第一篇:機(jī)械臂的外文文獻(xiàn)以及翻譯
附件1:外文資料翻譯譯文
機(jī)械手
機(jī)械手是近幾十年發(fā)展起來(lái)的一種高科技自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)設(shè)備。工業(yè)機(jī)械手是工業(yè)機(jī)器人的一個(gè)重要分支。它的特點(diǎn)是可通過(guò)編程來(lái)完成各種預(yù)期的作業(yè)任務(wù),在構(gòu)造和性能上兼有人和機(jī)器各自的優(yōu)點(diǎn),尤其體現(xiàn)了人的智能和適應(yīng)性。機(jī)械手作業(yè)的準(zhǔn)確性和各種環(huán)境中完成作業(yè)的能力,在國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)各領(lǐng)域有著廣闊的發(fā)展前景。隨著工業(yè)自動(dòng)化的發(fā)展, 出現(xiàn)了數(shù)控加工中心,它在減輕工人的勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度的同時(shí), 大大提高了勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率。但數(shù)控加工中常見(jiàn)的上下料工序, 通常仍采用人工操作或傳統(tǒng)繼電器控制的半自動(dòng)化裝置。前者費(fèi)時(shí)費(fèi)工、效率低;后者因設(shè)計(jì)復(fù)雜, 需較多繼電器,接線繁雜, 易受車(chē)體振動(dòng)干擾,而存在可靠性差、故障多、維修困難等問(wèn)題??删幊绦蚩刂破鱌LC控制的上下料機(jī)械手控制系統(tǒng)動(dòng)作簡(jiǎn)便、線路設(shè)計(jì)合理、具有較強(qiáng)的抗干擾能力, 保證了系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行的可靠性,降低了維修率, 提高了工作效率。機(jī)械手技術(shù)涉及到力學(xué)、機(jī)械學(xué)、電氣液壓技術(shù)、自動(dòng)控制技術(shù)、傳感器技術(shù)和計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)等科學(xué)領(lǐng)域,是一門(mén)跨學(xué)科綜合技術(shù)。
一、工業(yè)機(jī)械手的概述
機(jī)械手是一種能自動(dòng)化定位控制并可重新編程序以變動(dòng)的多功能機(jī)器,它有多個(gè)自由度,可用來(lái)搬運(yùn)物體以完成在各個(gè)不同環(huán)境中工作。在工資水平較低的中國(guó),塑料制品行業(yè)盡管仍屬于勞動(dòng)力密集型,機(jī)械手的使用已經(jīng)越來(lái)越普及。那些電子和汽車(chē)業(yè)的歐美跨國(guó)公司很早就在它們?cè)O(shè)在中國(guó)的工廠中引進(jìn)了自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)。但現(xiàn)在的變化是那些分布在工業(yè)密集的華南、華東沿海地區(qū)的中國(guó)本土塑料加工廠也開(kāi)始對(duì)機(jī)械手表現(xiàn)出越來(lái)越濃厚的興趣,因?yàn)樗麄円鎸?duì)工人流失率高,以及為工人交工傷費(fèi)帶來(lái)的挑戰(zhàn)。
隨著我國(guó)工業(yè)生產(chǎn)的飛躍發(fā)展,特別是改革開(kāi)發(fā)以后,自動(dòng)化程度的迅速提高,實(shí)現(xiàn)工件的裝卸、轉(zhuǎn)向、輸送或操作釬焊、噴槍、扳手等工具進(jìn)行加工、裝配等作業(yè)自化,已愈來(lái)愈引起我們重視。
機(jī)械手是模仿著人手的部分動(dòng)作,按給定的程序、軌跡和要求實(shí)現(xiàn)自動(dòng)抓取、搬運(yùn)或操作的自動(dòng)機(jī)械裝置。
在現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中,你是否會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)這樣一個(gè)問(wèn)題。在機(jī)械工廠里,加工零件裝料的時(shí)候是不是很煩的,勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率不高,生產(chǎn)成本大,有時(shí)候還會(huì)發(fā)生一些人為
事故,導(dǎo)致加工者受傷。想想看用什么可以來(lái)代替呢,加工的時(shí)候只要有幾個(gè)人巡視一下,且可以二十四個(gè)小時(shí)飽和運(yùn)作,人行嗎?回答是肯定的,但是機(jī)械手可以來(lái)代替它。
生產(chǎn)中應(yīng)用機(jī)械手可以提高生產(chǎn)的自動(dòng)化水平和勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率;可以減輕勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度、保證產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量、實(shí)現(xiàn)安全生產(chǎn);尤其是在高溫、高壓、低溫、低壓、粉塵、易爆、有毒氣體和放射性等惡劣的環(huán)境中能夠代替人進(jìn)行正常的工作。想到這里我就很想設(shè)計(jì)一個(gè)機(jī)械手,來(lái)用于生產(chǎn)實(shí)際中。
為什么選著設(shè)計(jì)機(jī)械手用氣動(dòng)來(lái)提供動(dòng)力:氣動(dòng)機(jī)械手是指以壓縮空氣為動(dòng)力源驅(qū)動(dòng)的機(jī)械手。用氣壓驅(qū)動(dòng)與其他能源驅(qū)動(dòng)比較有以下優(yōu)點(diǎn):1.空氣取之不竭,用過(guò)之后排入大氣,不需要回收和處理,不污染環(huán)境。(環(huán)保的概念)2.空氣的沾性很小,管路中壓力損失也很?。ㄒ话銡饴纷枇p失不到油路的千分之一),便于遠(yuǎn)距離輸送。3.壓縮空氣的工作壓力較低(一般為4~8公斤/每平方厘米),因此對(duì)動(dòng)元件的材質(zhì)和制造精度要求可以降低。4.與液壓傳動(dòng)相比,它的動(dòng)作和反應(yīng)都快,這是氣動(dòng)突出的優(yōu)點(diǎn)之一。5.空氣介質(zhì)清潔,亦不會(huì)變質(zhì),管路不易堵塞。但是也有它美中不足的地方:1.由于空氣的可壓縮性,致使氣動(dòng)工作的穩(wěn)定性差,因而造成執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)運(yùn)動(dòng)速度和定為精度不易控制。2.由于使用氣壓較低,輸出力不可能太大,為了增加輸出力,必然使整個(gè)氣動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的結(jié)構(gòu)尺寸加大。
用氣壓驅(qū)動(dòng)與用其他能源驅(qū)動(dòng)比較有以下優(yōu)點(diǎn):
空氣取之不竭,用過(guò)之后排入大氣,不需回收和處理,不污染環(huán)境。偶然的或少量的泄漏不致對(duì)生產(chǎn)發(fā)生嚴(yán)重的影響。
空氣的粘性很小,管路中壓力損失也就很小,便于遠(yuǎn)距離輸送。
壓縮空氣的工作壓力較低,因此對(duì)氣動(dòng)元件的材質(zhì)和制造精度要求可以降低。一般說(shuō)來(lái),往復(fù)運(yùn)動(dòng)推力在1~2噸以下采用氣動(dòng)經(jīng)濟(jì)性較好。
與液壓傳動(dòng)相比,它的動(dòng)作和反應(yīng)都快,這是氣動(dòng)的突出優(yōu)點(diǎn)之一??諝饨橘|(zhì)清潔,亦不會(huì)變質(zhì),管路不易堵塞。
它可安全地應(yīng)用在易燃、易爆和粉塵大的場(chǎng)合。又便于實(shí)現(xiàn)過(guò)載自動(dòng)保護(hù).二﹑機(jī)械手的組成
機(jī)械手的形式是多種多樣的,有的較為簡(jiǎn)單,有的較為復(fù)雜,但基本的組成
形式是相同的,一般由執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)、傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)、控制系統(tǒng)和輔助裝置組成。
1.執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)
機(jī)械手的執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu),由手、手腕、手臂、支柱組成。手是抓取機(jī)構(gòu),用來(lái)夾緊和松開(kāi)工件,與人的手指相仿,能完成人手的類(lèi)似動(dòng)作。手腕是連接手指與手臂的元件,可以進(jìn)行上下、左右和回轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)作。簡(jiǎn)單的機(jī)械手可以沒(méi)有手腕。支柱用來(lái)支撐手臂,也可以根據(jù)需要做成移動(dòng)。
2.傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)
執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)的動(dòng)作要由傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)。常用機(jī)械手傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)分機(jī)械傳動(dòng)、液壓傳動(dòng)、氣壓傳動(dòng)和電力傳動(dòng)等幾種形式。
3.控制系統(tǒng)
機(jī)械手控制系統(tǒng)的主要作用是控制機(jī)械手按一定的程序、方向、位置、速度進(jìn)行動(dòng)作,簡(jiǎn)單的機(jī)械手一般不設(shè)置專(zhuān)用的控制系統(tǒng),只采用行程開(kāi)關(guān)、繼電器、控制閥及電路便可實(shí)現(xiàn)動(dòng)傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的控制,使執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)按要求進(jìn)行動(dòng)作.動(dòng)作復(fù)雜的機(jī)械手則要采用可編程控制器、微型計(jì)算機(jī)進(jìn)行控制。三﹑ 機(jī)械手的分類(lèi)和特點(diǎn)
機(jī)械手一般分為三類(lèi):第一類(lèi)是不需要人工操作的通用機(jī)械手。它是一種獨(dú)立的不附屬于某一主機(jī)的裝置。它可以根據(jù)任務(wù)的需要編制程序,以完成各項(xiàng)規(guī)定的操作。它的特點(diǎn)是具備普通機(jī)械的性能之外,還具備通用機(jī)械、記憶智能的三元機(jī)械。第二類(lèi)是需要人工才做的,稱(chēng)為操作機(jī)。它起源于原子、軍事工業(yè),先是通過(guò)操作機(jī)來(lái)完成特定的作業(yè),后來(lái)發(fā)展到用無(wú)線電訊號(hào)操作機(jī)來(lái)進(jìn)行探測(cè)月球等。工業(yè)中采用的鍛造操作機(jī)也屬于這一范疇。第三類(lèi)是用專(zhuān)用機(jī)械手,主要附屬于自動(dòng)機(jī)床或自動(dòng)線上,用以解決機(jī)床上下料和工件送。這種機(jī)械手在國(guó)外稱(chēng)為“Mechanical Hand”,它是為主機(jī)服務(wù)的,由主機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng);除少數(shù)以外,工作程序一般是固定的,因此是專(zhuān)用的。
主要特點(diǎn):
(1)機(jī)械手(上下料機(jī)械手、裝配機(jī)械手、搬運(yùn)機(jī)械手、堆垛機(jī)械手、助力機(jī)械手、真空搬運(yùn)機(jī)、真空吸吊機(jī)、省力吊具、氣動(dòng)平衡器等)。
(2)懸臂起重機(jī)(懸臂吊、電動(dòng)環(huán)鏈葫蘆吊、氣動(dòng)平衡吊等)
(3)導(dǎo)軌式搬運(yùn)系統(tǒng)(懸掛軌道、輕型軌道、單梁起重機(jī)、雙梁起重機(jī))
(4)工業(yè)機(jī)械手的應(yīng)用
機(jī)械手是在機(jī)械化、自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中發(fā)展起來(lái)的一種新型裝置。近年來(lái),隨著電子技術(shù)特別是電子計(jì)算機(jī)的廣泛應(yīng)用,機(jī)器人的研制和生產(chǎn)已成為高技術(shù)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)迅速發(fā)展起來(lái)的一門(mén)新興技術(shù),它更加促進(jìn)了機(jī)械手的發(fā)展,使得機(jī)械手能更好地實(shí)現(xiàn)與機(jī)械化和自動(dòng)化的有機(jī)結(jié)合。
機(jī)械手雖然目前還不如人手那樣靈活,但它具有能不斷重復(fù)工作和勞動(dòng)、不知疲勞、不怕危險(xiǎn)、抓舉重物的力量比人手大等特點(diǎn),因此,機(jī)械手已受到許多部門(mén)的重視,并越來(lái)越廣泛地得到了應(yīng)用,例如:
(1)機(jī)床加工工件的裝卸,特別是在自動(dòng)化車(chē)床、組合機(jī)床上使用較為普遍。(2)在裝配作業(yè)中應(yīng)用廣泛,在電子行業(yè)中它可以用來(lái)裝配印制電路板,在機(jī)械行業(yè)中它可以用來(lái)組裝零部件。
(3)可在勞動(dòng)條件差,單調(diào)重復(fù)易子疲勞的工作環(huán)境工作,以代替人的勞動(dòng)。(4)可在危險(xiǎn)場(chǎng)合下工作,如軍工品的裝卸、危險(xiǎn)品及有害物的搬運(yùn)等。(5)宇宙及海洋的開(kāi)發(fā)。
(6)軍事工程及生物醫(yī)學(xué)方面的研究和試驗(yàn)。
助力機(jī)械手:又稱(chēng)平衡器、平衡吊、省力吊具、手動(dòng)移載機(jī)等,是一種無(wú)重力化手動(dòng)承載系統(tǒng),一種新穎的、用于物料搬運(yùn)時(shí)省力化操作的助力設(shè)備,屬于一種非標(biāo)設(shè)計(jì)的系列化產(chǎn)品。針對(duì)客戶應(yīng)用需求,量身定制的個(gè)案創(chuàng)作。
一種模擬人手操作的自動(dòng)機(jī)械,它可按固定程序抓取﹑搬運(yùn)物件或操持工具完成某些特定操作。應(yīng)用機(jī)械手可以代替人從事單調(diào)﹑重復(fù)或繁重的體力勞動(dòng),實(shí)現(xiàn)生產(chǎn)的機(jī)械化和自動(dòng)化,代替人在有害環(huán)境下的手工操作,改善勞動(dòng)條件,保證人身安全。20世紀(jì)40年代后期,美國(guó)在原子能實(shí)驗(yàn)中,首先采用機(jī)械手搬運(yùn)放射性材料,人在安全室操縱機(jī)械手進(jìn)行各種操作和實(shí)驗(yàn)。50年代以后,機(jī)械手逐步推廣到工業(yè)生產(chǎn)部門(mén),用于在高溫﹑污染嚴(yán)重的地方取放工件和裝卸材料,也作為機(jī)床的輔助裝置在自動(dòng)機(jī)床﹑自動(dòng)生產(chǎn)線和加工中心中應(yīng)用,完成上下料或從刀庫(kù)中取放刀具并按固定程序更換刀具等操作。機(jī)械手主要由手部機(jī)構(gòu)和運(yùn)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)組成。手部機(jī)構(gòu)隨使用場(chǎng)合和操作對(duì)象而不同,常見(jiàn)的有夾持﹑托持和吸附等類(lèi)型。運(yùn)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)一般由液壓﹑氣動(dòng)﹑電氣裝置驅(qū)動(dòng)。機(jī)械手可獨(dú)立地實(shí)現(xiàn)伸縮﹑旋轉(zhuǎn)和昇降等運(yùn)動(dòng),一般有2~3個(gè)自由度。機(jī)械手廣泛用于機(jī)械製造
﹑冶金﹑輕工和原子能等部門(mén)。
能模仿人手和臂的某些動(dòng)作功能,用以按固定程序抓取、搬運(yùn)物件或操作工具的自動(dòng)操作裝置。它可代替人的繁重勞動(dòng)以實(shí)現(xiàn)生產(chǎn)的機(jī)械化和自動(dòng)化,能在有害環(huán)境下操作以保護(hù)人身安全,因而廣泛應(yīng)用于機(jī)械制造、冶金、電子、輕工和原子能等部門(mén)。機(jī)械手通常用作機(jī)床或其他機(jī)器的附加裝置,如在自動(dòng)機(jī)床或自動(dòng)生產(chǎn)線上裝卸和傳遞工件,在加工中心中更換刀具等,一般沒(méi)有獨(dú)立的控制裝置。有些操作裝置需要由人直接操縱,如用于原子能部門(mén)操持危險(xiǎn)物品的主從式操作手也常稱(chēng)為機(jī)械手。
機(jī)械手主要由手部和運(yùn)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)組成。手部是用來(lái)抓持工件(或工具)的部件,根據(jù)被抓持物件的形狀、尺寸、重量、材料和作業(yè)要求而有多種結(jié)構(gòu)形式,如夾持型、托持型和吸附型等。運(yùn)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu),使手部完成各種轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)(擺動(dòng))、移動(dòng)或復(fù)合運(yùn)動(dòng)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)規(guī)定的動(dòng)作,改變被抓持物件的位置和姿勢(shì)......機(jī)械手是在自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中使用的一種具有抓取和移動(dòng)工件功能的自動(dòng)化裝置,它是在機(jī)械化、自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中發(fā)展起來(lái)的一種新型裝置。近年來(lái),隨著電子技術(shù)特別是電子計(jì)算機(jī)的廣泛應(yīng)用,機(jī)器人的研制和生產(chǎn)已成為高技術(shù)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)迅速發(fā)展起來(lái)的一門(mén)新興技術(shù),它更加促進(jìn)了機(jī)械手的發(fā)展,使得機(jī)械手能更好地實(shí)現(xiàn)與機(jī)械化和自動(dòng)化的有機(jī)結(jié)合。機(jī)械手能代替人類(lèi)完成危險(xiǎn)、重復(fù)枯燥的工作,減輕人類(lèi)勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度,提高勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)力。機(jī)械手越來(lái)越廣泛的得到了應(yīng)用,在機(jī)械行業(yè)中它可用于零部件組裝,加工工件的搬運(yùn)、裝卸,特別是在自動(dòng)化數(shù)控機(jī)床、組合機(jī)床上使用更普遍。目前,機(jī)械手已發(fā)展成為柔性制造系統(tǒng)FMS和柔性制造單元FMC中一個(gè)重要組成部分。把機(jī)床設(shè)備和機(jī)械手共同構(gòu)成一個(gè)柔性加工系統(tǒng)或柔性制造單元,它適應(yīng)于中、小批量生產(chǎn),可以節(jié)省龐大的工件輸送裝置,結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊,而且適應(yīng)性很強(qiáng)。當(dāng)工件變更時(shí),柔性生產(chǎn)系統(tǒng)很容易改變,有利于企業(yè)不斷更新適銷(xiāo)對(duì)路的品種,提高產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量,更好地適應(yīng)市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的需要。而目前我國(guó)的工業(yè)機(jī)器人技術(shù)及其工程應(yīng)用的水平和國(guó)外比還有一定的距離,應(yīng)用規(guī)模和產(chǎn)業(yè)化水平低,機(jī)械手的研究和開(kāi)發(fā)直接影響到我國(guó)自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)水平的提高,從經(jīng)濟(jì)上、技術(shù)上考慮都是十分必要的。因此,進(jìn)行機(jī)械手的研究設(shè)計(jì)是非常有意義的。
附件2:外文原文
Manipulator
Robot developed in recent decades as high-tech automated production equipment.Industrial robot is an important branch of industrial robots.It features can be programmed to perform tasks in a variety of expectations, in both structure and performance advantages of their own people and machines, in particular, reflects the people's intelligence and adaptability.The accuracy of robot operations and a variety of environments the ability to complete the work in the field of national economy and there are broad prospects for development.With the development of industrial automation, there has been CNC machining center, it is in reducing labor intensity, while greatly improved labor productivity.However, the upper and lower common in CNC machining processes material, usually still use manual or traditional relay-controlled semi-automatic device.The former time-consuming and labor intensive, inefficient;the latter due to design complexity, require more relays, wiring complexity, vulnerability to body vibration interference, while the existence of poor reliability, fault more maintenance problems and other issues.Programmable Logic Controller PLC-controlled robot control system for materials up and down movement is simple, circuit design is reasonable, with a strong anti-jamming capability, ensuring the system's reliability, reduced maintenance rate, and improve work efficiency.Robot technology related to mechanics, mechanics, electrical hydraulic technology, automatic control technology, sensor technology and computer technology and other fields of science, is a cross-disciplinary integrated technology.First, an overview of industrial manipulator Robot is a kind of positioning control can be automated and can be re-programmed to change in multi-functional machine, which has multiple
degrees of freedom can be used to carry an object in order to complete the work in different environments.Low wages in China, plastic products industry, although still a labor-intensive, mechanical hand use has become increasingly popular.Electronics and automotive industries that Europe and the United States multinational companies very early in their factories in China, the introduction of automated production.But now the changes are those found in industrial-intensive South China, East China's coastal areas, local plastic processing plants have also emerged in mechanical watches began to become increasingly interested in, because they have to face a high turnover rate of workers, as well as for the workers to pay work-related injuries fee challenges.With the rapid development of China's industrial production, especially the reform and opening up after the rapid increase in the degree of automation to achieve the workpiece handling, steering, transmission or operation of brazing, spray gun, wrenches and other tools for processing and assembly operations since, which has more and more attracted our attention.Robot is to imitate the manual part of the action, according to a given program, track and requirements for automatic capture, handling or operation of the automatic mechanical devices.In real life, you will find this a problem.In the machine shop, the processing of parts loading time is not annoying, and labor productivity is not high, the cost of production major, and sometimes man-made incidents will occur, resulting in processing were injured.Think about what could replace it with the processing time of a tour as long as there are a few people, and can operate 24 hours saturated human right? The answer is yes, but the robot can come to replace it.Production of mechanical hand can increase the automation level of production and labor productivity;can reduce labor intensity, ensuring
product quality, to achieve safe production;particularly in the high-temperature, high pressure, low temperature, low pressure, dust, explosive, toxic and radioactive gases such as poor environment can replace the normal working people.Here I would like to think of designing a robot to be used in actual production.Why would a robot designed to provide a pneumatic power: pneumatic robot refers to the compressed air as power source-driven robot.With pressure-driven and other energy-driven comparison have the following advantages: 1.Air inexhaustible, used later discharged into the atmosphere, does not require recycling and disposal, do not pollute the environment.(Concept of environmental protection)2.Air stick is small, the pipeline pressure loss is small(typically less than asphalt gas path pressure drop of one-thousandth), to facilitate long-distance transport.3.Compressed air of the working pressure is low(usually 4 to 8 kg / per square centimeter), and therefore moving the material components and manufacturing accuracy requirements can be lowered.4.With the hydraulic transmission, compared to its faster action and reaction, which is one of the advantages pneumatic outstanding.5.The air cleaner media, it will not degenerate, not easy to plug the pipeline.But there are also places where it fly in the ointment: 1.As the compressibility of air, resulting in poor aerodynamic stability of the work, resulting in the implementing agencies as the precision of the velocity and not easily controlled.2.As the use of low atmospheric pressure, the output power can not be too large;in order to increase the output power is bound to the structure of the entire pneumatic system size increased.With pneumatic drive and compare with other energy sources drive has the following advantages: Air inexhaustible, used later discharged into the atmosphere, without recycling and disposal, do not pollute the environment.Accidental or a
small amount of leakage would not be a serious impact on production.Viscosity of air is small, the pipeline pressure loss also is very small, easy long-distance transport.The lower working pressure of compressed air, pneumatic components and therefore the material and manufacturing accuracy requirements can be lowered.In general, reciprocating thrust in 1 to 2 tons pneumatic economy is better.Compared with the hydraulic transmission, and its faster action and reaction, which is one of the outstanding merits of pneumatic.Clean air medium, it will not degenerate, not easy to plug the pipeline.It can be safely used in flammable, explosive and the dust big occasions.Also easy to realize automatic overload protection.Second, the composition, mechanical hand
Robot in the form of a variety of forms, some relatively simple, some more complicated, but the basic form is the same as the composition of the , Usually by the implementing agencies, transmission systems, control systems and auxiliary devices composed.1.Implementing agencies Manipulator executing agency by the hands, wrists, arms, pillars.Hands are crawling institutions, is used to clamp and release the workpiece, and similar to human fingers, to complete the staffing of similar actions.Wrist and fingers and the arm connecting the components can be up and down, left, and rotary movement.A simple mechanical hand can not wrist.Pillars used to support the arm can also be made mobile as needed.2.Transmission The actuator to be achieved by the transmission system.Sub-transmission system commonly used manipulator mechanical transmission, hydraulic transmission, pneumatic and electric power transmission and other drive several forms.3.Control System Manipulator control system's main role is to control the robot according to certain procedures, direction, position, speed of action, a simple mechanical hand is generally not set up a dedicated control system, using only trip switches, relays, control valves and circuits can be achieved dynamic drive system control, so that implementing agencies according to the requirements of action.Action will have to use complex programmable robot controller, the micro-computer control.Three, mechanical hand classification and characteristics
Robots are generally divided into three categories: the first is the general machinery does not require manual hand.It is an independent not affiliated with a particular host device.It can be programmed according to the needs of the task to complete the operation of the provisions.It is characterized with ordinary mechanical performance, also has general machinery, memory, intelligence ternary machinery.The second category is the need to manually do it, called the operation of aircraft.It originated in the atom, military industry, first through the operation of machines to complete a particular job, and later developed to operate using radio signals to carry out detecting machines such as the Moon.Used in industrial manipulator also fall into this category.The third category is dedicated manipulator, the main subsidiary of the automatic machines or automatic lines, to solve the machine up and down the workpiece material and delivery.This mechanical hand in foreign countries known as the “Mechanical Hand”, which is the host of services, from the host-driven;exception of a few outside the working procedures are generally fixed, and therefore special.Main features: First, mechanical hand(the upper and lower material robot, assembly robot, handling robot, stacking robot, help robot, vacuum handling machines, vacuum suction crane, labor-saving spreader, pneumatic balancer, etc.).Second, cantilever cranes(cantilever crane, electric chain hoist crane, air balance the hanging, etc.)Third, rail-type transport system(hanging rail, light rail, single girder cranes, double-beam crane)Four, industrial machinery, application of hand Manipulator in the mechanization and automation of the production process developed a new type of device.In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of high-tech fields has become a rapidly developed a new technology, which further promoted the development of robot, allowing robot to better achieved with the combination of mechanization and automation.Although the robot is not as flexible as staff, but it has to the continuous duplication of work and labor, I do not know fatigue, not afraid of danger, the power snatch weight characteristics when compared with manual large, therefore, mechanical hand has been of great importance to many sectors, and increasingly has been applied widely, for example:(1)Machining the workpiece loading and unloading, especially in the automatic lathe, combination machine tool use is more common.(2)In the assembly operations are widely used in the electronics industry, it can be used to assemble printed circuit boards, in the machinery industry It can be used to assemble parts and components.(3)The working conditions may be poor, monotonous, repetitive easy to sub-fatigue working environment to replace human labor.(4)May be in dangerous situations, such as military goods handling,dangerous goods and hazardous materials removal and so on.(5)Universe and ocean development.(6), military engineering and biomedical research and testing.Help mechanical hands: also known as the balancer, balance suspended, labor-saving spreader, manual Transfer machine is a kind of weightlessness of manual load system, a novel, time-saving technology for material handling operations booster equipment, belonging to kinds of non-standard design of series products.Customer application needs, creating customized cases.Manual operation of a simulation of the automatic machinery, it can be a fixed program draws ﹑ handling objects or perform household tools to accomplish certain specific actions.Application of robot can replace the people engaged in monotonous ﹑ repetitive or heavy manual labor, the mechanization and automation of production, instead of people in hazardous environments manual operation, improving working conditions and ensure personal safety.The late 20th century, 40, the United States atomic energy experiments, the first use of radioactive material handling robot, human robot in a safe room to manipulate various operations and experimentation.50 years later, manipulator and gradually extended to industrial production sector, for the temperatures, polluted areas, and loading and unloading to take place the work piece material, but also as an auxiliary device in automatic machine tools, machine tools, automatic production lines and processing center applications, the completion of the upper and lower material, or From the library take place knife knife and so on according to fixed procedures for the replacement operation.Robot body mainly by the hand and sports institutions.Agencies with the use of hands and operation of objects of different occasions, often there are clamping ﹑ support and adsorption type of care.Movement organs are generally hydraulic pneumatic ﹑ ﹑ electrical device drivers.Manipulator can be achieved independently retractable ﹑ rotation and lifting movements, generally 2 to 3 degrees of freedom.Robots are widely used in metallurgical industry, machinery manufacture, light industry and atomic energy sectors.Can mimic some of the staff and arm motor function, a fixed procedure for the capture, handling objects or operating tools, automatic operation device.It can replace human labor in order to achieve the production of heavy mechanization and automation that can operate in hazardous environments to protect the personal safety, which is widely used in machinery manufacturing, metallurgy, electronics, light industry and nuclear power sectors.Mechanical hand tools or other equipment commonly used for additional devices, such as the automatic machines or automatic production line handling and transmission of the workpiece, the replacement of cutting tools in machining centers, etc.generally do not have a separate control device.Some operating devices require direct manipulation by humans;such as the atomic energy sector performs household hazardous materials used in the master-slave manipulator is also often referred to as mechanical hand.Manipulator mainly by hand and sports institutions.Task of hand is holding the workpiece(or tool)components, according to grasping objects by shape, size, weight, material and operational requirements of a variety of structural forms, such as clamp type, type and adsorption-based care such as holding.Sports organizations, so that the completion of a variety of hand rotation(swing), mobile or compound movements to achieve the required action, to change the location of objects by grasping and posture.Robot is the automated production of a kind used in the process of crawling and moving piece features automatic device, which is mechanized and automated production process developed a new type of device.In recent
years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of high-tech fields has become a rapidly developed a new technology, which further promoted the development of robot, allowing robot to better achieved with the combination of mechanization and automation.Robot can replace humans completed the risk of duplication of boring work, to reduce human labor intensity and improve labor productivity.Manipulator has been applied more and more widely, in the machinery industry, it can be used for parts assembly, work piece handling, loading and unloading, particularly in the automation of CNC machine tools, modular machine tools more commonly used.At present, the robot has developed into a FMS flexible manufacturing systems and flexible manufacturing cell in an important component of the FMC.The machine tool equipment and machinery in hand together constitute a flexible manufacturing system or a flexible manufacturing cell, it was adapted to small and medium volume production, you can save a huge amount of the work piece conveyor device, compact, and adaptable.When the work piece changes, flexible production system is very easy to change will help enterprises to continuously update the marketable variety, improve product quality, and better adapt to market competition.At present, China's industrial robot technology and its engineering application level and comparable to foreign countries there is a certain distance, application and industrialization of the size of the low level of robot research and development of a direct impact on raising the level of automation in China, from the economy, technical considerations are very necessary.Therefore, the study of mechanical hand design is very meaningful.
第二篇:機(jī)械臂外文翻譯
機(jī)械手
機(jī)械手是近幾十年發(fā)展起來(lái)的一種高科技自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)設(shè)備。工業(yè)機(jī)械手是工業(yè)機(jī)器人的一個(gè)重要分支。它的特點(diǎn)是可通過(guò)編程來(lái)完成各種預(yù)期的作業(yè)任務(wù),在構(gòu)造和性能上兼有人和機(jī)器各自的優(yōu)點(diǎn),尤其體現(xiàn)了人的智能和適應(yīng)性。機(jī)械手作業(yè)的準(zhǔn)確性和各種環(huán)境中完成作業(yè)的能力,在國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)各領(lǐng)域有著廣闊的發(fā)展前景。隨著工業(yè)自動(dòng)化的發(fā)展, 出現(xiàn)了數(shù)控加工中心,它在減輕工人的勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度的同時(shí), 大大提高了勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率。但數(shù)控加工中常見(jiàn)的上下料工序, 通常仍采用人工操作或傳統(tǒng)繼電器控制的半自動(dòng)化裝置。前者費(fèi)時(shí)費(fèi)工、效率低;后者因設(shè)計(jì)復(fù)雜, 需較多繼電器,接線繁雜, 易受車(chē)體振動(dòng)干擾,而存在可靠性差、故障多、維修困難等問(wèn)題??删幊绦蚩刂破鱌LC控制的上下料機(jī)械手控制系統(tǒng)動(dòng)作簡(jiǎn)便、線路設(shè)計(jì)合理、具有較強(qiáng)的抗干擾能力, 保證了系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行的可靠性,降低了維修率, 提高了工作效率。機(jī)械手技術(shù)涉及到力學(xué)、機(jī)械學(xué)、電氣液壓技術(shù)、自動(dòng)控制技術(shù)、傳感器技術(shù)和計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)等科學(xué)領(lǐng)域,是一門(mén)跨學(xué)科綜合技術(shù)。1.工業(yè)機(jī)械手的概述
機(jī)械手是一種能自動(dòng)化定位控制并可重新編程序以變動(dòng)的多功能機(jī)器,它有多個(gè)自由度,可用來(lái)搬運(yùn)物體以完成在各個(gè)不同環(huán)境中工作。在工資水平較低的中國(guó),塑料制品行業(yè)盡管仍屬于勞動(dòng)力密集型,機(jī)械手的使用已經(jīng)越來(lái)越普及。那些電子和汽車(chē)業(yè)的歐美跨國(guó)公司很早就在它們?cè)O(shè)在中國(guó)的工廠中引進(jìn)了自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)。但現(xiàn)在的變化是那些分布在工業(yè)密集的華南、華東沿海地區(qū)的中國(guó)本土塑料加工廠也開(kāi)始對(duì)機(jī)械手表現(xiàn)出越來(lái)越濃厚的興趣,因?yàn)樗麄円鎸?duì)工人流失率高,以及為工人交工傷費(fèi)帶來(lái)的挑戰(zhàn)。
隨著我國(guó)工業(yè)生產(chǎn)的飛躍發(fā)展,特別是改革開(kāi)發(fā)以后,自動(dòng)化程度的迅速提高,實(shí)現(xiàn)工件的裝卸、轉(zhuǎn)向、輸送或操作釬焊、噴槍、扳手等工具進(jìn)行加工、裝配等作業(yè)自化,已愈來(lái)愈引起我們重視。
機(jī)械手是模仿著人手的部分動(dòng)作,按給定的程序、軌跡和要求實(shí)現(xiàn)自動(dòng)抓取、搬運(yùn)或操作的自動(dòng)機(jī)械裝置。
生產(chǎn)中應(yīng)用機(jī)械手可以提高生產(chǎn)的自動(dòng)化水平和勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率;可以減輕勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度、保證產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量、實(shí)現(xiàn)安全生產(chǎn);尤其是在高溫、高壓、低溫、低壓、粉塵、易爆、有毒氣體和放射性等惡劣的環(huán)境中能夠代替人進(jìn)行正常的工作。2.機(jī)械手的組成
機(jī)械手的形式是多種多樣的,有的較為簡(jiǎn)單,有的較為復(fù)雜,但基本的組成形式是相同的,一般由執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)、傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)、控制系統(tǒng)和輔助裝置組成。1.執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)
機(jī)械手的執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu),由手、手腕、手臂、支柱組成。手是抓取機(jī)構(gòu),用來(lái)夾緊和松開(kāi)工件,與人的手指相仿,能完成人手的類(lèi)似動(dòng)作。手腕是連接手指與手臂的元件,可以進(jìn)行上下、左右和回轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)作。簡(jiǎn)單的機(jī)械手可以沒(méi)有手腕。支柱用來(lái)支撐手臂,也可以根據(jù)需要做成移動(dòng)。2.傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)
執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)的動(dòng)作要由傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)。常用機(jī)械手傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)分機(jī)械傳動(dòng)、液壓傳動(dòng)、氣壓傳動(dòng)和電力傳動(dòng)等幾種形式。3.控制系統(tǒng)
機(jī)械手控制系統(tǒng)的主要作用是控制機(jī)械手按一定的程序、方向、位置、速度進(jìn)行動(dòng)作,簡(jiǎn)單的機(jī)械手一般不設(shè)置專(zhuān)用的控制系統(tǒng),只采用行程開(kāi)關(guān)、繼電器、控制閥及電路便可實(shí)現(xiàn)動(dòng)傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的控制,使執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)按要求進(jìn)行動(dòng)作.動(dòng)作復(fù)雜的機(jī)械手則要采用可編程控制器、微型計(jì)算機(jī)進(jìn)行控制。3.機(jī)械手的分類(lèi)和特點(diǎn)
機(jī)械手一般分為三類(lèi):第一類(lèi)是不需要人工操作的通用機(jī)械手。它是一種獨(dú)立的不附屬于某一主機(jī)的裝置。它可以根據(jù)任務(wù)的需要編制程序,以完成各項(xiàng)規(guī)定的操作。它的特點(diǎn)是具備普通機(jī)械的性能之外,還具備通用機(jī)械、記憶智能的三元機(jī)械。第二類(lèi)是需要人工才做的,稱(chēng)為操作機(jī)。它起源于原子、軍事工業(yè),先是通過(guò)操作機(jī)來(lái)完成特定的作業(yè),后來(lái)發(fā)展到用無(wú)線電訊號(hào)操作機(jī)來(lái)進(jìn)行探測(cè)月球等。工業(yè)中采用的鍛造操作機(jī)也屬于這一范疇。第三類(lèi)是用專(zhuān)用機(jī)械手,主要附屬于自動(dòng)機(jī)床或自動(dòng)線上,用以解決機(jī)床上下料和工件送。這種機(jī)械手在國(guó)外稱(chēng)為“Mechanical Hand”,它是為主機(jī)服務(wù)的,由主機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng);除少數(shù)以外,工作程序一般是固定的,因此是專(zhuān)用的。主要特點(diǎn):
(1)機(jī)械手(上下料機(jī)械手、裝配機(jī)械手、搬運(yùn)機(jī)械手、堆垛機(jī)械手、助力機(jī)械手、真空搬運(yùn)機(jī)、真空吸吊機(jī)、省力吊具、氣動(dòng)平衡器等)。
(2)懸臂起重機(jī)(懸臂吊、電動(dòng)環(huán)鏈葫蘆吊、氣動(dòng)平衡吊等)
(3)導(dǎo)軌式搬運(yùn)系統(tǒng)(懸掛軌道、輕型軌道、單梁起重機(jī)、雙梁起重機(jī))4.工業(yè)機(jī)械手的應(yīng)用
機(jī)械手是在機(jī)械化、自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中發(fā)展起來(lái)的一種新型裝置。近年來(lái),隨著電子技術(shù)特別是電子計(jì)算機(jī)的廣泛應(yīng)用,機(jī)器人的研制和生產(chǎn)已成為高技術(shù)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)迅速發(fā)展起來(lái)的一門(mén)新興技術(shù),它更加促進(jìn)了機(jī)械手的發(fā)展,使得機(jī)械手能更好地實(shí)現(xiàn)與機(jī)械化和自動(dòng)化的有機(jī)結(jié)合。
機(jī)械手雖然目前還不如人手那樣靈活,但它具有能不斷重復(fù)工作和勞動(dòng)、不知疲勞、不怕危險(xiǎn)、抓舉重物的力量比人手大等特點(diǎn),因此,機(jī)械手已受到許多部門(mén)的重視,并越來(lái)越廣泛地得到了應(yīng)用,例如:
(1)機(jī)床加工工件的裝卸,特別是在自動(dòng)化車(chē)床、組合機(jī)床上使用較為普遍。(2)在裝配作業(yè)中應(yīng)用廣泛,在電子行業(yè)中它可以用來(lái)裝配印制電路板,在機(jī)械行業(yè)中它可以用來(lái)組裝零部件。
(3)可在勞動(dòng)條件差,單調(diào)重復(fù)易子疲勞的工作環(huán)境工作,以代替人的勞動(dòng)。(4)可在危險(xiǎn)場(chǎng)合下工作,如軍工品的裝卸、危險(xiǎn)品及有害物的搬運(yùn)等。(5)宇宙及海洋的開(kāi)發(fā)。
(6)軍事工程及生物醫(yī)學(xué)方面的研究和試驗(yàn)。
應(yīng)用機(jī)械手可以代替人從事單調(diào)﹑重復(fù)或繁重的體力勞動(dòng),實(shí)現(xiàn)生產(chǎn)的機(jī)械化和自動(dòng)化,代替人在有害環(huán)境下的手工操作,改善勞動(dòng)條件,保證人身安全。20世紀(jì)40年代后期,美國(guó)在原子能實(shí)驗(yàn)中,首先采用機(jī)械手搬運(yùn)放射性材料,人在安全室操縱機(jī)械手進(jìn)行各種操作和實(shí)驗(yàn)。50年代以后,機(jī)械手逐步推廣到工業(yè)生產(chǎn)部門(mén),用于在高溫﹑污染嚴(yán)重的地方取放工件和裝卸材料,也作為機(jī)床的輔助裝置在自動(dòng)機(jī)床﹑自動(dòng)生產(chǎn)線和加工中心中應(yīng)用,完成上下料或從刀庫(kù)中取放刀具并按固定程序更換刀具等操作。機(jī)械手主要由手部機(jī)構(gòu)和運(yùn)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)組成。手部機(jī)構(gòu)隨使用場(chǎng)合和操作對(duì)象而不同,常見(jiàn)的有夾持﹑托持和吸附等類(lèi)型。運(yùn)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)一般由液壓﹑氣動(dòng)﹑電氣裝置驅(qū)動(dòng)。機(jī)械手可獨(dú)立地實(shí)現(xiàn)伸縮﹑旋轉(zhuǎn)和昇降等運(yùn)動(dòng),一般有2~3個(gè)自由度。機(jī)械手廣泛用于機(jī)械製造﹑冶金﹑輕工和原子能等部門(mén)。
機(jī)械手是在自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中使用的一種具有抓取和移動(dòng)工件功能的自動(dòng)化裝置,它是在機(jī)械化、自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過(guò)程中發(fā)展起來(lái)的一種新型裝置。近年來(lái),隨著電子技術(shù)特別是電子計(jì)算機(jī)的廣泛應(yīng)用,機(jī)器人的研制和生產(chǎn)已成為高技術(shù)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)迅速發(fā)展起來(lái)的一門(mén)新興技術(shù),它更加促進(jìn)了機(jī)械手的發(fā)展,使得機(jī)械手能更好地實(shí)現(xiàn)與機(jī)械化和自動(dòng)化的有機(jī)結(jié)合。機(jī)械手能代替人類(lèi)完成危險(xiǎn)、重復(fù)枯燥的工作,減輕人類(lèi)勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度,提高勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)力。機(jī)械手越來(lái)越廣泛的得到了應(yīng)用,在機(jī)械行業(yè)中它可用于零部件組裝,加工工件的搬運(yùn)、裝卸,特別是在自動(dòng)化數(shù)控機(jī)床、組合機(jī)床上使用更普遍。因此,進(jìn)行機(jī)械手的研究設(shè)計(jì)是非常有意義的。
第三篇:1300外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯
Agricultural Land and Regulation in the Transition Economy of Russia Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2 Published online: 7 July 2015 # International Atlantic Economic Society 2015 JEL Classification C10.L33.O57.Q00 This research note explores the link between farmland conversion and existing land regulation in Russia.We conclude that land regulation is lagging the new market trends in the transition economy of Russia.As market forces continue to penetrate the economy, apparent managerial and statutory problems with regard to local land-use planning and regulation preclude more effective use of land.Responding to the need for attracting investment in agriculture, the Russian Ministry of Science and Education provided funds for our research project that involves primary data collection and econometric analysis of the interdependencies between governmental policies and farmland loss.Our unique dataset contains socioeconomic, demographic and spatial geographic 2010 data for 39 municipal districts in the Moscow metropolitan region.The econometric analysis of this data set is used to explore the relationship among farmland quantity, its assessed value, the share of privatized farmland, farmland tax,and land-use zoning in the simultaneous equations framework.While the Russian market for real estate has developed quickly, the market for agricultural land is still thin.Farmland deals are limited, partly because of the lingering uncertainty about farmland property rights.The state-owned farmland is still significant.Our Moscow regional data suggest a strong positive relationship between the fraction of privatized farmland and farmland acreage, although the fraction of individually and collectively privatized farmland is only 57 %.The direct sale of farmland to foreigners is prohibited decreasing potential foreign investment as well.As a result, the area occupied by agricultural lands has been steadily decreasing and deteriorating in quality.During the period 1990 to 2005, tillable lands in Russia have shrunk by 10.5 million hectares(7.9 % of tillable lands).Lacking experience and adequate knowledge, local governments are stuck with the land conservation policies available to the former USSR.In particular, in an attempt to contain the loss of prime farmland, the regulators retain old land-use zoning laws prohibiting the change of land status.However, strong development pressures and widespread corruption often annihilate the desirable effect of zoning.The results of our econometric analysis indicate that the proximity to Moscow city and population growth both have a significant negative effect on the amount of farmland, even in the strictlyzoned-for agriculture districts, suggesting strong urban pressure in the capital region of Moscow.The estimated elasticity of farmland acreage with respect to population growth is ?0.3.A corrupt practice of illegal changes in land status is reflected in the fact that the lands still classified as farmland in the Federal Register of Land are turned into residential or industrial areas.This signals a management problem which could be perhaps resolved by the introduction of more flexible zoning and an increase in the range of responsibilities of local governments and their property rights to land.The other economic instrument indispensable in land policy, land assessment, is also based on the former practices of the Communist period following a federally mandated general formula that takes into account soil productivity criteria, topographic features of the landscape, and the presence of irrigation, but still has little in common with the market price of farmland.When the agricultural land tax is calculated as the percentage of the assessed value of farmland, which is often below its real market value, local authorities are not interested in developing local agricultural infrastructure or increasing agricultural land base because they will not be able to reap any significant tax benefits from it.Coupled with the low federally mandated upper limits on tax rates(0.3 % of the assessed value of agricultural and residential lands)this leads to insufficient local tax revenues and overreliance on intergovernmental transfers.According to our data for the Moscow region, although localities tend to impose the maximum allowable tax rate, the average share of land tax revenues in local budgets is a mere 5 %.It is not surprising as the average assessed value of farmland across municipalities is 1000 times less than the ongoing average sales price, according to data we collected.The insignificant local land tax revenues caused by the underestimated land value lead to insufficient local infrastructure investment, which further suppresses the value of farmland and hastens its conversion.The results of the econometric analysis indicate lack of statistical significance between the assessed value of farmland and farmland quantity in the Moscow region, making the farmland tax rate an ineffective instrument in land policy.This missing link between the farmland quantity and existing land policies may render these policies not just ineffective but even wasteful.Innovative approaches such as the retention of development rights by the government might represent a temporary solution.The increasing reliance on local governance in solvinglocal problems would imply improved land-use and public finance planning and,perhaps, a slower farmland conversion trend.俄羅斯經(jīng)濟(jì)轉(zhuǎn)型中的農(nóng)業(yè)用地與監(jiān)管
Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2。在線出版:2015年7月7日。國(guó)際大西洋經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)會(huì)2015。凍膠分類(lèi)C10。L33。O57。Q00 本研究報(bào)告探討了俄羅斯農(nóng)地轉(zhuǎn)換與現(xiàn)有土地規(guī)制之間的關(guān)系。我們的結(jié)論是,土地監(jiān)管滯后于俄羅斯轉(zhuǎn)型經(jīng)濟(jì)的新市場(chǎng)趨勢(shì)。由于市場(chǎng)力量繼續(xù)滲透經(jīng)濟(jì),在地方土地利用規(guī)劃和管理方面顯然存在管理和法律問(wèn)題,妨礙了更有效地利用土地。為了應(yīng)對(duì)吸引農(nóng)業(yè)投資的需要,俄羅斯科學(xué)和教育部為我們的研究項(xiàng)目提供了資金,該項(xiàng)目涉及對(duì)政府政策和農(nóng)田損失之間相互依賴關(guān)系的主要數(shù)據(jù)收集和計(jì)量分析。我們獨(dú)特的數(shù)據(jù)集包含社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)、人口和空間。2010年莫斯科都市地區(qū)39個(gè)市轄區(qū)的地理數(shù)據(jù)。通過(guò)對(duì)該數(shù)據(jù)集的計(jì)量分析,探討了在聯(lián)立方程框架下,耕地?cái)?shù)量、其評(píng)估值、私有化耕地占比、農(nóng)地稅和土地利用區(qū)劃之間的關(guān)系。
雖然俄羅斯房地產(chǎn)市場(chǎng)發(fā)展迅速,但農(nóng)業(yè)用地市場(chǎng)仍很薄弱。農(nóng)田交易是有限的,部分原因是土地產(chǎn)權(quán)的不確定性揮之不去。國(guó)有農(nóng)田仍然很重要。我們的莫斯科地區(qū)數(shù)據(jù)顯示,私有化耕地和耕地面積的比例之間存在著強(qiáng)烈的正相關(guān)關(guān)系,盡管單獨(dú)和集體私有化耕地的比例僅為57%。禁止向外國(guó)人直接出售農(nóng)田,也禁止減少潛在的外國(guó)投資。因此,農(nóng)地占用的面積一直在穩(wěn)步下降,質(zhì)量也在不斷惡化。在1990年至2005年期間,俄羅斯的可耕種土地減少了1050萬(wàn)公頃(占耕地面積的7.9%)。
由于缺乏經(jīng)驗(yàn)和足夠的知識(shí),地方政府只能依靠前蘇聯(lián)提供的土地保護(hù)政策。特別是,為了遏制主要農(nóng)田的流失,監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)保留了禁止改變土地狀況的舊土地用途分區(qū)法。然而,強(qiáng)大的發(fā)展壓力和廣泛的腐敗往往會(huì)消滅分區(qū)制的理想效果。我們的計(jì)量分析結(jié)果表明,靠近莫斯科城市和人口增長(zhǎng)對(duì)農(nóng)田的數(shù)量有顯著的負(fù)面影響,即使是在嚴(yán)格的農(nóng)業(yè)地區(qū),這表明莫斯科的首都地區(qū)的城市壓力很大。在人口增長(zhǎng)方面,耕地面積的估計(jì)彈性為0.3。非法改變土地狀況的一種腐敗做法,反映在土地仍然被歸為聯(lián)邦土地登記冊(cè)上的土地的土地被轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)樽≌蚬I(yè)區(qū)的事實(shí)。這標(biāo)志著一個(gè)管理問(wèn)題,也許可以通過(guò)引進(jìn)更靈活的分區(qū)和增加地方政府的責(zé)任范圍和土地的財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)來(lái)解決。
其他經(jīng)濟(jì)工具不可或缺的土地政策、土地評(píng)估,也是基于前實(shí)踐后共產(chǎn)主義時(shí)期的聯(lián)邦法律規(guī)定的一般公式,考慮土壤生產(chǎn)力標(biāo)準(zhǔn),地貌景觀的灌溉的存在,但仍然沒(méi)有與市場(chǎng)價(jià)格的農(nóng)田。農(nóng)業(yè)土地稅計(jì)算時(shí)的評(píng)估價(jià)值的百分比農(nóng)田,這通常是低于其實(shí)際市場(chǎng)價(jià)值,當(dāng)?shù)卣l(fā)展當(dāng)?shù)氐霓r(nóng)業(yè)基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施不感興趣或增加農(nóng)業(yè)用地基地,因?yàn)樗麄儗o(wú)法獲得任何重大稅收優(yōu)惠。再加上聯(lián)邦政府規(guī)定的低稅率(占農(nóng)業(yè)和居住用地評(píng)估價(jià)值的0.3%),這將導(dǎo)致當(dāng)?shù)囟愂帐杖氩蛔?,并過(guò)度依賴政府間轉(zhuǎn)移。根據(jù)我們對(duì)莫斯科地區(qū)的數(shù)據(jù),雖然地方傾向于征收最高允許的稅率,但地方預(yù)算的土地稅收收入的平均份額僅為5%。據(jù)我們收集的數(shù)據(jù)顯示,由于各城市的農(nóng)田平均分?jǐn)們r(jià)值比目前的平均銷(xiāo)售價(jià)格低1000倍,這并不令人驚訝。
由于土地價(jià)值被低估而導(dǎo)致的地方土地稅收不顯著,導(dǎo)致地方基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施投資不足,進(jìn)一步抑制了農(nóng)田價(jià)值,加快了土地流轉(zhuǎn)。經(jīng)濟(jì)計(jì)量分析結(jié)果表明,在莫斯科地區(qū),耕地和耕地?cái)?shù)量的評(píng)估價(jià)值缺乏統(tǒng)計(jì)意義,使得農(nóng)地稅率在土地政策中是無(wú)效的。耕地?cái)?shù)量和現(xiàn)有土地政策之間缺失的聯(lián)系可能使這些政策不僅無(wú)效,甚至是浪費(fèi)。政府保留發(fā)展權(quán)利等創(chuàng)新辦法可能是一種臨時(shí)解決辦法。在解決地方問(wèn)題上日益依賴地方治理,將意味著改善土地利用和公共財(cái)政規(guī)劃,也許還會(huì)減緩農(nóng)地轉(zhuǎn)換的趨勢(shì)。
第四篇:外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯譯文[定稿]
在激光作用下核壓力容器鋼焊接接頭的顯微組織和力學(xué)性能
摘要:設(shè)計(jì)間接熱沖壓工藝,利用有限元法對(duì)零件的幾何尺寸和力學(xué)性能進(jìn)行了預(yù)測(cè)。在間接熱沖壓過(guò)程的情況下,生產(chǎn)性能與適應(yīng)車(chē)身部件,冷卻路徑造成擴(kuò)散和擴(kuò)散控制的相變。通過(guò)人臉的相變引起的體積膨脹為面心立方(FCC)為體心立方(BCC)和體心四方(BCT)馬氏體的形成導(dǎo)致相變誘導(dǎo)株的整體應(yīng)力熱沖壓的車(chē)身部件的計(jì)算是很重要的。計(jì)算的應(yīng)力和應(yīng)變狀態(tài)正確,它是必要的模型的擴(kuò)散和擴(kuò)散控制的相變現(xiàn)象,考慮到間接熱沖壓過(guò)程的邊界條件?,F(xiàn)有的材料模型進(jìn)行分析和擴(kuò)展以提高計(jì)算鐵氧體、珍珠巖的數(shù)量和分布,其預(yù)測(cè)的準(zhǔn)確性,整個(gè)退火過(guò)程中貝氏體和馬氏體。工業(yè)用新方法在有限元程序LS-DYNA 971實(shí)現(xiàn)
關(guān)鍵詞: 核鋼
穩(wěn)壓器 壓水反應(yīng)堆 反應(yīng)堆壓力容器 結(jié)構(gòu)完整性 焊接韌性
SA508鋼通常用于民用核反應(yīng)堆的關(guān)鍵部件,如反應(yīng)堆壓力容器。核部件通常采用電弧焊接工藝,但與設(shè)計(jì)為未來(lái)的新建設(shè)項(xiàng)目超過(guò)60年的生活,新的焊接技術(shù)正在尋求。在這種探索性的研究,為第一時(shí)間,自體激光焊接6毫米厚的進(jìn)行SA508 Cl.3鋼板使用16千瓦激光系統(tǒng)在4千瓦的功率運(yùn)行。這個(gè)
顯微組織和力學(xué)性能(包括顯微硬度、抗拉強(qiáng)度、延伸率等夏比沖擊韌性)的特點(diǎn)和結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)行了比較電弧焊接?;谝苿?dòng)體熱的三維瞬態(tài)模型源模型也發(fā)展到模擬激光焊接熱循環(huán),以估計(jì)冷卻速率的過(guò)程。初步結(jié)果表明,激光焊接工藝可以無(wú)宏觀缺陷的焊縫,激光焊接的強(qiáng)度和韌性在這項(xiàng)研究中的聯(lián)合,得到的值,在焊接的母材條件。
反應(yīng)堆壓力容器的壽命和安全運(yùn)行(RPV),這是核電站中最關(guān)鍵的部件之一。取決于高溫壓力容器材料的耐久性,高壓力和放射性環(huán)境。具有較高強(qiáng)度,韌性和抗輻照脆化的材料的需要是上升的,由于增加的發(fā)電容量和核電廠的設(shè)計(jì)壽命[ 1 ],[ 2 ],[ 3 ],[ 4 ],[ 5 ],[ 7 ],[ 8 ]和[ 6 ]。SA508鋼已經(jīng)用于許多RPV?的壓水反應(yīng)堆制造因?yàn)樗麄兲峁┑慕Y(jié)合強(qiáng)度,延展性好,斷裂韌性,相對(duì)于機(jī)械性能的均勻性,和他們的經(jīng)濟(jì)[ 9 ]、[ 10 ]、[ 11 ]和[ 12 ]。無(wú)人機(jī)是采用焊接厚環(huán)形鍛件或SA508鋼板在一起。這些通常是采用電弧焊接實(shí)現(xiàn),其次是為焊后熱處理以恢復(fù)在熱影響區(qū)(HAZ)韌性。而電弧焊接技術(shù)以及建立這些組件,在高功率激光器的可用性增加,能夠以較高的焊接速度,減少焊接變形中厚截面鋼,提供激勵(lì)考慮激光焊接焊接部件制造SA508鋼提供任何優(yōu)勢(shì).傳統(tǒng)的焊接方法制造的核壓力容器用鎢極氬弧焊(GTAW)和埋弧焊(SAW)[ 13 ]、[ 14 ]和[ 15 ]。在版本óN et al.?的[ 14 ]研究評(píng)估應(yīng)力釋放在HAZ裂紋敏感性,多次看到來(lái)為每一個(gè)通過(guò)1.8 kJ /毫米的熱輸入焊接140毫米厚的SA508 2級(jí)鋼?;返?。[ 16 ]報(bào)道常規(guī)看到3 kJ /毫米每通過(guò)一個(gè)熱輸入SA 508級(jí)3鋼的焊接。Murty等人。[ 13 ]發(fā)現(xiàn),多通過(guò)SA533B鋼埋弧焊接,焊縫金屬的熱影響區(qū)寬度,分別為26和12毫米,分別。locsdon [ 17 ]焊接64毫米厚的鋼板SA533組環(huán)境2使用多道窄間隙鎢極氬弧焊用10毫米寬的槽和1.6 kJ /毫米每通過(guò)一個(gè)熱輸入。可以看出,這些傳統(tǒng)的焊接技術(shù)相比,激光焊接一般采用較高的熱輸入,這會(huì)增加熱影響區(qū)寬度和焊后導(dǎo)致更大的扭曲和較高的殘余應(yīng)力。這將是復(fù)合的,如果更多的焊接通道和添加更多的填充材料是必需的,由于就業(yè)的更廣泛的焊接槽,這些因素也可能有助于增加生產(chǎn)成本。
與傳統(tǒng)的焊接技術(shù)相比,激光焊接具有其自身的優(yōu)勢(shì),高功率密度等,以及相關(guān)的能力,具有窄的熱影響區(qū)做一個(gè)窄的焊縫,采用較低的熱輸入和焊接速度高,達(dá)到較低水平的殘余應(yīng)力和變形,同時(shí)消耗更少的填充材料[ 18 ]和[ 19 ]。此外,激光焊接可以實(shí)現(xiàn)使用遠(yuǎn)程控制,因?yàn)榧す馐梢允褂霉饫w和焊接頭可以安裝在一個(gè)工業(yè)機(jī)器人。這種特性使得激光焊接適合生產(chǎn)高質(zhì)量的焊縫,所需的核環(huán)境。事實(shí)上,激光焊接到中等厚的部分奧氏體不銹鋼的應(yīng)用已經(jīng)探討過(guò)。張等。[ 20 ]首先報(bào)道了8毫米厚的316毫米厚的50毫米厚鋼板的窄間隙焊接。elmesalamy等人。[ 21 ]成功焊接了20毫米厚的316不銹鋼使用1千瓦IPG單模光纖激光器的超窄間隙(1.5 mm間隙寬度),雙方采用多道窄間隙焊接的方法。盡管如此,沒(méi)有被報(bào)道在SA508鋼激光焊接特性。
在低合金鋼焊接過(guò)程中發(fā)生的固態(tài)相變可能是非常復(fù)雜的,在某些鋼中,它可以很難預(yù)測(cè)焊接接頭的不同子區(qū)域的組織結(jié)構(gòu)。冷卻速率在不同的子區(qū)域?qū)⒋_定相變發(fā)生在連續(xù)冷卻轉(zhuǎn)變組合焊接過(guò)程中(CCT)在調(diào)查中對(duì)鋼圖。在焊接過(guò)程中的溫度歷史可以記錄使用熱電偶。然而,熱電偶只能測(cè)量離散點(diǎn)的溫度歷史。它也很難保證測(cè)量位置的溫度可以正確地記錄下來(lái)。有限元建模是一種替代的方法,在焊接過(guò)程中的熱循環(huán)調(diào)查。
在本研究中,單次自體激光焊接是參加SA508條款3鋼板。自體GTA焊接的開(kāi)展提供這種鋼的激光焊接的基準(zhǔn)。顯微組織和力學(xué)性能,如拉伸強(qiáng)度、硬度、和在焊接條件下研究了沖擊韌性的焊接構(gòu)件?;谝苿?dòng)體積熱源模型模擬也進(jìn)行了量化的焊接熱循環(huán)對(duì)微觀結(jié)構(gòu)的變化在自體激光焊接在SA508鋼的影響。數(shù)值的解決方案是使用商業(yè)軟件ANSYS生成,并與實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果進(jìn)行了比較,驗(yàn)證了數(shù)值模型。驗(yàn)證的模型,然后用于預(yù)測(cè)的激光焊接的熱歷史。本文介紹了實(shí)驗(yàn)和建模,并報(bào)告了這項(xiàng)工作所產(chǎn)生的初步結(jié)果。2。材料與實(shí)驗(yàn)程序
作為收到的基體材料(BM)在這項(xiàng)研究中使用的是調(diào)質(zhì)SA508 Cl.3鋼。SA508條款3鋼的化學(xué)成分如表1。碳當(dāng)量(CE)是一個(gè)參數(shù),通常用于評(píng)價(jià)鋼的焊接性,它被定義為合金元素除碳的碳當(dāng)量濃度的百分比,從鋼的淬透性的觀點(diǎn)。根據(jù)參考文獻(xiàn)[ 22 ]計(jì)算調(diào)查的鋼的CE,并給出:
從表1看出,SA508 CE 0.60。MS(馬氏體轉(zhuǎn)變開(kāi)始溫度在420 C)°根據(jù)鈴木?的連續(xù)冷卻轉(zhuǎn)變曲線(CCT)508級(jí)3圖。條款1鋼[ 23 ]。AC1和Ac3溫度約700°C和800°C,分別。光學(xué)顯微鏡和掃描電子顯微鏡(SEM)對(duì)基地SA508鋼的顯微組織圖像都顯示在圖1(a)和(b),分別。標(biāo)本機(jī)械拋光和蝕刻在2%硝酸溶液?;w材料的微觀結(jié)構(gòu)(BM)是一個(gè)暴躁的上貝氏體結(jié)構(gòu)。細(xì)小的析出物由不同的研究人員已經(jīng)確定,他們是M7C3和M23C6 [ 6 ]、[ 12 ]和[ 24 ]。
作為收到SA508 Cl.3塊切成幾個(gè)6毫米和2毫米厚的板線放電加工(EDM)焊接試驗(yàn)。自體激光焊接材料的尺寸大約是6毫米,100毫米和50毫米××手動(dòng)自體GTA焊接約2毫米50毫米100毫米××。
實(shí)驗(yàn)使用連續(xù)波光纖激光器進(jìn)行(IPG yls-16000)與一個(gè)16千瓦的最大功率。光束參數(shù)乘積為10毫米毫弧度的處理纖維300μ米直徑。從光纖的一端發(fā)射的激光束被準(zhǔn)直由一個(gè)150毫米焦距的鏡頭,然后聚焦到試樣表面用鏡頭用400毫米焦距。測(cè)得的聚焦尺寸和瑞利長(zhǎng)度分別為0.8毫米和15毫米,分別。激光頭安裝在一個(gè)六軸庫(kù)卡機(jī)器人。激光焊接的示意圖如圖所示。
350 GTA焊接電源是用于手動(dòng)自體GTA焊接實(shí)驗(yàn)。在焊接前,樣品被噴砂去除氧化物層。噴砂處理后,用丙酮清洗表面,然后將基體材料固定,以保證充分的約束。自體激光焊接和點(diǎn)焊進(jìn)行。在焊接過(guò)程中保護(hù)熔池,用氬氣保護(hù)試樣的頂部和背面。
焊接接頭的宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)和焊縫的微觀結(jié)構(gòu)是利用光學(xué)金相顯微鏡檢查(KEYENCE vhx-500f)和飛利浦XL 30掃描電子顯微鏡(SEM)。表面硬度測(cè)量使用Struers duramin-2維氏顯微硬度計(jì)進(jìn)行。
在焊縫的顯微硬度分布進(jìn)行測(cè)量,分別位于頂部,在激光焊接接頭的宏觀截面中部和底部,并在焊接在板厚中間位置為手動(dòng)GTA焊接接頭。使用負(fù)載3公斤,停留一段時(shí)間10 s的維氏顯微硬度機(jī)測(cè)試硬度(Struers duramin-2)。三測(cè)量每個(gè)縮進(jìn)以最小化誤差進(jìn)行。硬度遍歷進(jìn)行跨焊縫在0.2毫米在熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)間隔的凹槽,并在BM 0.4毫米的間隔。
對(duì)接收的母材和焊接試樣的靜態(tài)拉伸強(qiáng)度評(píng)價(jià)標(biāo)本根據(jù)ASTM E8M-04產(chǎn)生。子尺寸夏比沖擊試驗(yàn)樣品的制備在BS EN 10045-1:1990意圖。缺口位于熔合區(qū),以測(cè)試激光焊接樣品的焊接金屬的韌性。這些沖擊試樣的寬度是由板塊焊接厚度的限制,即6毫米。每一個(gè)測(cè)試是重復(fù)的三個(gè)單獨(dú)的和名義上相同的優(yōu)惠券,以減少不確定性。夏比和交叉焊縫拉伸試樣從電火花加工過(guò)程中使用的焊接穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)的區(qū)域提取。所提取的樣品的基體材料和焊接樣品的大小和形狀如圖3所示。焊接鋼筋的臉和根部焊縫試樣的地區(qū)由手工打磨砂紙?jiān)诶旌拖谋葲_擊試驗(yàn)進(jìn)行刪除。進(jìn)行拉伸試驗(yàn)在Instron 4507號(hào)模型電子萬(wàn)能試驗(yàn)機(jī)在室溫下。夏比沖擊試驗(yàn)的基礎(chǔ)材料和焊接的樣品上進(jìn)行茲維克Roell夏比沖擊試驗(yàn)機(jī)在?40°C,?20°C、0 C和°室溫。每一張優(yōu)惠券在測(cè)試前的半小時(shí)內(nèi)舉行相關(guān)的測(cè)試,以確保整個(gè)樣品的溫度均勻一致。以下的拉伸強(qiáng)度和沖擊韌性試驗(yàn),所有的斷裂面測(cè)試標(biāo)本用Zeiss EVO 50 SEM設(shè)有X射線能譜儀(EDX),研究了斷口形貌和確定斷裂模式。
最初的試驗(yàn)進(jìn)行了使用珠的板的配置,而不是加入兩個(gè)不同的板,以優(yōu)化焊接參數(shù)。的激光功率為4千瓦,選擇和焊接速度從0.84米/分鐘到1.08米/分鐘不等。激光焦點(diǎn)設(shè)置在板的頂部表面的2毫米。使用氬氣保護(hù)氣體,氣體流速為12升/分鐘和8升/分鐘,分別保護(hù)使用的頂部表面和在焊縫側(cè)的焊縫。激光頭由8個(gè)傾斜傾斜,以防止反射。
焊接后,焊縫被切割,并準(zhǔn)備作為金相樣品,以評(píng)估焊接珠的完整性。在圖4中給出了不同焊接參數(shù)的結(jié)果。
檢查的焊接參數(shù)的不同的焊接參數(shù)顯示,可以接受的焊縫輪廓,實(shí)現(xiàn)與焊接速度為0.84米/分鐘,0.96米/分鐘,在頂部的焊縫金屬區(qū)域的切邊觀察到1.02米/分鐘的速度,并觀察到在一個(gè)速度為1.08米/分鐘。優(yōu)化的焊接參數(shù)在表2中概述。自體激光對(duì)接焊接6毫米SA508鋼采用這些優(yōu)化的焊接參數(shù)進(jìn)行。
350 GTA焊接電源是用于焊接2毫米厚的鋼板508。手動(dòng)自體GTA焊接進(jìn)行提供最好的比較自體激光焊接。與2毫米的厚度板被用在GTA焊接固有的淺層滲透,雙面焊接進(jìn)行了。焊接參數(shù)在表3中概述。
3。結(jié)果
3.1。宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)特征
SA508鋼焊接接頭的自體激光對(duì)接結(jié)構(gòu),采用優(yōu)化的參數(shù),如圖5所示??梢钥闯?,焊縫兩側(cè)的熔合線幾乎是平行的,這是小孔焊接的特點(diǎn)。沒(méi)有任何證據(jù)的缺陷,如孔隙度或削弱。焊縫的寬度約為1.8毫米,和熱影響區(qū)的寬度大約為0.8毫米。接頭可以分為幾個(gè)不同的區(qū)域,如冶金,熔合區(qū)(FZ)在中心,熱影響區(qū)(HAZ)與基體材料(BM)。熔合區(qū)由粗大的柱狀枝晶顆粒組成,其與垂直于熔合邊界的方向?qū)?zhǔn)。最大熱流方向?yàn)榇怪庇谌酆线吔?,晶粒趨向于向上生長(zhǎng)最快,在熔合區(qū)內(nèi)的柱狀晶組織中有25和26。在光學(xué)顯微鏡下,它被觀察到的晶粒尺寸隨距離從焊縫中心線。焊接熱影響區(qū)可進(jìn)一步劃分為三個(gè)不同的區(qū)域:粗晶熱影響區(qū)(CGHAZ)(靠近熔合線),細(xì)晶熱影響區(qū)(FGHAZ)和兩相區(qū)(ICHAZ)相鄰的BM。
一個(gè)宏觀部分通過(guò)手工自體GTA焊接2毫米厚的SA508鋼如圖6所示。由于有限的穿透深度在GTA焊接,雙面自手動(dòng)GTA焊接應(yīng)用。熔合區(qū)的寬度約為2.4毫米,和熱影響區(qū)的寬度大約為2.8毫米。在熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)寬度大于6毫米厚的激光焊縫寬得多。
3.2。微觀結(jié)構(gòu)特征
焊接接頭各子區(qū)域內(nèi)的顯微組織演變主要由焊接熱循環(huán)過(guò)程中的峰值溫度和每個(gè)相應(yīng)的子區(qū)域的冷卻速度[ 27 ]和[ 28 ]確定。作為焊接結(jié)構(gòu)在6毫米厚的激光焊接2毫米厚的手冊(cè)進(jìn)行自體GTA焊接熔合區(qū)和在每一個(gè)不同的子區(qū)域內(nèi)的熱影響區(qū)(CGHAZ,F(xiàn)GHAZ ICHAZ)使用SEM結(jié)果在圖7和圖8分別給出了。對(duì)焊接工藝的焊接熱影響區(qū)內(nèi)的不同子帶的結(jié)構(gòu)是相似的。然而,更細(xì)小的析出物在GTA焊接熱影響區(qū)的發(fā)現(xiàn)相比,激光焊接接頭。在基姆等人的工作中。[ 29 ]和[ 30 ],細(xì)小的析出物被確定為高鉬含量的M2C型碳化物。在焊縫,包括貝氏體組織在ICHAZ,marteniste和自回火馬氏體。在FGHAZ組織包括汽車(chē)回火馬氏體細(xì)晶粒馬氏體。在粗晶區(qū),顯微組織由馬氏體和回火馬氏體粗粒度的汽車(chē),而在融合區(qū),粗大的馬氏體和自動(dòng)觀察回火馬氏體。3.3。顯微硬度
作為焊接的顯微硬度分布在激光焊接和手動(dòng)GTA焊接如圖9??梢钥闯?,無(wú)論是激光在焊縫及熱影響區(qū)的硬度(~ 430 HV0.3)和多倫多(~ 410 HV0.3)焊接試樣高于基體材料的兩倍(~ 200 HV0.3)。這是預(yù)期的焊接條件下的焊接。在熔合區(qū)的硬度略高于激光焊接試樣的焊接熱影響區(qū)。為GTA在熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)的硬度,焊接接頭在410上下波動(dòng),峰值硬度HV0.3,發(fā)生在FGHAZ約430 HV0.3。在激光熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)的硬度焊接接頭(~ 430 HV0.3)高于熔合區(qū)的GTA焊接接頭(~ 410 HV0.3)。
3.4。室溫拉伸行為
交叉焊縫的拉伸數(shù)據(jù)如表觀屈服強(qiáng)度參數(shù),拉伸強(qiáng)度和伸長(zhǎng)率均明顯,2毫米厚的鎢極氬弧焊試樣和6毫米厚的激光焊接試樣總結(jié)在表4中,其中包括平均值和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)偏差。應(yīng)該牢記的是,試樣顯然是不均勻的,因此,記錄的屈服強(qiáng)度和伸長(zhǎng)率的值是不真正代表任何特定的微觀結(jié)構(gòu)區(qū),并且它們也將隨選擇的規(guī)范長(zhǎng)度(在這種情況下,25毫米)。盡管如此,在這項(xiàng)研究中,測(cè)得的值被包括提供一個(gè)定性的比較,每個(gè)焊縫。明顯的屈服強(qiáng)度(YS)、抗拉強(qiáng)度(UTS)和明顯的伸長(zhǎng)量估計(jì)為494 MPa、631 MPa和26.3%,對(duì)于6毫米厚的激光焊接試樣。所有的拉伸破壞發(fā)生在遠(yuǎn)離焊接區(qū)域的。YS,為6毫米厚的基底材料的抗拉強(qiáng)度和延伸率分別為498 MPa、632 MPa和28.1%,分別。相比較而言,明顯的屈服強(qiáng)度(YS)、抗拉強(qiáng)度(UTS)和2毫米厚的鎢極氬弧焊試樣明顯伸長(zhǎng)估計(jì)為498 MPa、633 MPa和17.1%,分別。所有的拉伸破壞發(fā)生在遠(yuǎn)離焊接區(qū)域的。YS,為2毫米厚的基底材料的抗拉強(qiáng)度和延伸率分別為501 MPa、633 MPa和19.3%,分別。
裂縫性的標(biāo)本在圖10。所記錄的應(yīng)力-應(yīng)變曲線的基本材料和焊接試樣的厚度為2毫米和6毫米,如圖11所示。它可以從拉伸試驗(yàn)結(jié)果表明,激光和GTA焊接試樣的拉伸性能有非常相似的基礎(chǔ)材料在相應(yīng)的厚度。然而,焊接試樣的表觀伸長(zhǎng)率略低與那些相應(yīng)基礎(chǔ)材料相比。在圖9中的硬度分布表明,在焊接條件下,焊接過(guò)程中所產(chǎn)生的材料已加強(qiáng),所以很可能在拉伸試驗(yàn)過(guò)程中,焊接區(qū)域沒(méi)有產(chǎn)生屈服,從而有助于降低延伸率。此外,它可以從拉伸試驗(yàn)結(jié)果表明,材料的厚度對(duì)屈服強(qiáng)度和斷裂強(qiáng)度幾乎沒(méi)有影響,與2毫米厚,6毫米厚的材料呈現(xiàn)類(lèi)似的屈服強(qiáng)度和斷裂強(qiáng)度。令人好奇的是,材料的厚度,有一個(gè)顯著的影響的伸長(zhǎng)率,與較薄的材料(2毫米厚)提出較低的伸長(zhǎng)率時(shí)相比,與6毫米厚的材料。
3.5。夏比沖擊韌性,以不同的temperatures 《能源吸附的堿金屬和焊縫的激光沖擊下的冰plotted作為一個(gè)功能的溫度在圖13。《子尺寸試樣斷裂后shown夏比沖擊試驗(yàn)是在圖14。它可以看到,所有的paths破碎的激光焊接試樣的試驗(yàn)開(kāi)始的,然后deviate熔合區(qū)和HAZ的基體材料。測(cè)試結(jié)果的基礎(chǔ)材料是repeatable,當(dāng)測(cè)試結(jié)果的激光焊接試樣的顯著為低散射的測(cè)試temperatures(?40°C和?20°C),這可能是attributed的偏差,在斷裂的裂紋。為了highlight的散射的結(jié)果對(duì)激光焊接specimens,這三個(gè)測(cè)試的結(jié)果是市場(chǎng)在每個(gè)溫度圖13和圖14。許多研究人員已經(jīng)reported,激光和電子束焊接過(guò)程中可能對(duì)目前的困難owing韌性試驗(yàn)區(qū)的兩個(gè)窄融合在一起,有一個(gè)大學(xué)學(xué)位的高強(qiáng)度的高匹配接頭[ 31 ],[ 32 ],[ 33 ]和[ 34 ]。reported傾向,艾略特的《deviate斷裂成兩個(gè)基地,而不是金屬的熔合區(qū)propagate通CAN導(dǎo)線的兩個(gè)結(jié)果misleading [ 35 ]
基本材料的結(jié)果顯示一個(gè)整體的趨勢(shì):所吸收的能量的增加,在測(cè)試溫度的增加。相比之下,激光焊接的結(jié)果中的散射意味著任何這樣的趨勢(shì)是不明顯的?;A(chǔ)材料達(dá)到良好的韌性,吸收的能量與平均值約為70 J,95 J,97 J和105 J在?40°C對(duì)應(yīng)的試驗(yàn)溫度,?20°C、0 C和23 C°°,分別。它可以發(fā)現(xiàn)從夏比沖擊試驗(yàn)結(jié)果的平均吸收的激光焊縫試樣的能量相媲美的基礎(chǔ)材料。對(duì)于激光焊接試樣的平均吸收能量值分別約為92 J,80 J,100 J和98 J在?40°C對(duì)應(yīng)的測(cè)試溫度,?20°C、0 C和23 C°°,分別。然而,有孤立的低能量吸收值66 J在?40°C和45 J在?20°C為激光焊接的試樣,但在這些溫度約100 J這些孤立的低韌性值貢獻(xiàn)了大量分散在吸收能量值的激光焊接試樣在測(cè)試溫度低平均值。
基體材料的宏觀斷口和激光焊接試樣的沖擊試驗(yàn)后如圖15。為基料在?40°C測(cè)試(圖15(a)),可以看出,裂紋傳播從最初的韌性缺口之前繼續(xù)通過(guò)脆性斷裂試樣的傳播。韌性斷裂的區(qū)域和隨后的脆性斷裂的區(qū)域之間的邊界清楚地是在圖15(1)。的脆性斷裂區(qū)域跨越約60%的斷裂面作為一個(gè)整體。激光焊接試樣斷裂在?40°C(圖15(b))揭示了非常不同的兩個(gè)斷裂面:左邊的樣本提供了一個(gè)完全的韌性斷裂表面實(shí)現(xiàn)了高吸收的能量(102 J),而右邊的樣本顯示,裂紋開(kāi)始傳播之前的韌性繼續(xù)傳播在脆性的方式在大多數(shù)(~ 60%)的斷裂面,和吸收的能量明顯低于這個(gè)標(biāo)本(66 J)。斷裂的基礎(chǔ)材料試件在?20°C完整呈現(xiàn)韌性斷裂面在圖15(c)。激光焊接試樣斷裂在?20°C測(cè)試(圖15(d))又提出了兩種非常不同的斷裂面:左邊的樣本提供了一個(gè)完全的韌性斷口(84 J),而右邊的樣本揭示了一個(gè)完全脆性斷裂面(45 J)。在0°C和室溫下測(cè)試的基本材料和激光焊接試件在所有剩余的情況下,如圖15(電子)-(小時(shí)),在所有剩余的情況下,完全韌性斷裂面。
斷口的基體材料和激光焊接試樣的沖擊試驗(yàn)后,在圖16中所示的高放大倍率。解理斷裂被證實(shí)在這些基礎(chǔ)材料和激光焊接試件的斷裂與低吸收的能量在?40°C.對(duì)斷裂的脆性解理斷裂面顯示為主和少量的韌窩(圖16(a)和(c))。相比之下,激光焊接的試樣,獲得更高的能量吸收在?40°C顯示韌性斷裂表面的等軸韌窩(圖16(b))。在?20°C,無(wú)論是基礎(chǔ)材料和激光焊接的試樣,達(dá)到更高的吸收能量呈現(xiàn)韌性斷裂表面的等軸韌窩在圖16(d)和(e),而較低的能量吸收了由解理斷裂表面的激光焊接試樣(圖16(f))。所有基礎(chǔ)材料和激光焊接試樣在0°C,在室溫下呈現(xiàn)韌性斷裂的等軸韌窩在圖16(g)–(J)。
3.6。三維有限元建模的自激光焊接工藝的制定和程序
這是理解激光自熔焊接SA508鋼時(shí)的微觀組織演化研究焊接過(guò)程的溫度場(chǎng)的重要,這是特別是在焊接熱影響區(qū)的情況。在構(gòu)建一個(gè)數(shù)值模型來(lái)預(yù)測(cè)在不同的子區(qū)域的熱歷史,在焊接過(guò)程中,下面的假設(shè),以簡(jiǎn)化的解決方案[ 36 ]:(1)
材料是各向同性的,并且環(huán)境溫度和初始試樣的溫度均為20(2)
焊接熔池中液態(tài)金屬的對(duì)流流動(dòng)和小孔激光焊接中的汽化現(xiàn)象,可以忽略。(3)
在焊接過(guò)程中的熱流量是由傳導(dǎo)和對(duì)流的影響,即輻射的影響可以忽略。此外,在試樣和環(huán)境之間的界面處的對(duì)流系數(shù)可以被假定為常數(shù)。(4)
由于焊接接頭的對(duì)稱(chēng)性,可以應(yīng)用于對(duì)稱(chēng)性,因此,只有必要的模擬焊接接頭的一側(cè)。
模型尺寸為50毫米,50毫米,6毫米。圖17顯示了網(wǎng)格配置。在三維實(shí)體模型,利用ANSYS軟件生成的38337個(gè)節(jié)點(diǎn)和41040個(gè)單元(12.1版)。細(xì)網(wǎng)格中的熔合區(qū)附近的熱影響區(qū),陡峭的溫度梯度可以預(yù)期,而較粗的網(wǎng)格被用來(lái)進(jìn)一步遠(yuǎn)離焊縫和熱影響區(qū)的坡度可能沒(méi)那么嚴(yán)重。此外,隨著距離的增加,元件的尺寸逐漸增大,最小的單元尺寸為0.5毫米0。5毫米0.5毫米。在這個(gè)模型中,X軸對(duì)應(yīng)的焊接方向,Y軸是正常的焊接方向但在板的平面,和Z方向的平
面外方向。
使用溫度依賴性的熱性能進(jìn)行熱分析。瞬態(tài)溫度,噸,被確定為一個(gè)函數(shù)的時(shí)間,噸,和空間(×,),通過(guò)求解下面的傳熱方程[ 37 ]和[ 38 ]
在這里,K(t)的熱導(dǎo)率為在1 K W M??1溫度的功能,ρ(t)是密度為3的魔芋葡甘聚糖?溫度功能,CP(T)是在恒定的壓力作為一個(gè)J 1 K 1公斤??溫度函數(shù)的具體熱,和QV是WM-3容積熱通量 高功率激光束是一個(gè)高度集中的熱源,熱源模型通常用于在激光束焊接的數(shù)值分析中的各種穿透深度的功率密度的變化。在許多論文[ 39 ],[ 40 ]和[ 41 ],熱源被假定為高斯分布的形式,但它通常是在實(shí)驗(yàn)研究的基礎(chǔ)上修改。有一個(gè)公認(rèn)的“鑰匙孔”現(xiàn)象[ 39 ],[ 42 ]和[ 43 ],其中一些激光功率被吸收的離子蒸汽在鑰匙孔,并轉(zhuǎn)移到焊接熔池表面,這也是“小孔”邊界。因此,一個(gè)體積熱源模型通常用于模擬激光焊接過(guò)程。在體積熱源模型,高斯熱通量分布往往假定在徑向方向和“鑰匙孔”被認(rèn)為是一個(gè)圓柱體或截?cái)噱F[ 39 ]。在本次調(diào)查中,一個(gè)旋轉(zhuǎn)拋物面體積熱源的溫度場(chǎng)模擬。配電遵循高斯熱流分布在每一層的旋轉(zhuǎn)拋物面。熱源可以被描述為[ 44 ]
其中,Q為旋轉(zhuǎn)拋物面體積熱源點(diǎn)的功率密度,并在熱源效率,η,被認(rèn)為是在熱分析[ 38 ] 80%,澤是縱坐標(biāo)上的parboloid最大的可能值,子是這個(gè)垂直坐標(biāo)的最小可能值,H是拋物面的高度,再是拋物面的開(kāi)口半徑R0的拋物面的任何一點(diǎn)的半徑,r是距離內(nèi)任意點(diǎn)旋轉(zhuǎn)拋物面體積熱源的熱源中心,P是輸出的激光功率和Z是在平面方向坐標(biāo),相對(duì)于板,模型中的任何一點(diǎn)。所使用的材料的熱物理性能的文獻(xiàn)[ 45 ] 在熱分析過(guò)程中,對(duì)流邊界條件適用于所有自由表面的模型,除了對(duì)稱(chēng)的平面,其中一個(gè)絕熱邊界條件。方程(4)給出了模擬中的熱邊界條件。
在這里,T和T0在板被焊接的表面溫度和環(huán)境溫度,分別??諝獾膶?duì)流換熱系數(shù),hconv被假定為15周長(zhǎng)1.2米 [ 38 ]。
為了驗(yàn)證模擬結(jié)果,無(wú)論是實(shí)驗(yàn)測(cè)得的熱循環(huán)和熔合區(qū)形態(tài)進(jìn)行了比較與那些從模擬所產(chǎn)生的預(yù)測(cè)。連續(xù)測(cè)量整個(gè)焊接過(guò)程采用K型熱電偶在激光焊接試樣的熱循環(huán)。一個(gè)squirrel-2040系列數(shù)據(jù)記錄器,用于在焊接過(guò)程中的熱歷史記錄。熱電偶點(diǎn)焊在板的頂面,分別位于不同距離焊縫中心線,在垂直于焊接方向和一半沿焊縫長(zhǎng)度的線,如圖18。
基于峰值溫度的空間分布,焊縫形貌和尺寸可以預(yù)測(cè)。的純激光焊接模擬橫截面如圖19。如果假定聚變邊界對(duì)應(yīng)于約1500°C的溫度,那么它可以看出,預(yù)測(cè)的融合邊界是大致平行的板的厚度方向,和焊縫的半寬度約為1毫米。計(jì)算出的焊縫幾何尺寸和尺寸與實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果吻合較好。
圖20給出了在試樣頂部表面點(diǎn)焊的熱電偶的位置計(jì)算的熱循環(huán),并與實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果進(jìn)行了比較。每個(gè)位置的峰值溫度都很好。預(yù)測(cè)的冷卻速度也似乎是合理的在離焊縫中心線的距離為2.5毫米,雖然預(yù)測(cè)值與實(shí)測(cè)值之間的冷卻速率大于3毫米的距離的差異。似乎有低估的趨勢(shì),冷卻速度。然而,當(dāng)預(yù)測(cè)焊接溫度場(chǎng)圖19與圖5相比較,這有一個(gè)很好的相關(guān)性計(jì)算和試驗(yàn)焊縫形狀。4討論
4.1。冶金不同分帶的微觀組織轉(zhuǎn)變
熱分析的結(jié)果進(jìn)行了驗(yàn)證,發(fā)現(xiàn)與實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果吻合良好。由此產(chǎn)生的預(yù)測(cè)模型,可以用來(lái)推斷的微觀結(jié)構(gòu),有可能產(chǎn)生的激光焊接過(guò)程中。預(yù)測(cè)的熱循環(huán)的位置,通過(guò)板的厚度的一半,但在不同的距離,從焊縫中心線,如圖21所示。點(diǎn)從焊縫中心線下降0毫米和0.5毫米的距離,融合區(qū)內(nèi),而點(diǎn)在1毫米約恰逢融合線,并在1.5毫米的距離點(diǎn)有望在熱影響區(qū),而分在2毫米和2.5毫米的預(yù)期一致與ICHAZ和基材,分別。所預(yù)測(cè)的峰值溫度在毫米,0.5毫米,1毫米,1.5毫米,2毫米和2.5毫米,2100毫米,1900°,1300°,°,920°,700°,°C,分別為0毫米、毫米和570°C。這些點(diǎn)的溫度超過(guò)1500 C ~°有望熔合區(qū)內(nèi),而在2.5毫米的距離(母材)無(wú)固態(tài)相變的發(fā)生,因?yàn)樵谶@個(gè)位置的峰值溫度低于Ac1溫度(700°C)。
根據(jù)連續(xù)冷卻轉(zhuǎn)變(CCT)508鋼[ 23 ]圖,為形成馬氏體臨界冷卻速度為900°C/min(15°C/S)。根據(jù)模擬結(jié)果,在900和420°C(馬氏體開(kāi)始溫度)之間的溫度范圍內(nèi)的平均冷卻速率,在0毫米,0.5毫米和1.5毫米的焊縫中心線的位置是675°c++,608°C和246°C /秒,分別。這些冷卻速度比馬氏體形成的臨界冷卻速度快得多。這意味著,熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)幾乎肯定會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)轳R氏體。根據(jù)仿真結(jié)果,從焊縫中心線的距離為2毫米,最高溫度約為700°C(即AC1溫度)。這一地區(qū)可能會(huì)接近ICHAZ的外邊界。在距離焊縫中心線下2毫米,氣溫將高于700°C,但低于800°C(Ac3溫度)。本區(qū)(ICHAZ)只能部分轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)閵W氏體的焊接熱循環(huán)過(guò)程中的。在隨后的快速冷卻過(guò)程中,任何新產(chǎn)生的奧氏體將被淬火形成馬氏體。當(dāng)馬氏體轉(zhuǎn)變停止,在這個(gè)溫度仍會(huì)ICHAZ足夠高的馬氏體自回火。然而,其他未轉(zhuǎn)化的材料(即材料不發(fā)生奧氏體化)將被保留,這可能采取的形式的過(guò)度回火鐵氧體或貝氏體。在ICHAZ的最終組織將可能包括貝氏體和馬氏體的混合了回火馬氏體,如圖7所示
(一)。
在焊縫中心線的距離為1.5毫米,峰值溫度約為920°,根據(jù)模擬結(jié)果。的距離為1.5毫米,約1.8毫米之間的峰值溫度將下降920°C和800°這區(qū)域?qū)?yīng)FGHAZ之間。在FGHAZ峰值溫度略高于Ac3溫度(800°C)。材料是完全重新奧氏體化在這一地區(qū),但有限的奧氏體晶粒生長(zhǎng)由于相對(duì)較低的峰值溫度和時(shí)間很短的時(shí)間在這個(gè)溫度范圍[ 28 ]和[ 46 ]。在下面的快速冷卻過(guò)程中,這種細(xì)粒度的奧氏體轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)轳R氏體,在冷卻過(guò)程中會(huì)有一定的馬氏體。在FGHAZ最終組織將馬氏體混合一些汽車(chē)回火馬氏體。的微觀結(jié)構(gòu)和晶粒尺寸可以看到在圖7(乙)組織在熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)的每個(gè)子帶的GTA焊接接頭幾乎相同的激光焊接接頭對(duì)應(yīng)的子區(qū)域。然而,有更多的回火馬氏體在每個(gè)子區(qū)域,由于較高的熱輸入和較慢的冷卻速率與GTA焊接和激光焊接相比。4.2不同子帶力學(xué)性能與微觀結(jié)構(gòu)的關(guān)系
MS(馬氏體開(kāi)始)SA508鋼溫度大約是420°C和馬氏體的臨界冷卻速率約為15°C/S [ 23 ]。該鋼的溫度相對(duì)較高,馬氏體形成的臨界冷卻速度相對(duì)較低。這可能導(dǎo)致GTA焊接熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)轳R氏體。冷卻速率在激光焊接熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)經(jīng)歷了比馬氏體轉(zhuǎn)變的臨界冷卻速度高出約20至40倍。這樣的結(jié)果是所有的熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)向馬氏體轉(zhuǎn)變。具有高硬度馬氏體是在激光焊接熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)的產(chǎn)生,以及在焊接條件下,激光的熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)的顯微硬度焊縫超過(guò)一倍,相比于基體材料。這也發(fā)生在手動(dòng)自體GTA焊接接頭。這表明,508鋼的情況下預(yù)熱,GTA焊接在硬化焊接接頭激光焊接具有相同的效果。如圖7所示,從粗晶區(qū)各子區(qū)的顯微組織變化(熱)為細(xì)晶區(qū)(FGHAZ)然后一部分奧氏體化區(qū)(ICHAZ)隨著距離的增加從熔合線。晶粒尺寸的變化,因?yàn)樵诓煌淖訋У牟煌臒嵫h(huán)。在焊接條件下,在粗晶區(qū)和細(xì)晶區(qū)變化在410 HV0.3的硬度,這是約的基礎(chǔ)材料,雙(200 HV0.3),而在ICHAZ的顯微硬度明顯低于~ 300 HV0.3。鋼的強(qiáng)度和硬度之間有一個(gè)大致的比例關(guān)系,具有更高強(qiáng)度的材料,盡管這并不總是這種情況。熔合區(qū)的優(yōu)勢(shì)和熱影響區(qū)各子區(qū)主要由馬氏體碳化物沉淀在這些子區(qū)域和精細(xì)的改進(jìn)。硬度測(cè)試結(jié)果表明,焊縫金屬的屈服強(qiáng)度可以等于甚至超過(guò)的熱影響區(qū)。在焊接熱影響區(qū)的亞區(qū)的顯微硬度分布與焊后熱處理之前,在熱影響區(qū)的亞區(qū)的屈服強(qiáng)度一致,如Lee等人的工作報(bào)告。[ 12 ]在SA508鋼。他們表明,屈服強(qiáng)度超過(guò)1100兆帕的粗晶區(qū)和細(xì)晶區(qū),也是基料約雙屈服強(qiáng)度(500 MPa),而ICHAZ的屈服強(qiáng)度約600 MPa [ 12 ]。由于在ICHAZ材料只有部分轉(zhuǎn)化為馬氏體,在焊接過(guò)程中及其他未轉(zhuǎn)化的材料保留,對(duì)ICHAZ的屈服強(qiáng)度低于粗晶區(qū)和細(xì)晶區(qū)的材料完全轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)轳R氏體。此外,由于較高的熱輸入和較慢的冷卻速率與GTA焊接和激光焊接相比,更是自回火馬氏體在冷卻過(guò)程中,使硬度在GTA焊接接頭熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)低于激光焊接接頭。當(dāng)然,我們必須牢記,SA508鋼會(huì)一直進(jìn)行焊后熱處理焊后和大多數(shù),如果不是所有的相變硬化,將逆轉(zhuǎn)。不過(guò)值得建立在何種程度上的鋼可能脆化的激光焊接工藝,和脆化的潛力一般會(huì)在焊接條件下最大。
與焊接過(guò)程中的硬化導(dǎo)致的焊接拉伸試驗(yàn)樣品的基礎(chǔ)材料,沒(méi)有任何損失的強(qiáng)度。此外,窄熔合區(qū)是激光焊接的典型特征。這兩個(gè)因素將有助于在激光焊接試樣的夏比沖擊試驗(yàn)的困難,即裂紋偏離焊縫為基料,從而誤導(dǎo)沖擊韌性的結(jié)果。一種激光焊接的夏比沖擊試樣失敗具有較低的能量吸收值(66 J)進(jìn)行測(cè)試時(shí),在?40°這可能由于啟動(dòng)從缺口和偏離到基體材料中裂紋的發(fā)生,然后繼續(xù)通過(guò)熱影響區(qū)傳播。此試樣的裂紋路徑可以在圖14中看到?;w材料可以吸收一定的能量,但脆性區(qū)可以吸收較少的能量在骨折。另一個(gè)激光焊接試樣失效具有更低的能量吸收值45,測(cè)試時(shí)在20?°這可能是由于啟動(dòng)從缺口裂紋并擴(kuò)展直接通過(guò)熱影響區(qū)。斷裂路徑(通過(guò)HAZ)此標(biāo)本圖14中可以看出(D)。脆性區(qū)不能吸收太多的能量在斷裂之前。然而,還有其他兩個(gè)激光焊接試樣的斷裂具有更高的吸收能量(約100 J)在?40°C和?20°C,分別。這可能是由于從缺口開(kāi)始的裂縫,然后直接傳播的基礎(chǔ)材料。這些激光焊接試樣的吸收的能量被發(fā)現(xiàn)要比那些在相應(yīng)的測(cè)試溫度下的基材料的更高。這可能歸因于裂紋的彎曲的傳播路徑,從而增加了該地區(qū)的斷裂面相比,從基底材料中提取的試樣,從而增加了吸收的能量。曲線的旅行路徑可以在圖14中看到(乙)和(2)。所有的標(biāo)本中提取的基礎(chǔ)材料斷裂的方式,與缺口對(duì)準(zhǔn),與一個(gè)相對(duì)直的路徑,如圖14所示。5結(jié)論
從這項(xiàng)工作中可以得出以下結(jié)論:(1)
激光焊接過(guò)程中產(chǎn)生的可接受的焊縫焊接6毫米厚的鋼板508在較寬的范圍內(nèi)的焊接參數(shù)。焊縫無(wú)宏觀缺陷。(2)
在焊接條件下,在一個(gè)6毫米厚鋼板的激光焊接SA508機(jī)械性能類(lèi)似于自體GTA焊接性能。焊縫拉伸試樣斷裂在母材遠(yuǎn)離焊接區(qū)。(3)
吸收能量的融合區(qū)的激光焊接被認(rèn)為是比母材,基于子尺寸夏比沖擊試樣。(4)
為激光和GTA焊接試樣在熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)的硬度,在焊接條件下,約為基體材料的雙,為激光焊接稍高的測(cè)量值(~ 430 HV0.3)比GTA焊接(~ 410 HV0.3)。(5)
有限元模型的建立,在激光焊接過(guò)程中的冷卻速率的情況下預(yù)熱的20和40倍以上的馬氏體形成的臨界冷卻速度。這表明,馬氏體組織幾乎總是在SA508鋼作為激光焊接的后果。這些研究結(jié)果證實(shí)了實(shí)驗(yàn)工作,其中在激光熔合區(qū)和熱影響區(qū)焊接焊接頭的組織被發(fā)現(xiàn)包括馬氏體混合一些自回火馬氏體。(6)
而這些初步結(jié)果是令人鼓舞的,現(xiàn)在需要進(jìn)一步的工作來(lái)評(píng)估在焊后熱處理?xiàng)l件對(duì)SA508鋼激光焊接性能,而且同樣重要的是,這項(xiàng)工作擴(kuò)展到評(píng)估在材料厚截面焊接接頭激光性能。
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第五篇:交通運(yùn)輸外文翻譯外文文獻(xiàn)
交通事故分析的可能性和局限性
S.Oppe 關(guān)鍵字:后果;目的;描述;限制;關(guān)注;事故分析;可能性
摘要:交通事故的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)字,尤其國(guó)家一級(jí)的數(shù)據(jù)對(duì)監(jiān)控和預(yù)測(cè)事故的發(fā)展,積極或消極檢測(cè)事故的發(fā)展,以及對(duì)定義安全目標(biāo)和評(píng)估工業(yè)安全特別有益。事故分析是應(yīng)用非常有限的分析,是前瞻性分析和回顧性分析,能夠?qū)π麻_(kāi)發(fā)的交通安全系統(tǒng)和特殊過(guò)程的安全措施進(jìn)行評(píng)價(jià)。目前迫切需要一個(gè)將實(shí)時(shí)事故分析與研究相結(jié)合的行為。將自動(dòng)檢測(cè)和視頻錄制相結(jié)合的研究交通事故的科研論文會(huì)比較容易接受。這種類(lèi)型的研究最終會(huì)對(duì)交通理念有個(gè)完善的認(rèn)識(shí)。
1.簡(jiǎn)介
本文主要是基于個(gè)人的經(jīng)驗(yàn),研究有關(guān)交通安全、安全分析以及事故分析等在研究中的作用。由這些經(jīng)驗(yàn)推導(dǎo)出的哲學(xué)思考就像通過(guò)研究和統(tǒng)計(jì)得出的實(shí)踐觀點(diǎn)。而這些調(diào)查數(shù)字已經(jīng)在其他地方發(fā)表了。
在缺少直接觀察的事故中,許多方法論問(wèn)題的產(chǎn)生,導(dǎo)致不能直接測(cè)試對(duì)結(jié)果持續(xù)討論。通過(guò)看事故視頻來(lái)討論是富有成效的。事實(shí)證明,用來(lái)解釋事故的大部分有關(guān)信息就是事故中缺少的記錄。深入研究還無(wú)法回憶起所有的必要的用來(lái)測(cè)試有關(guān)事故發(fā)生的假設(shè)數(shù)據(jù)。尤其是車(chē)-車(chē)相撞發(fā)生的車(chē)禍,這是在荷蘭城市道路交叉口錄制的視頻,一輛從岔路駛來(lái)的汽車(chē)與主干路的汽車(chē)相撞,下列問(wèn)題可以問(wèn):為什么汽車(chē)來(lái)自次干路上,突然加速后又幾乎停止,撞上了在左側(cè)主路的一輛汽車(chē)呢?為什么沒(méi)有注意到正在駛來(lái)的車(chē)?是不是因?yàn)閮绍?chē)從右邊駛來(lái),司機(jī)因?yàn)榍懊娴慕徊鏋樗麄兲峁┝丝赡苄远锝镉?jì)較?難道他向左看過(guò),但他認(rèn)為停在拐角處的綠色貨車(chē)能讓他停下來(lái)?當(dāng)然,交通狀況并不復(fù)雜。目前這個(gè)事故中沒(méi)有騎自行車(chē)或行人在擁擠路口分散他的注意。如果停著的綠色車(chē)能夠在五分鐘內(nèi)消失,這兩輛車(chē)可能就不會(huì)相撞。在事故發(fā)生的相關(guān)條件下,幾乎不可能觀察下一個(gè)交通行為,因?yàn)榻煌ㄊ鹿适遣豢深A(yù)見(jiàn)的。由于新的視頻設(shè)備和自動(dòng)檢測(cè)事故設(shè)備的不斷發(fā)展,如在收集數(shù)據(jù)方面不需要很高的成本就能變得越來(lái)越逼真。必要的增加數(shù)據(jù)類(lèi)型也能更好的解釋交通中存在的危險(xiǎn)因素。關(guān)于事故分析的可能性和限制性的問(wèn)題是不容易回答的,我們不能確切的分析交通事故。因?yàn)槭鹿史治龊w了每一個(gè)活動(dòng)中的不同背景,并根據(jù)不同的信息來(lái)源范圍來(lái)補(bǔ)充資料,特別是收集事故的數(shù)據(jù),背景資料等,我們首先要看看在交通安全領(lǐng)域的活動(dòng)周期然后再回答事故分析的可能性與限制。這些行為主要是與交通系統(tǒng)的安全管理有關(guān),有些則是相關(guān)的研究活動(dòng)。
應(yīng)該用下面的步驟來(lái)加以區(qū)分: ——檢測(cè)交通安全問(wèn)題;
——描述問(wèn)題和它的主要特征; ——分析其原因分析和改進(jìn)建議; ——選擇和執(zhí)行安全措施; ——評(píng)價(jià)所采取的措施。
雖然這個(gè)周期可以由同一人或一群人做出來(lái),而問(wèn)題在每個(gè)階段(政治/管理或科學(xué))都有不同的背景。我們用事故分析來(lái)描述這一階段。做這個(gè)決定是重要的。很多關(guān)于分析結(jié)果的方法的討論由于忽視之間的區(qū)別而成為徒勞的。政治家或道路管理人員對(duì)道路的個(gè)別事故不是很留意。他們對(duì)事故的看法往往都是一視同仁,因?yàn)榭偟慕Y(jié)果比整個(gè)事故中的每個(gè)人的因素重要。因此,每次事故看做一個(gè)個(gè)體,之間相互協(xié)調(diào)就會(huì)達(dá)成安全的結(jié)果。
研究人員研究事故發(fā)生時(shí)一連串事件中每個(gè)人的興趣。希望從中得到關(guān)于每次事故的詳細(xì)信息并能發(fā)現(xiàn)其發(fā)生的原因和有關(guān)的條件。政治家們希望只是因?yàn)榧?xì)節(jié)決定行動(dòng)。在最高一級(jí)事故總數(shù)減少。信息的主要來(lái)源是國(guó)家數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)及其統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)處理系統(tǒng)。對(duì)他來(lái)說(shuō),統(tǒng)計(jì)意外數(shù)字及其統(tǒng)計(jì)的波動(dòng)來(lái)進(jìn)行事故分析。這適用于事故分析中的交通安全領(lǐng)域。因此,我們將首先描述了事故的這些方面。2.事故的性質(zhì)和它們的統(tǒng)計(jì)特性
事故基本概念是意外,不管是其發(fā)生的原因還是引起事故出現(xiàn)的過(guò)程。兩個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的假設(shè)通常是來(lái)描述交通事故的形成過(guò)程:
-事故發(fā)生的概率與以往發(fā)生的事故之間是獨(dú)立;-事故發(fā)生在時(shí)間上是同性質(zhì)的
如果這兩個(gè)假設(shè)成立,那么事故是泊松分布。第一個(gè)假設(shè)與大多數(shù)的批判不符。事故是罕見(jiàn)的事件,因此不會(huì)受到以前事故的影響。在某些情況下,有一個(gè)直接的因果鏈(例如,大量的車(chē)開(kāi)到一起)這一系列的事故被認(rèn)為是一個(gè)個(gè)體事故但包含許多的車(chē)。這個(gè)假設(shè)并不適用于統(tǒng)計(jì)人員傷亡。傷亡人數(shù)往往與同一事故有關(guān),因此,獨(dú)立性假設(shè)不成立。第二個(gè)假設(shè)乍一看似乎不太容易理解。穿越空間或在不同地點(diǎn)發(fā)生的的事故同樣具有可能性。然而,假設(shè)需要很長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間并且沒(méi)有緩繳期。其性質(zhì)是根據(jù)理論的假設(shè)。如果其短時(shí)間內(nèi)能成立,那么它也適用于長(zhǎng)時(shí)間,因?yàn)椴此煞植甲兞康目偤停词顾麄兊牟此陕适遣煌?,但也屬于泊松分布。?duì)于這些時(shí)期的總和泊松率則等于為這些地方的泊松率的總和。假設(shè)與一個(gè)真正的情況相比較計(jì)數(shù),無(wú)論是從一兩個(gè)結(jié)果還是總情況來(lái)看都有一個(gè)基本情況比較符合。
例如,對(duì)比在一年中特定的一天例如下一天,下一個(gè)星期的一天發(fā)生的交通事故。如果條件是相同的(同一時(shí)間,交通情況相同,同樣的天氣條件等),那么由此產(chǎn)生的意外數(shù)字是相同的泊松過(guò)程的結(jié)果。這一假設(shè)可以通過(guò)估算進(jìn)行測(cè)試的兩個(gè)觀測(cè)值的基礎(chǔ)上(估計(jì)是兩個(gè)值的平均值)的速度參數(shù)。概率理論能夠
考慮到這兩個(gè)觀察值的平均,用于計(jì)算的平等假設(shè)的可能性。這是一個(gè)相當(dāng)強(qiáng)大的統(tǒng)計(jì)過(guò)程。泊松假設(shè)是研究了很多次,來(lái)獲得證據(jù)支持。它已經(jīng)應(yīng)用于許多情況,數(shù)的差異表明在安全性的差異然后確定是否發(fā)生意外。這一程序的主要目的是檢測(cè)在安全分歧。這可能是一個(gè)時(shí)間上的差異,或不同的地方或不同的條件。這種差異可以指導(dǎo)改進(jìn)的過(guò)程。由于主要關(guān)注的是,以減少意外的發(fā)生,這種分析可能導(dǎo)致對(duì)治療中最有前途的領(lǐng)域。為這樣一個(gè)測(cè)試應(yīng)用程序的必要條件是,那意外的數(shù)字進(jìn)行比較是大到足以證明存在的分歧。在許多地方情況下,一個(gè)應(yīng)用程序是不可能的。事故黑點(diǎn)分析往往阻礙了這一限制,例如,如果應(yīng)用這種測(cè)試,找出事故是否在特定的位置數(shù)是高于平均水平。該程序的描述,也可以使用,如果發(fā)生意外乃根據(jù)數(shù)的特點(diǎn)找到有前途的安全目標(biāo)。不僅聚集,而且還與分類(lèi)泊松假設(shè)成立,而意外數(shù)字可以相互測(cè)試的泊松假設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)。這種測(cè)試是相當(dāng)麻煩的,因?yàn)槊總€(gè)特定的情況下,每一個(gè)不同的泊松參數(shù),即,對(duì)所有可能結(jié)果的概率必須計(jì)算應(yīng)用測(cè)試。然后,泊松分布近似為正態(tài)分布,均值和方差等于泊松參數(shù)。一旦均值和方差的正態(tài)分布,給出了所有的測(cè)試可以改寫(xiě)了標(biāo)準(zhǔn)零均值和
方差的正態(tài)分布條件。沒(méi)有任何更多的必要計(jì)算,但測(cè)試統(tǒng)計(jì),需要利用表繪制。3.行車(chē)安全政策事故統(tǒng)計(jì)的應(yīng)用
分析那些假設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)上描述的測(cè)試程序的類(lèi)型及其優(yōu)點(diǎn)。這種應(yīng)用最好的例子是為一個(gè)國(guó)家或地區(qū)進(jìn)行超過(guò)一年的安全監(jiān)測(cè),用事故的總體數(shù)據(jù)(最終的特定類(lèi)型,如死亡事故)與前幾年的數(shù)據(jù)相比較。根據(jù)數(shù)年的事故序列,能夠分析出它的發(fā)展趨勢(shì),并大致預(yù)測(cè)以后幾年的事故數(shù)量。一旦建立了這樣一種趨勢(shì),那么在誤差范圍內(nèi)未來(lái)一年或幾年都可以預(yù)見(jiàn)。從一個(gè)給定趨勢(shì)的偏差也可以進(jìn)行預(yù)測(cè)新的事件。最有名的是斯米德在1949年進(jìn)行的分析。我們將討論這個(gè)事故類(lèi)型分析更詳細(xì)的內(nèi)容。
1、該測(cè)試應(yīng)用推廣到高階分類(lèi)。Foldvary和Lane(1974),在衡量強(qiáng)制佩戴安全帶的效果,誰(shuí)是最早應(yīng)用于值的4路表高階相互作用的總卡方分配的。
2、測(cè)試不局限于總體影響,但卡方值就可以分解模型內(nèi)子假說(shuō)。另外,在雙向表,卡方總可以分解成零件表互動(dòng)的作用。對(duì)1的優(yōu)勢(shì)。和2。比以前的情況是,這對(duì)許多相互關(guān)聯(lián)的(子)表和相應(yīng)的智廣場(chǎng)卡方檢驗(yàn)是由大量分析,取而代之的是一個(gè)一卡方的確切劃分。
3、投入更多關(guān)注的是參數(shù)估計(jì)。例如,在卡方分割使人們有可能以測(cè)試有關(guān)行參數(shù)的線性或二次限制或趨勢(shì)的不連續(xù)性。
4、分析的單位是從數(shù)到廣義加權(quán)計(jì)數(shù)。這對(duì)于道路安全分析,那里一段時(shí)間,道路使用者的數(shù)量,地點(diǎn)或公里數(shù)的車(chē)輛往往是必要的修正有利。最后一個(gè)選項(xiàng)是沒(méi)有發(fā)現(xiàn)在許多統(tǒng)計(jì)軟件包。安徒生1977年給出了一個(gè)用于道路雙向安全分析表的例子。工資保障運(yùn)動(dòng)的一個(gè)計(jì)算機(jī)程序。這一級(jí)沒(méi)有說(shuō)明事故原因分
析。它會(huì)嘗試檢測(cè)安全問(wèn)題需要特別注意。所需的基本信息包括事故數(shù)字,來(lái)形容不安全總額,暴露的數(shù)據(jù)來(lái)計(jì)算風(fēng)險(xiǎn),并找到一個(gè)高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的情況下或(團(tuán)體)道路使用者。
4.事故分析研究目的
交通安全的研究是有關(guān)的事故及其后果的發(fā)生。因此,人們可能會(huì)說(shuō),研究對(duì)象是意外。然而研究人員的興趣較少集中在這個(gè)最后的結(jié)果本身,而是多在進(jìn)程更多的結(jié)果(或不結(jié)果)的事故。因此,最好是把作為他的研究對(duì)象,在流量的重要事件。一個(gè)在交通意外的過(guò)程,結(jié)果是,該實(shí)際發(fā)生是由研究者未落觀測(cè)研究的主要問(wèn)題。
調(diào)查一宗交通意外,他將努力重建了間接來(lái)源的事件,如涉及的道路使用者,所提供的資料或目擊者有關(guān)情況,車(chē)輛,道路和司機(jī)的特點(diǎn)。因此這不是科學(xué)獨(dú)特的,也有一個(gè)間接的研究對(duì)象的研究更多的例子。但是,第二個(gè)困難是,該研究的對(duì)象不能被誘發(fā)。有系統(tǒng)的控制實(shí)驗(yàn)手段研究只對(duì)問(wèn)題方面的可能,而不是問(wèn)題本身。
間接觀察和缺乏系統(tǒng)的控制組合使調(diào)查人員很難發(fā)現(xiàn)在什么情況下造成事故的因素。雖然研究人員主要是在事故處理領(lǐng)導(dǎo)有興趣,他幾乎完全信息的后果,它的產(chǎn)品,意外。此外,事故背景是復(fù)雜的。一般來(lái)說(shuō),可分為以下幾個(gè)方面:
-考慮到交通系統(tǒng),交通量和組成國(guó)家,道路使用者,他們的速度,天氣條件下,路面情況,車(chē)輛,道路使用者和他們的相互作用的演習(xí),意外可以或無(wú)法預(yù)防。
-由于發(fā)生事故,也對(duì)這樣的速度和車(chē)輛質(zhì)量的因素,大量的不同,碰撞角度,對(duì)道路使用者和他們的脆弱性,影響等位置的保護(hù),傷害是嚴(yán)重或或多或少物質(zhì)損失是多還是少可觀。雖然這些方面不能獨(dú)立研究從理論的角度看,它也從由此產(chǎn)生的結(jié)果的優(yōu)勢(shì),區(qū)分交通情況有潛在危險(xiǎn)的數(shù)字,是由有一個(gè)意外的可能性,在這種潛在的危險(xiǎn)局勢(shì),給定一個(gè)特定事故。
這個(gè)概念框架是對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的關(guān)于個(gè)別道路使用者,以及上級(jí)的決定控制器的決定制定的一般基礎(chǔ)。在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的數(shù)學(xué)公式,我們需要一個(gè)明確的概率空間的介紹,基本事件(的情況),可能導(dǎo)致事故組成,每個(gè)類(lèi)型的事件的概率,最終收在一次事故中,最后的具體成果,損失,鑒于事故的類(lèi)型。
另一種方法是看事故特征組合,然后找出關(guān)鍵因素。這種類(lèi)型的事故分析是通過(guò)分析事故的共組或子群來(lái)開(kāi)展。事故本身是一個(gè)研究的單位,但也要研究道路因素:道路位置,道路設(shè)計(jì)(如一個(gè)彎道)等。
原文出處:SWOV institute for road safety research Leidschendam(會(huì)議記錄),記錄者,S.Oppe.POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF ACCIDENT
ANALYSIS
S.Oppe Keyword:Consequences;purposes;describe;Limitations;concerned;Accident Analysis;possibilities Abstraet:Accident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the(product)evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures.The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for(process)evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures.There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research.Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research.This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.1.Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research.These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis.A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly.For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video.It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record.In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident.For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked:Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him the possibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated.At the moment of the accident there were no 5
bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection.The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace.It is hardly possible to observe traffic behaviour under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips.Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs.Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behaviour as a reference base.The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered.We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis.Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, specially collected accident data, behavioural background data etc.To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety.Some of these activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system, some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:description of the problem and its main characteristics;selection and implementation of safety measures;the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed.The first assumption does not meet much criticism.Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents.In some cases where there is a direct causal chain(e.g., when a number of cars run into each other)the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties.Casualties are often related to the same accident and therefore the independency assumption does not hold.The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight.The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely.However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods.It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature.If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed.The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of(composite)situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations.E.g., the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day(the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.).If the conditions are assumed to be the same(same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.)then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process.This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values(the estimate being the average of the two values).Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful.The Poisson assumption is investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence.It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety.The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety.This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions.Such differences may guide the process of improvement.Because the main concern is to reduce the 7
number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment.A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences.In many local cases an application is not possible.Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average.The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets.Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions.Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e.for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test.In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large.Then the Poisson distribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter.Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one.No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3.The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned.The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents(eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before.If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years.Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds.Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned.The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949.We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.1.The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications.Foldvary and Lane(1974), in measuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.2.Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model.Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables.The advantage of 1.and 2.over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated(sub)tables and
corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.3.More attention is put to parameter estimation.E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.4.The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts.This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary.The last option is not found in many statistical packages.Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table.A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV(see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976).The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory.It tries to detect safety problems that need special attention.The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or(groups of)road users with a high level of risk.4.Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences.Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident.The researchers interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results(or does not result)in accidents.Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study.One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers.As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research.However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked.Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself.The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detect which factors, under what circumstances cause an accident.Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident.Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated.Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial.Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels.In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consisting of the elementary events(the situations)that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors.This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups.The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design(e.g.a roundabout)etc.