng)濟(jì)下行的影響呢？

未必。

銀行業(yè)的反應(yīng)往往有一定的滯后性。只有在一段時(shí)期后，中國(guó)宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)形勢(shì)的影響才會(huì)在銀行的營(yíng)收中有所體現(xiàn)。

以不良貸款為例。在下降趨勢(shì)持續(xù)了幾年之后，不良貸款的比例終于開始上升，雖然漲幅不大。按資產(chǎn)總量計(jì)算，中國(guó)最大的銀行中國(guó)工商銀行(Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd.)的不良貸款去年第四季度增加了人民幣38.2億元（約合6.06億美元），中國(guó)第二大銀行中國(guó)建設(shè)銀行(China Construction Bank Corp.)的不良貸款增加了人民幣62.7億元。中國(guó)銀行(Bank of China Ltd.)的不良貸款在第四季度增加了13.9億元。（在中國(guó)，不良貸款指的是變成壞賬的幾率在30%以上的貸款。）

規(guī)模較小銀行的不良貸款水平也在增長(zhǎng)。中國(guó)最大的非國(guó)有銀行中國(guó)民生銀行(China

Minsheng Banking Corp.)2011年不良貸款增加了人民幣2億元。興業(yè)銀行(Industrial Bank Co.)的不良貸款去年增加了人民幣9,900萬元。

更能說明這一問題的是，中國(guó)銀監(jiān)會(huì)的數(shù)據(jù)顯示，中國(guó)銀行業(yè)的不良貸款比例在第四季度較第三季度上升了0.1個(gè)百分點(diǎn)，這是該比例過去六年來首次上升。

銀監(jiān)會(huì)沒有給出原因，但是中資銀行本周發(fā)布的年報(bào)提供了一些線索：房地產(chǎn)市場(chǎng)可能是罪魁禍?zhǔn)住?/p>

中國(guó)建設(shè)銀行表示，在該銀行的所有不良貸款中，與房地產(chǎn)業(yè)有關(guān)的不良貸款同比上漲了20%。民生銀行說，其房地產(chǎn)融資業(yè)務(wù)的不良貸款比例為1.72%，大大超過了其0.63%的總體不良貸款比例。

兩年來住房?jī)r(jià)格一直在承受壓力，但直到現(xiàn)在我們才在銀行的年報(bào)中看到了相關(guān)跡象。問題是，投資者是否看到了更多問題數(shù)據(jù)出現(xiàn)的可能性。

從2009年到2011年這三年里，中資銀行共發(fā)放了25萬億元以人民幣計(jì)價(jià)的貸款，其中約有40%的貸款流向了政府主導(dǎo)的基建項(xiàng)目和樓市。

今年的第二季度將是房地產(chǎn)貸款和地方政府借貸的還款高峰期。廣發(fā)證券(GF Securities Co.)分析師沐華在最近的一份報(bào)告中說，由于經(jīng)濟(jì)減速，我們預(yù)計(jì)可能出現(xiàn)更多的不良貸款。

中國(guó)的金融服務(wù)公司諾亞財(cái)富投資管理有限公司(Noah Private Wealth Management, 簡(jiǎn)稱：諾亞財(cái)富)說，共有1,172.5億元的房地產(chǎn)信托產(chǎn)品將會(huì)在今年到期，高于去年的470.5億元，這給房地產(chǎn)開發(fā)商的現(xiàn)金流造成了巨大壓力。

分析人士說，除了房地產(chǎn)，地方政府借的貸款將為銀行帶來更大的挑戰(zhàn)。據(jù)一些銀行高管估計(jì)，中國(guó)10.7萬億元的政府貸款中，有三分之一將在今明兩年到期。

標(biāo)準(zhǔn)普爾(Standard & Poor)的分析師廖強(qiáng)說，中國(guó)中央政府可能會(huì)給予地方政府債務(wù)一定的寬限，以防不良貸款激增。他說，盡管如此，房地產(chǎn)開發(fā)商以及供應(yīng)過剩行業(yè)的制造企業(yè)仍會(huì)不時(shí)地面臨由政策引發(fā)的再融資不確定性。

中國(guó)建設(shè)銀行董事長(zhǎng)王洪章周一在香港說，考慮到中國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)很可能繼續(xù)保持穩(wěn)定增長(zhǎng)，他對(duì)該銀行的資產(chǎn)質(zhì)量持樂觀態(tài)度。他說，不良貸款的水平是可控的。即使是比以往有所增加，總量還是很小，而且增長(zhǎng)很可能也是暫時(shí)的。

第五篇：畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

譯文

組織為留住員工的激勵(lì)理論以及它們的應(yīng)用的研

究

為什么必須要留住關(guān)鍵性的雇員？

Fitz-enz（1997年）提出，公司每失去10個(gè)管理上和專業(yè)上的員工就會(huì)損失100美元。算上直接成本和間接成本，避免雇員流失的總成本，是其一年工資和福利的最小量，或兩年的薪酬和福利的最大值。對(duì)于一個(gè)組織來說，失去任何一個(gè)關(guān)鍵的雇員都會(huì)產(chǎn)生嚴(yán)重的經(jīng)濟(jì)影響，特別是考慮到隨雇員離去而喪失的知識(shí)。這些知識(shí)是可以用來滿足顧客的需要和期望的。知識(shí)的管理是創(chuàng)造、捕捉的過程以及知識(shí)來提高組織績(jī)效的進(jìn)程。

此外，Toracco（2000年）指出，雖然現(xiàn)在知識(shí)已經(jīng)被認(rèn)為是一個(gè)組織最寶貴的資產(chǎn)，但是，大多數(shù)組織缺乏必要的保留和利用知識(shí)價(jià)值的配套制度。組織不能只站在消極的立場(chǎng)上去希望人們?cè)谶@個(gè)組織內(nèi)能夠得到和利用那些已知的、可以接近的知識(shí)。相反，組織應(yīng)該以尋求維持競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)為目的，迅速發(fā)展能充分利用知識(shí)價(jià)值的系統(tǒng)(Robinson & Stern, 1997;Stewart, 1997).。因此，這很容易看到失去了寶貴的員工的知識(shí)的巨大影響。

人力資本和知識(shí)管理的概念是，人們擁有的技能，經(jīng)驗(yàn)和知識(shí)，因此對(duì)組織具有經(jīng)濟(jì)價(jià)值。這些技能，知識(shí)和經(jīng)驗(yàn)代表了資本，因?yàn)樗鼈兲岣吡松a(chǎn)率(Snell and Dean, 1992)。人力資本理論假定某些勞動(dòng)力更有生產(chǎn)力僅僅是因?yàn)樵絹碓蕉嗟馁Y源投資在勞動(dòng)力培訓(xùn)上，相當(dāng)于一臺(tái)機(jī)器投入了更多的資源來提高生產(chǎn)率ller, 1982)。人力資本理論的一條基本原則是，如同任何商

業(yè)投資，“投資技能建設(shè)將更加有利可圖，更有可能將要持續(xù)較長(zhǎng)的時(shí)期，從而獲得投資回報(bào)”(Mueller, 1982, p.94)。此外，留住對(duì)于實(shí)現(xiàn)充分的投資回報(bào)是非常重要的。人力資本理論還認(rèn)為員工在一個(gè)組織的服務(wù)長(zhǎng)度可以作為與職業(yè)相關(guān)的知識(shí)或能力的代表。一個(gè)人對(duì)與工作有關(guān)的知識(shí)或能力的了解，影響該人的工資，推銷自己和工作的類型(Becker，1975； Hulin & Smith，1967； Katz，1978)。在一個(gè)組織里，關(guān)于工齡的理解可以與烏爾里希（1998）定義的智力資本承諾的組成部分聯(lián)系起來。他的定義很簡(jiǎn)單“技能通過承諾而增加”(p.125)，智力資本的重要性等于知識(shí)，技能和每一個(gè)人在組織中的屬性乘以他們?cè)敢馀ぷ?。在未來幾年，個(gè)人對(duì)組織的承諾將得到更重要的承認(rèn)，以及該組織需要?jiǎng)?chuàng)建一個(gè)有人會(huì)愿意留下來的環(huán)境(Harris, 2000)。組織將需要或創(chuàng)建一個(gè)智力資本環(huán)境下，知識(shí)的傳播的發(fā)生將遍及整個(gè)組織，或繼續(xù)通過工齡發(fā)展失去重要的個(gè)人知識(shí)。許多人認(rèn)為這些深?yuàn)W的知識(shí)將有助于滿足客戶的需求和期望，并在全球經(jīng)濟(jì)組織相互競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的今天，創(chuàng)建和維持競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。

作者：蘇尼爾

國(guó)籍：美國(guó)

出處：《美國(guó)商業(yè)學(xué)術(shù)期刊》，2004年9月，第52-59頁(yè)

原文

A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and their

Implications

for Employee Retention within Organizations

Why is it Necessary to Retain Critical Employees?

Fitz-enz(1997)stated that the average company loses approximately $1 million with every 10 managerial and professional employees who leave the organization.Combined with direct and indirect costs, the total cost of anexempt employee turnover is a minimum of one year’s pay and benefits, or a maximum of two years’ pay andbenefits.There is significant economic impact with an organization losing any of its critical employees, especially given the knowledge that is lost with the employee’s departure.This is the knowledge that is used to meet the needs knowledge to enhance organizational performance(Bassi, 1997).Furthermore, Toracco(2000)stated that although knowledge is now recognized as one of an organization’s most valuable assets most organizations lack the supportive systems required to retain and leverage the value of knowledge.Organizations cannot afford to take a passive stance toward knowledge management in the hopes that people are acquiring and using knowledge, and that sources of knowledge are known and accessed throughout the organization.Instead, organizations seeking to sustain competitive advantage have moved quickly to develop systems to leverage the value of knowledge for this purpose(Robinson & Stern, 1997;Stewart, 1997).Thus, it is easy to see the dramatic effect of losing employees who have

valuable knowledge.The concept of human capital and knowledge management is that people possess skills, experience and knowledge, and therefore have economic value to organizations.These skills, knowledge and experience represent capital because they enhance productivity(Snell and Dean, 1992).Human capital theory postulates that some labor is more productive than other labor simply because more resources have been invested into the training of that labor, in the same manner that a machine that has had more resources invested into it is apt to be more productive(Mueller, 1982).One of the basic tenets of human capital theory is that, like any business investment, an “investment in skill-building would be more profitable and more likely to be undertaken the longer the period over which returns from the investment can accrue”(Mueller, 1982, p.94).Again, employee retention is important in realizing a full return on investment.Human capital theory includes the length of service in the organization as a

proxy for job relevant knowledge or ability.A person’s job relevant knowledge or ability influences that person’s wage, promotional opportunity and/or type of job(Becker, 1975;Hulin & Smith, 1967;Katz, 1978).The understanding of length of service in an organization relates back to Ulrich’s(1998)component of commitment in his definition of intellectual capital.His definition was simply“competencemultiplied by commitment”(p.125), meaning intellectual capital equals the knowledge, skills, and attributes of each individual within an organization multiplied by their willingness to work hard.It will become significantly more important in the years ahead to recognize the commitment of individuals to an organization, as well as the organization’s need to create an environment in which one would be willing to stay(Harris,2000).Organizations will need to either create an intellectual capital environment where the transmission of knowledge takes place throughout the structure, or continue to lose important individual knowledge that has been developed through the length of service.This deep knowledge is what many believe will help to meet the needs and expectations of the customers and to create and sustain a competitive advantage within the global economy in which organizations are competing in today.Author： Sunil Ramlall

Nationnality：America

Originate from：The Journal of American Academy of Business，September 2004,P52-59