第一篇:機(jī)器人外文翻譯(文獻(xiàn)翻譯_中英文翻譯)
外文翻譯
外文資料:
Robots First, I explain the background robots, robot technology development.It should be said it is a common scientific and technological development of a comprehensive results, for the socio-economic development of a significant impact on a science and technology.It attributed the development of all countries in the Second World War to strengthen the economic input on strengthening the country's economic development.But they also demand the development of the productive forces the inevitable result of human development itself is the inevitable result then with the development of humanity, people constantly discuss the natural process, in understanding and reconstructing the natural process, people need to be able to liberate a slave.So this is the slave people to be able to replace the complex and engaged in heavy manual labor, People do not realize right up to the world's understanding and transformation of this technology as well as people in the development process of an objective need.Robots are three stages of development, in other words, we are accustomed to regarding robots are divided into three categories.is a first-generation robots, also known as teach-type robot, it is through a computer, to control over one of a mechanical degrees of freedom Through teaching and information stored procedures, working hours to read out information, and then issued a directive so the robot can repeat according to the people at that time said the results show this kind of movement again, For example, the car spot welding robots, only to put this spot welding process, after teaching, and it is always a repeat of a work It has the external environment is no perception that the force manipulation of the size of the work piece there does not exist, welding 0S It does not know, then this fact from the first generation robot, it will exist this shortcoming, it in the 20th century, the late 1970s, people started to study the second-generation robot, called Robot with the feeling that This feeling with the robot is similar in function of a certain feeling, for instance, force and touch, slipping, visual, hearing and who is analogous to that with all kinds of feelings, say in a robot grasping objects, In fact, it can be the size of feeling out, it can through visual, to be able to feel and identify its shape, size, color Grasping an egg, it adopted a acumen, aware of its power and the size of the slide.Third-generation robots, we were a robotics ideal pursued by the most advanced stage, called intelligent robots, So long as tell it what to do, not how to tell it to do, it will be able to complete the campaign, thinking and perception of this man-machine communication function and function Well, this current development or relative is in a smart part of the concept and meaning But the real significance of the integrity of this intelligent robot did not actually exist, but as we continued the development of science and technology, the concept of intelligent increasingly rich, it grows ever wider connotations.Now, I would like to briefly outline some of the industrial robot situation.So far, the industrial robot is the most mature and widely used category of a robot, now the world's total sales of 1.1 million Taiwan, which is the 1999 statistics, however, 1.1 million in Taiwan have been using the equipment is 75 million, this volume is not small.Overall, the Japanese industrial robots in this one, is the first of the robots to become the Kingdom, the United States have developed rapidly.Newly installed in several areas of Taiwan, which already exceeds Japan, China has only just begun to enter the stage of industrialization, has developed a variety of industrial robot prototype and small batch has been used in production.Spot welding robot is the auto production line, improve production efficiency and raise the quality of welding car, reduce the labor intensity of a robot.It is characterized by two pairs of robots for spot welding of steel plate, bearing a great need for the welding tongs, general in dozens of kilograms or more, then its speed in meters per second a 5-2 meter of such high-speed movement.So it is generally five to six degrees of freedom, load 30 to 120 kilograms, the great space, probably expected that the work of a spherical space, a high velocity, the concept of freedom, that is to say, Movement is relatively independent of the number of components, the equivalent of our body, waist is a rotary degree of freedom We have to be able to hold his arm, Arm can be bent, then this three degrees of freedom, Meanwhile there is a wrist posture adjustment to the use of the three autonomy, the general robot has six degrees of freedom.We will be able to space the three locations, three postures, the robot fully achieved, and of course we have less than six degrees of freedom.Have more than six degrees of freedom robot, in different occasions the need to configure.The second category of service robots, with the development of industrialization, especially in the past decade, Robot development in the areas of application are continuously expanding, and now a very important characteristic, as we all know, Robot has gradually shifted from manufacturing to non-manufacturing and service industries, we are talking about the car manufacturer belonging to the manufacturing industry, However, the services sector including cleaning, refueling, rescue, rescue, relief, etc.These belong to the non-manufacturing industries and service industries, so here is compared with the industrial robot, it is a very important difference.It is primarily a mobile platform, it can move to sports, there are some arms operate, also installed some as a force sensor and visual sensors, ultrasonic ranging sensors, etc.It’s surrounding environment for the conduct of identification, to determine its campaign to complete some work, this is service robot’s one of the basic characteristics.For example, domestic robot is mainly embodied in the example of some of the carpets and flooring it to the regular cleaning and vacuuming.The robot it is very meaningful, it has sensors, it can furniture and people can identify, It automatically according to a law put to the ground under the road all cleaned up.This is also the home of some robot performance.The medical robots, nearly five years of relatively rapid development of new application areas.If people in the course of an operation, doctors surgery, is a fatigue, and the other manually operated accuracy is limited.Some universities in Germany, which, facing the spine, lumbar disc disease, the identification, can automatically use the robot-aided positioning, operation and surgery Like the United States have been more than 1,000 cases of human eyeball robot surgery, the robot, also including remote-controlled approach, the right of such gastrointestinal surgery, we see on the television inside.a manipulator, about the thickness fingers such a manipulator, inserted through the abdominal viscera, people on the screen operating the machines hand, it also used the method of laser lesion laser treatment, this is the case, people would not have a very big damage to the human body.In reality, this right as a human liberation is a very good robots, medical robots it is very complex, while it is fully automated to complete all the work, there are difficulties, and generally are people to participate.This is America, the development of such a surgery Lin Bai an example, through the screen, through a remote control operator to control another manipulator, through the realization of the right abdominal surgery A few years ago our country the exhibition, the United States has been successful in achieving the right to the heart valve surgery and bypass surgery.This robot has in the area, caused a great sensation, but also, AESOP's surgical robot, In fact, it through some equipment to some of the lesions inspections, through a manipulator can be achieved on some parts of the operation Also including remotely operated manipulator, and many doctors are able to participate in the robot under surgery Robot doctor to include doctors with pliers, tweezers or a knife to replace the nurses, while lighting automatically to the doctor's movements linked, the doctor hands off, lighting went off, This is very good, a doctor's assistant.Robot is mankind's right-hand man;friendly coexistence can be a reliable friend.In future, we will see and there will be a robot space inside, as a mutual aide and friend.Robots will create the jobs issue.We believe that there would not be a “robot appointment of workers being laid off” situation, because people with the development of society, In fact the people from the heavy physical and dangerous environment liberated, so that people have a better position to work, to create a better spiritual wealth and cultural wealth.譯文資料:
機(jī)器人
首先我介紹一下機(jī)器人產(chǎn)生的背景,機(jī)器人技術(shù)的發(fā)展,它應(yīng)該說是一個(gè)科學(xué)技術(shù)發(fā)展共同的一個(gè)綜合性的結(jié)果,同時(shí),為社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展產(chǎn)生了一個(gè)重大影響的一門科學(xué)技術(shù),它的發(fā)展歸功于在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)中各國(guó)加強(qiáng)了經(jīng)濟(jì)的投入,就加強(qiáng)了本國(guó)的經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展。另一方面它也是生產(chǎn)力發(fā)展的需求的必然結(jié)果,也是人類自身發(fā)展的必然結(jié)果,那么隨著人類的發(fā)展,人們?cè)诓粩嗵接懽匀贿^程中,在認(rèn)識(shí)和改造自然過程中,需要能夠解放人的一種奴隸。那么這種奴隸就是代替人們?nèi)ツ軌驈氖聫?fù)雜和繁重的體力勞動(dòng),實(shí)現(xiàn)人們對(duì)不可達(dá)世界的認(rèn)識(shí)和改造,這也是人們?cè)诳萍及l(fā)展過程中的一個(gè)客觀需要。
機(jī)器人有三個(gè)發(fā)展階段,那么也就是說,我們習(xí)慣于把機(jī)器人分成三類,一種是第一代機(jī)器人,那么也叫示教再現(xiàn)型機(jī)器人,它是通過一個(gè)計(jì)算機(jī),來控制一個(gè)多自由度的一個(gè)機(jī)械,通過示教存儲(chǔ)程序和信息,工作時(shí)把信息讀取出來,然后發(fā)出指令,這樣的話機(jī)器人可以重復(fù)的根據(jù)人當(dāng)時(shí)示教的結(jié)果,再現(xiàn)出這種動(dòng)作,比方說汽車的點(diǎn)焊機(jī)器人,它只要把這個(gè)點(diǎn)焊的過程示教完以后,它總是重復(fù)這樣一種工作,它對(duì)于外界的環(huán)境沒有感知,這個(gè)力操作力的大小,這個(gè)工件存在不存在,焊的好與壞,它并不知道,那么實(shí)際上這種從第一代機(jī)器人,也就存在它這種缺陷,因此,在20世紀(jì)70年代后期,人們開始研究第二代機(jī)器人,叫帶感覺的機(jī)器人,這種帶感覺的機(jī)器人是類似人在某種功能的感覺,比如說力覺、觸覺、滑覺、視覺、聽覺和人進(jìn)行相類比,有了各種各樣的感覺,比方說在機(jī)器人抓一個(gè)物體的時(shí)候,它實(shí)際上力的大小能感覺出來,它能夠通過視覺,能夠去感受和識(shí)別它的形狀、大小、顏色。抓一個(gè)雞蛋,它能通過一個(gè)觸覺,知道它的力的大小和滑動(dòng)的情況。第三代機(jī)器人,也是我們機(jī)器人學(xué)中一個(gè)理想的所追求的最高級(jí)的階段,叫智能機(jī)器人,那么只要告訴它做什么,不用告訴它怎么去做,它就能完成運(yùn)動(dòng),感知思維和人機(jī)通訊的這種功能和機(jī)能,那么這個(gè)目前的發(fā)展還是相對(duì)的只是在局部有這種智能的概念和含義,但真正完整意義的這種智能機(jī)器人實(shí)際上并沒有存在,而只是隨著我們不斷的科學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展,智能的概念越來越豐富,它內(nèi)涵越來越寬。
下邊我簡(jiǎn)單介紹一下工業(yè)機(jī)器人的一些情況。到目前為止,工業(yè)機(jī)器人是最成熟,應(yīng)用最廣泛的一類機(jī)器人,世界總量目前已經(jīng)銷售110萬臺(tái),這是1999年的統(tǒng)計(jì),但這110萬臺(tái)在已經(jīng)進(jìn)行裝備使用的是75萬臺(tái),這個(gè)量也是不小的??傮w情況看,日本在工業(yè)機(jī)器人這一塊,是首位的,成為機(jī)器人的王國(guó),美國(guó)發(fā)展也很迅速,目前在新安裝的臺(tái)數(shù)方面,已經(jīng)超過了日本,中國(guó)剛開始進(jìn)入產(chǎn)業(yè)化的階段,已經(jīng)研制出多種工業(yè)機(jī)器人樣機(jī),已有小批量在生產(chǎn)中使用。
點(diǎn)焊機(jī)器人主要是針對(duì)汽車生產(chǎn)線,提高生產(chǎn)效率,提高汽車焊接的質(zhì)量,降低工人的勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度的一種機(jī)器人。它的特點(diǎn)是通過機(jī)器人對(duì)兩個(gè)鋼板進(jìn)行點(diǎn)焊的時(shí)候,需要承載一個(gè)很大的焊鉗,一般在幾十公斤以上,那么它的速度要求在每秒鐘一米五到兩米這樣的高速運(yùn)動(dòng),所以它一般來說有五到六個(gè)自由度,負(fù)載三十到一百二十公斤,工作的空間很大,大概有兩米,這樣一個(gè)球形的工作空間,運(yùn)動(dòng)速度也很高,那么自由度的概念,就是說,是相對(duì)獨(dú)立運(yùn)動(dòng)的部件的個(gè)數(shù),就相當(dāng)于我們?nèi)梭w,腰是一個(gè)回轉(zhuǎn)的自由度,我們大臂可以抬起來,小臂可以彎曲,那么這就三個(gè)自由度,同時(shí)腕部還有一個(gè)調(diào)整姿態(tài)來使用的三個(gè)自由度,所以一般的機(jī)器人有六個(gè)自由度,就能把空間的三個(gè)位置,三個(gè)姿態(tài),機(jī)器人完全實(shí)現(xiàn),當(dāng)然也有小于六個(gè)自由度的,也有多于六個(gè)自由度的機(jī)器人,只是在不同的需要場(chǎng)合來配置。
第二類是服務(wù)機(jī)器人,隨著工業(yè)化的發(fā)展,尤其近十年以來,機(jī)器人的發(fā)展的應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域在不斷拓寬,目前一個(gè)很重要的特征,大家都知道,機(jī)器人已經(jīng)從制造業(yè)逐漸轉(zhuǎn)向了非制造業(yè)和服務(wù)行業(yè),剛才談的汽車制造屬于是制造業(yè),但服務(wù)行業(yè)包括清潔、加油、救護(hù)、搶險(xiǎn)、救災(zāi)這些等等,都屬于非制造行業(yè)和服務(wù)行業(yè),那么這里邊跟工業(yè)機(jī)器人相比,它有一個(gè)很重要的不同,它主要是一個(gè)移動(dòng)平臺(tái),它能夠移動(dòng)、去運(yùn)動(dòng),上面有一些手臂進(jìn)行操作,同時(shí)還裝有一些像力覺傳感器和視覺傳感器、超聲測(cè)距傳感器等等。它對(duì)周邊的環(huán)境進(jìn)行識(shí)別,來判斷它的運(yùn)動(dòng),完成某種工作,這是服務(wù)機(jī)器人的基本的一個(gè)特點(diǎn)。
例如,家務(wù)機(jī)器人主要體現(xiàn)在像一些對(duì)地毯和地板定期的它能夠進(jìn)行清掃和吸塵,它這個(gè)機(jī)器人很有意思,它有傳感器,它能夠把家具和人能識(shí)別出來,它自動(dòng)的按照一種規(guī)律,能根據(jù)路徑把地面全部的清掃干凈,這也是家務(wù)中一些機(jī)器人的表現(xiàn)。
那么醫(yī)療機(jī)器人,是近五年來發(fā)展比較迅速的一個(gè)新的應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域。如果人手術(shù)的時(shí)候,醫(yī)生來手術(shù),一個(gè)是疲勞,另一個(gè)人手操作的精度還是有限的。在德國(guó)一些大學(xué)里面,面向人的脊椎,如腰間盤突出這種病,進(jìn)行識(shí)別以后,能夠自動(dòng)地用機(jī)器人來輔助進(jìn)行定位,進(jìn)行操作和手術(shù)。像美國(guó)已經(jīng)有一千多例機(jī)器人對(duì)人眼球進(jìn)行手術(shù),這樣的機(jī)器人,還包括通過遙控操作的辦法,實(shí)現(xiàn)對(duì)人的胃腸這種手術(shù),大家在電視里邊看到,一個(gè)機(jī)械手,大概有手指這樣粗細(xì)的一個(gè)機(jī)械手,通過插入腹臟以后,人在屏幕上操作這個(gè)機(jī)器手,同時(shí)對(duì)它用激光的方法對(duì)病灶進(jìn)行激光的治療,這樣的話,人就不用很大幅度地破壞人的身體,這實(shí)際對(duì)人的一種解放,是非常好一種機(jī)器人,醫(yī)療機(jī)器人它也很復(fù)雜,一方面它完全自動(dòng)去完成各種工作,是有困難的,一般來說都是人來參與,這是美國(guó)開發(fā)的一個(gè)林白手術(shù)這樣一個(gè)例子,人通過在屏幕上,通過一個(gè)遙控操作手來控制另一個(gè)機(jī)械手,實(shí)現(xiàn)通過對(duì)人的腹腔進(jìn)行手術(shù),前幾年我們國(guó)家展覽會(huì)上,美國(guó)已經(jīng)成功的實(shí)現(xiàn)了對(duì)人的心臟瓣膜的手術(shù)和搭橋手術(shù),這已經(jīng)在機(jī)器人領(lǐng)域中,引起了很大的轟動(dòng),還包括,AESOP的這種外科手術(shù)機(jī)器人,它實(shí)際上通過一些儀器能夠?qū)θ说囊恍┎∽冞M(jìn)行檢查,通過一個(gè)機(jī)械手就能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)對(duì)人的某些部位進(jìn)行手術(shù),還包括遙操作機(jī)械手,以及多個(gè)醫(yī)生可以在機(jī)器人共同參與下進(jìn)行手術(shù),包括機(jī)器人給大夫醫(yī)生拿鉗子、鑷子或刀子來代替護(hù)士的工作,同時(shí)把照明能夠自動(dòng)的給醫(yī)生的動(dòng)作聯(lián)系起來,醫(yī)生的手到哪兒,照明就去哪兒,這樣非常好的,一個(gè)醫(yī)生的助手。
機(jī)器人是人類的得力助手,能友好相處的可靠朋友,將來我們會(huì)看到人和機(jī)器人會(huì)存在一個(gè)空間里邊,成為一個(gè)互相的助手和朋友。機(jī)器人會(huì)不會(huì)產(chǎn)生飯碗的問題。我們相信不會(huì)出現(xiàn)“機(jī)器人上崗,工人下崗”的局面,因?yàn)槿藗冸S著社會(huì)的發(fā)展,實(shí)際上把人們從繁重的體力和危險(xiǎn)的環(huán)境中解放出來,使人們有更好的崗位去工作,去創(chuàng)造更好的精神財(cái)富和文化財(cái)富。
第二篇:機(jī)器人外文翻譯
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
機(jī) 器 人
工業(yè)機(jī)器人是在生產(chǎn)環(huán)境中以提高生產(chǎn)效率的工具,它能做常規(guī)乏味的裝配線工作,或能做那些對(duì)于工人來說是危險(xiǎn)的工作,例如,第一代工業(yè)機(jī)器人是用來在 核電站中更換核燃料棒,如果人去做這項(xiàng)工作,將會(huì)遭受有害的放射線的輻射。工業(yè)機(jī)器人亦能工作在裝配線上將小元件裝配到一起,如將電子元件安放在電路印制板,這樣,工人就能從這項(xiàng)乏味的常規(guī)工作中解放出來。機(jī)器人也能按程序要求用來拆除炸彈,輔助殘疾人,在社會(huì)的很多應(yīng)用場(chǎng)合下履行職能。
機(jī)器人可以認(rèn)為是將手臂末端的工具、傳感器和(或)手爪移到程序指定位置的一種機(jī)器。當(dāng)機(jī)器人到達(dá)位置后,它將執(zhí)行某種任務(wù)。這些任務(wù)可以是焊接、密封、機(jī)器裝料、拆卸以及裝配工作。除了編程以及系統(tǒng)的開停之外,一般來說這些工作可以在無人干預(yù)下完成。如下敘述的是機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)基本術(shù)語:
1.機(jī)器人是一個(gè)可編程、多功能的機(jī)械手,通過給要完成的不同任務(wù)編制各種動(dòng)作,它可以移動(dòng)零件、材料、工具以及特殊裝置。這個(gè)基本定義引導(dǎo)出后續(xù)段落的其他定義,從而描繪出一個(gè)完整的機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)。
2.預(yù)編程位置點(diǎn)是機(jī)器人為完成工作而必須跟蹤的軌跡。在某些位
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
置點(diǎn)上機(jī)器人將停下來做某些操作,如裝配零件、噴涂油漆或焊接。這些預(yù)編程點(diǎn)貯存在機(jī)器人的貯存器中,并為后續(xù)的連續(xù)操作所調(diào)用,而且這些預(yù)編程點(diǎn)想其他程序數(shù)據(jù)一樣,可在日后隨工作需要而變化。因而,正是這種編程的特征,一個(gè)工業(yè)機(jī)器 人很像一臺(tái)計(jì)算機(jī),數(shù)據(jù)可在這里儲(chǔ)存、后續(xù)調(diào)用與編譯。
3.機(jī)器手是機(jī)器人的手臂,它使機(jī)器人能彎曲、延伸和旋轉(zhuǎn),提供這些運(yùn)動(dòng)的是機(jī)器手的軸,亦是所謂的機(jī)器人的自由度。一個(gè)機(jī)器人能有3~16軸,自由度一詞總是與機(jī)器人軸數(shù)相關(guān)。
4.工具和手爪不是機(jī)器人自身組成部分,但它們是安裝在機(jī)器人手臂末端的附件。這些連在機(jī)器人手臂末端的附件可使機(jī)器人抬起工件、點(diǎn)焊、刷漆、電弧焊、鉆孔、打毛刺以及根據(jù)機(jī)器人的要求去做各種各樣的工作。
5.機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)還可以控制機(jī)器人的工作單元,工作單元是機(jī)器人執(zhí)行任務(wù)所處的整體環(huán)境,該單元包括控制器、機(jī)械手、工作平臺(tái)、安全保護(hù)裝置或者傳輸裝置。所有這些為保證機(jī)器人完成自己任務(wù)而必須的裝置都包括在這一工作單元中。另外,來自外設(shè)的信號(hào)與機(jī)器人通訊,通知機(jī)器人何時(shí)裝配工件、取工件或放工件到傳輸裝置上。機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)有三個(gè)基本部件:機(jī)械手、控制器和動(dòng)力源。
A.機(jī)械手
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
機(jī)械手做機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)中粗重工作,它包括兩個(gè)部分:機(jī)構(gòu)與附件,機(jī)械手也用聯(lián)接附件基座,圖21-1表示了一機(jī)器人基座與附件之間的聯(lián)接情況。
機(jī)械手基座通常固定在工作區(qū)域的地基上,有時(shí)基座也可以移動(dòng),在這種情況下基座安裝在導(dǎo)軌回軌道上,允許機(jī)械手從一個(gè)位置移到另外一個(gè)位置。
正如前面所提到的那樣,附件從機(jī)器人基座上延伸出來,附件就是機(jī)器人的手臂,它可以是直動(dòng)型,也可以是軸節(jié)型手臂,軸節(jié)型手臂也是大家所知的關(guān)節(jié)型手臂。
機(jī)械臂使機(jī)械手產(chǎn)生各軸的運(yùn)動(dòng)。這些軸連在一個(gè)安裝基座上,然后再連到拖架上,拖架確保機(jī)械手停留在某一位置。
在手臂的末端上,連接著手腕(圖21-1),手腕由輔助軸和手腕凸緣組成,手腕是讓機(jī)器人用戶在手腕凸緣上安裝不同的工具來做不同的工作。
機(jī)械手的軸使機(jī)械手在某一區(qū)域內(nèi)執(zhí)行任務(wù),我們將這個(gè)區(qū)域?yàn)闄C(jī)器人的工作單元,該區(qū)域的大小與機(jī)械手的尺寸相對(duì)應(yīng),圖21-2列舉了一個(gè)典型裝配機(jī)器人的工作單元。隨著機(jī)器人機(jī)械結(jié)構(gòu)尺寸的增加,工作單元的范圍也必須相應(yīng)的增加。
機(jī)械手的運(yùn)動(dòng)有執(zhí)行元件或驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)來控制。執(zhí)行元件或驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
允許各軸力經(jīng)機(jī)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)闄C(jī)械能,驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)與機(jī)械傳動(dòng)鏈相匹配。由鏈、齒輪和滾珠絲杠組成的機(jī)械傳動(dòng)鏈驅(qū)動(dòng)著機(jī)器人的各軸。
B.控制器
機(jī)器人控制器是工作單元的核心。控制器儲(chǔ)存著預(yù)編程序供后續(xù)調(diào)用、控制外設(shè),及與廠內(nèi)計(jì)算機(jī)進(jìn)行通訊以滿足產(chǎn)品更新的需要。
控制器用于控制機(jī)械手運(yùn)動(dòng)和在工作單元內(nèi)控制機(jī)器人外設(shè)。用戶可通過手持的示教盒將機(jī)械手運(yùn)動(dòng)的程序編入控制器。這些信息儲(chǔ)存在控制器的儲(chǔ)存器中以備后續(xù)調(diào)用,控制器儲(chǔ)存了機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)的所有編程數(shù)據(jù),它能儲(chǔ)存幾個(gè)不同的程序,并且所有這些程序均能編輯。
控制器要求能夠在工作單元內(nèi)與外設(shè)進(jìn)行通信。例如控制器有一個(gè)輸入端,它能標(biāo)識(shí)某個(gè)機(jī)加工操作何時(shí)完成。當(dāng)該加工循環(huán)完成后,輸入端接通,告訴控制器定位機(jī)械手以便能抓取已加工工件,隨后,機(jī)械手抓取一未加工件,將其放置在機(jī)床上。接著,控制器給機(jī)床發(fā)出開始加工的信號(hào)。
控制器可以由根據(jù)事件順序而步進(jìn)的機(jī)械式輪鼓組成,這種類型的控制器可用在非常簡(jiǎn)單的機(jī)械系統(tǒng)中。用于大多數(shù)機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)中的控制器代表現(xiàn)代電子學(xué)的水平,是更復(fù)雜的裝置,即它們是由微處理器操縱的。這些微處理器可以是8位、16位或32位處理器。它們可以使得控制器在操作過程中顯得非常柔性。
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
控制器能通過通信線發(fā)送電信號(hào),使它能與機(jī)械手各軸交流信息,在機(jī)器人的機(jī)械手和控制器之間的雙向交流信息可以保持系統(tǒng)操作和位置經(jīng)常更新,控制器亦能控制安裝在機(jī)器人手腕上的任何工具。
控制器也有與廠內(nèi)各計(jì)算機(jī)進(jìn)行通信的任務(wù),這種通信聯(lián)系使機(jī)器人成為計(jì)算機(jī)輔助制造(CAM)系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)組成部分。
存儲(chǔ)器。給予微處理器的系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行時(shí)要與固態(tài)的存儲(chǔ)裝置相連,這些存儲(chǔ)裝置可以是磁泡,隨機(jī)存儲(chǔ)器、軟盤、磁帶等。每種記憶存儲(chǔ)裝置均能貯存、編輯信息以備后續(xù)調(diào)用和編輯。
C.動(dòng)力源
動(dòng)力源是給機(jī)器人和機(jī)械手提供動(dòng)力的單元。傳給機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)的動(dòng)力源有兩種,一種是用于控制器的交流電,另一種是用于驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)械手各軸的動(dòng)力源,例如,如果機(jī)器人的機(jī)械手是有液壓和氣壓驅(qū)動(dòng)的,控制信號(hào)便傳送到這些裝置中,驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)器人運(yùn)動(dòng)。
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
液壓與氣壓系統(tǒng)
僅有以下三種基本方法傳遞動(dòng)力:電氣,機(jī)械和流體。大多數(shù)應(yīng)用系統(tǒng)實(shí)際上是將三種方法組合起來而得到最有效的最全面的系統(tǒng)。為了合理地確定采取哪種方法。重要的是了解各種方法的顯著特征。例如液壓系統(tǒng)在長(zhǎng)距離上比機(jī)械系統(tǒng)更能經(jīng)濟(jì)地傳遞動(dòng)力。然而液壓系統(tǒng)與電氣系統(tǒng)相比,傳遞動(dòng)力的距離較短。
液壓動(dòng)力傳遞系統(tǒng)涉及電動(dòng)機(jī),調(diào)節(jié)裝置和壓力和流量控制,總的來說,該系統(tǒng)包括:
泵:將原動(dòng)機(jī)的能量轉(zhuǎn)換成作用在執(zhí)行部件上的液壓能。閥:控制泵產(chǎn)生流體的運(yùn)動(dòng)方向、產(chǎn)生的功率的大小,以及到達(dá)執(zhí)行部件流體的流量。功率大小取決于對(duì)流量和壓力大小的控制。
執(zhí)行部件:將液壓能轉(zhuǎn)成可用的機(jī)械能。
介質(zhì)即油液:可進(jìn)行無壓縮傳遞和控制,同時(shí)可以潤(rùn)滑部件,使閥體密封和系統(tǒng)冷卻。
聯(lián)接件:聯(lián)接各個(gè)系統(tǒng)部件,為壓力流體提供功率傳輸通路,將液體返回油箱(貯油器)。
油液貯存和調(diào)節(jié)裝置:用來確保提供足夠質(zhì)量和數(shù)量并冷卻的液體。
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
液壓系統(tǒng)在工業(yè)中應(yīng)用廣泛。例如沖壓`鋼類工件的磨削幾一般加工業(yè)、農(nóng)業(yè)、礦業(yè)、航天技術(shù)、深海勘探、運(yùn)輸、海洋技術(shù),近海天然氣和石油勘探等行業(yè),簡(jiǎn)而言之,在日常生活中有人不從液壓技術(shù)中得到某種益處。
液壓系統(tǒng)成功而又廣泛使用的秘密在于它的通用性和易操作性。液壓動(dòng)力傳遞不會(huì)象機(jī)械系統(tǒng)那樣受到機(jī)器幾何形狀的制約,另外,液壓系統(tǒng)不會(huì)像電氣系統(tǒng)那樣受到材料物理性能的制約,它對(duì)傳遞功率幾乎沒有量的限制。例如,一個(gè)電磁體的性能受到鋼的磁飽和極限的限制,相反,液壓系統(tǒng)的功率僅僅受材料強(qiáng)度的限制。
企業(yè)為了提高生產(chǎn)率將越來越依靠自動(dòng)化,這包括遠(yuǎn)程和直接控制生產(chǎn)操作、加工過程和材料處理等。液壓動(dòng)力之所以成為自動(dòng)化的組成部分,是因?yàn)樗腥缦轮饕奶攸c(diǎn):
1.控制方便精確
通過一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的操作桿和按扭,液壓系統(tǒng)的操作者便能立即起動(dòng),停止、加減速和能提供任意功率、位置精度為萬分之一英寸的位置控制力。圖13-1是一個(gè)使飛機(jī)駕駛員升起和落下起落架的液壓系統(tǒng),當(dāng)飛行向某方向移動(dòng)控制閥,壓力油流入液壓缸的某一腔從而降下起落架。飛行員向反方向移動(dòng)控制閥,允許油液進(jìn)入液壓缸的另一腔,便收回起落架。
2.增力 一個(gè)液壓系統(tǒng)(沒有使用笨重的齒輪、滑輪和杠桿)能簡(jiǎn)單
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
有效地將不到一盎司的力放大產(chǎn)生幾百噸的輸出。
3.恒力或恒扭矩
只有液壓系統(tǒng)能提供不隨速度變化而變化的恒力或恒扭矩,他可以驅(qū)動(dòng)對(duì)象從每小時(shí)移動(dòng)幾英寸到每分鐘幾百英寸,從每小時(shí)幾轉(zhuǎn)到每分鐘幾千轉(zhuǎn)。
4.簡(jiǎn)便、安全、經(jīng)濟(jì)
總的來說,液壓系統(tǒng)比機(jī)械或電氣系統(tǒng)使用更少的運(yùn)動(dòng)部件,因此,它們運(yùn)行與維護(hù)簡(jiǎn)便。這使得系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊,安全可靠。例如 一種用于車輛上的新型動(dòng)力轉(zhuǎn)向控制裝置一淘汰其他類型的轉(zhuǎn)向動(dòng)力裝置,該轉(zhuǎn)向部件中包含有人力操縱方向控制閥和分配器。因?yàn)檗D(zhuǎn)向部件是全液壓的,沒有方向節(jié)、軸承、減速齒輪等機(jī)械連接,使得系統(tǒng)簡(jiǎn)單緊湊。
另外,只需要輸入很小的扭矩就能產(chǎn)生滿足極其惡劣的工作條件所需的控制力,這對(duì)于因操作空間限制而需要小方向盤的場(chǎng)合很重要,這也是減輕司機(jī)疲勞度所必須的。
液壓系統(tǒng)的其他優(yōu)點(diǎn)包括雙向運(yùn)動(dòng)、過載保護(hù)和無級(jí)變速控制,在已有的任何動(dòng)力、系統(tǒng)中液壓系統(tǒng)也具有最大的單位質(zhì)量功率比。
盡管液壓系統(tǒng)具有如此的高性能,但它不是可以解決所有動(dòng)力傳遞問題的靈丹妙藥。液壓系統(tǒng)也有缺點(diǎn),液壓油有污染,并且泄露不可能完全避免,另外如果油液滲漏發(fā)生在灼熱設(shè)備附近,大多數(shù)液壓油能引起火災(zāi)。
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
氣壓系統(tǒng)
氣壓系統(tǒng)是用壓力氣體傳遞和控制動(dòng)力,正如名稱所表明的那樣,氣壓系統(tǒng)通常用空氣(不用其他氣體)作為流體介質(zhì),因?yàn)榭諝馐前踩?、成本低而又隨處可得的流體,在系統(tǒng)部件中產(chǎn)生電弧有可能點(diǎn)燃泄露物的場(chǎng)合下(使用空氣作為介質(zhì))尤其安全。
在氣壓系統(tǒng)中,壓縮機(jī)用來壓縮并提供所需的空氣。壓縮機(jī)一般有活塞式、葉片式和螺旋式等類型。壓縮機(jī)基本上是根據(jù)理想氣體法則,通過減小氣體體積來增加氣體壓力的。氣壓系統(tǒng)通??紤]采用大的中央空氣壓縮機(jī)作為一個(gè)無限量的氣源,這類似于電力系統(tǒng)中只要將插頭插入插座邊可獲得電能。用這種方法,壓力氣體可以總氣體源輸送到整個(gè)工廠的各個(gè)角落,壓力氣體可通過空氣濾清器除去污物,這些污染可能會(huì)損壞氣動(dòng)組件的精密配合部件如閥和汽缸等,隨后輸送到各個(gè)回路中,接著空氣流經(jīng)減壓閥以減小氣壓值適合某一回路使用。因?yàn)榭諝獠皇呛玫臐?rùn)滑油,氣壓系統(tǒng)需要一個(gè)油霧器將細(xì)小的油霧注射到經(jīng)過減壓閥減壓空氣中,這有幫助于減少氣動(dòng)組件精密配合運(yùn)動(dòng)件的磨損。
由于來自大氣中的空氣含不同數(shù)量的水分,這些水分是有害的,它可以帶走潤(rùn)滑劑引起的過分磨損和腐蝕,因此,在一些使用場(chǎng)合中,要用空氣干燥器來除去這些有還的水分。由于氣壓系統(tǒng)直接向大氣排
沈陽航空工業(yè)學(xué)院學(xué)士學(xué)位論文
氣,會(huì)產(chǎn)生過大的噪聲,因此可在氣閥和執(zhí)行組件排氣口安裝銷聲器來降低噪聲,以防止操作人員因接觸噪聲及高速空氣粒子有可能引發(fā)的傷害。
用氣動(dòng)系統(tǒng)代替液壓系統(tǒng)有以下幾條理由:液體的慣性遠(yuǎn)比氣體大,因此,在液壓系統(tǒng)中,當(dāng)執(zhí)行組件加速減速和閥突然開啟關(guān)閉時(shí),油液的質(zhì)量更是一個(gè)潛在的問題,根據(jù)牛頓運(yùn)動(dòng)定律,產(chǎn)生加速度運(yùn)動(dòng)油液所需的力要比加速同等體積空氣所需的力高出許多倍。液體比氣體具有更大的粘性,這會(huì)因?yàn)閮?nèi)摩擦而引起更大的壓力和功率損失;另外,由于液壓系統(tǒng)使用的液體要與大氣隔絕,故它們需要特殊的油箱和無泄露系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)。氣壓系統(tǒng)使用可以直接排到周圍環(huán)境中的空氣,一般來說氣壓系統(tǒng)沒有液體系統(tǒng)昂貴。
然而,由于空氣的可壓縮性,使得氣壓系統(tǒng)執(zhí)行組件不可能得到精確的速度控制和位置控制。氣壓系統(tǒng)由于壓縮機(jī)局限,其系統(tǒng)壓力相當(dāng)?shù)停ǖ陀?50psi),而液壓力可達(dá)1000psi之高,因此液壓系統(tǒng)可以是大功率系統(tǒng),而氣動(dòng)系統(tǒng)僅用于小功率系統(tǒng),典型例子有沖壓、鉆孔、夾緊、組裝、鉚接、材料處理和邏輯控制操作等。
第三篇:中英文翻譯機(jī)器人
中英文翻譯機(jī)器人
機(jī)器人 工業(yè)機(jī)器人是在生產(chǎn)環(huán)境中用以提高生產(chǎn)效率的工具,它能做常規(guī)的裝配線工作,或能做那些對(duì)于工人來說是危險(xiǎn)的工作,例如,第一代工業(yè)機(jī)器人是用來在核電站中更換核燃料棒,如果人去做這項(xiàng)工作,將會(huì)遭受有害放射線的輻射。工業(yè)機(jī)器人亦能工作在裝配線上將小元件裝配到一起,如將電子元件安裝在電路印刷板,這樣,工人就能從這項(xiàng)乏味的常規(guī)工作中解放出來。機(jī)器人也能按程序要求用來拆除炸彈,輔助殘疾人,在社會(huì)的很多應(yīng)用場(chǎng)合履行職能。機(jī)器人可以認(rèn)為是將手臂末端的工具、傳感器和(或)手爪移到程序指定位置的一種機(jī)器。當(dāng)機(jī)器人到達(dá)位置后,他將執(zhí)行某種任務(wù)。這些任務(wù)可以是焊接、密封、機(jī)器裝料、拆卸以及裝配工作。除了編程以及系統(tǒng)的開停之外,這些工作可以在無人干預(yù)下完成。如下敘述的是機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)基本術(shù)語: 機(jī)器人是一個(gè)可編程、多功能的機(jī)器手,通過給要完成的不同任務(wù)編制各種動(dòng)作,它可以移動(dòng)零件、材料、工具以及特殊裝置。這個(gè)基本定義引導(dǎo)出后續(xù)段落的其他定義,從而描繪出一個(gè)完整的機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)。預(yù)編程位置點(diǎn)是機(jī)器人為完成工作而必須跟蹤的軌跡。在某些位置點(diǎn)上機(jī)器人將停下來做某寫操作,如裝配零件、噴涂油漆或焊接。這些預(yù)編程點(diǎn)貯存在機(jī)器人的貯存器中,并為后續(xù)的連續(xù)操作所調(diào)用,而且這些預(yù)編程點(diǎn)像其他程序數(shù)據(jù)一樣,可在日后隨工作需要而變化。因而,正是這種可編程的特征,一個(gè)工業(yè)機(jī)器人很像一臺(tái)計(jì)算機(jī),數(shù)據(jù)可在這里儲(chǔ)存、后續(xù)調(diào)用與編輯。機(jī)械手上機(jī)器人的手臂,它使機(jī)器人能彎曲、延伸、和旋轉(zhuǎn),提供這些運(yùn)動(dòng)的是機(jī)器手的軸,亦是所謂的機(jī)器人的自由度。一個(gè)機(jī)器人能有 3—16 軸,自由度一詞總是與機(jī)器人軸數(shù)相關(guān)。工具和手爪不是機(jī)器人自身組成部分,但它們安裝在機(jī)器人手臂末端的附件。這些連在機(jī)器人手臂末端的附件可使機(jī)器人抬起工件、點(diǎn)焊、刷漆、電弧焊、鉆孔、打毛刺以及根據(jù)機(jī)器人的要求去做各種各樣的工作。機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)還可以控制機(jī)器人的工作單元,工作單元是機(jī)器人執(zhí)行任務(wù)所處的整體環(huán)境,包括控制器、機(jī)械手、工作平臺(tái)、安全保護(hù)裝置或者傳輸裝置。所有這些為保證機(jī)器人完成自己任務(wù)而必需的裝置都包括在這一工作單元中。另外,來自外設(shè)的信號(hào)與機(jī)器人通訊,通知機(jī)器人何時(shí)裝配工件、取工件或放工件到傳輸裝置上。機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)有三個(gè)基本部件:機(jī)械手、控制器和動(dòng)力源。A.機(jī)械手 機(jī)械手做機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)中粗重工作,它包括兩個(gè)部分:機(jī)構(gòu)和附件,機(jī)械手也有聯(lián)接附件基座,圖 1 表示了一機(jī)器人基座與附件之間的聯(lián)接情況。圖 1 機(jī)械手基座通常在工作區(qū)域的地基上,有時(shí)基座也可以移動(dòng),在這種情況下基座安裝在導(dǎo)軌或軌道上,允許機(jī)械手從一個(gè)位置移動(dòng)到另外一個(gè)位置。正如前面所提到的那樣,附件從機(jī)器人基座上延伸出來,附件就是機(jī)器人的手臂,它可以是直接型,也可以是軸節(jié)型手臂,軸節(jié)型手臂也是大家所知的關(guān)節(jié)型手臂。機(jī)械臂使機(jī)械手產(chǎn)生各軸的運(yùn)動(dòng)。這些軸連在一個(gè)安裝基座上,然后再連到托架上,托架確保機(jī)械手停留在某一位置。在手臂的末端上,連接著手腕(圖 1),手腕由輔助軸和手腕凸緣組成,手腕是讓機(jī)器人用戶在手腕凸緣上安裝不同工具來做不同種工作。機(jī)械手的軸使機(jī)械手在某一區(qū)域內(nèi)執(zhí)行任務(wù),我們將這個(gè)區(qū)域?yàn)闄C(jī)器人的工作單元,該區(qū)域的大小與機(jī)器手的尺寸相對(duì)應(yīng),(圖 2)列舉了一個(gè)典型裝配機(jī)器人的工作單元。隨著機(jī)器人機(jī)械結(jié)構(gòu)尺寸的增加。工作單元的范圍也必須相應(yīng)增加。圖 2 機(jī)械手的運(yùn)動(dòng)由執(zhí)行元件或驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)來控制。執(zhí)行元件或驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)允許個(gè)軸在工作單元內(nèi)運(yùn)動(dòng)。驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)可用電氣、液壓和氣壓動(dòng)力,驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)所產(chǎn)生的動(dòng)力經(jīng)機(jī)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)闄C(jī)械能,驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)與機(jī)械傳動(dòng)鏈相匹配。有鏈、齒輪和滾珠絲杠組成的機(jī)械傳動(dòng)鏈驅(qū)動(dòng)著機(jī)器人的各軸。B.控制器 機(jī)器人控制器是工作單元的核心??刂破鲀?chǔ)存著預(yù)編程序供調(diào)用、控制外設(shè),及與廠內(nèi)計(jì)算進(jìn)行通訊以滿足產(chǎn)品經(jīng)常更新的需要??刂破饔糜诳刂茩C(jī)器手運(yùn)動(dòng)和在工作單元內(nèi)控制機(jī)器人外設(shè)。用戶可通過手持的示教盒將機(jī)械手運(yùn)動(dòng)的程序編入控制器。這些信息儲(chǔ)存在控制器的存儲(chǔ)器中以備后續(xù)調(diào)用,控制器儲(chǔ)存了機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)的所有編程數(shù)據(jù),它能儲(chǔ)存幾個(gè)不同的程序,并且所有這些程序均能編輯??刂破饕竽軌蛟诠ぷ鲉卧獌?nèi)外設(shè)進(jìn)行通信。例如控制器有一個(gè)輸入端,它能標(biāo)識(shí)某個(gè)機(jī)加工操作何時(shí)完成。當(dāng)該加工循環(huán)完成后,輸入端接通,告訴控制器定位機(jī)械手以便能抓取已加工工件,隨后,機(jī)械手抓取一未加工件,將其放置在機(jī)床上。接著,控制器給機(jī)床發(fā)出開始加工的信號(hào)??刂破骺梢杂筛鶕?jù)事件順序而步進(jìn)的機(jī)械式輪鼓組成,這種類型的控制器可用在非常簡(jiǎn)單的機(jī)械系統(tǒng)中。用于大多數(shù)人系統(tǒng)中的控制器代表現(xiàn)代電子學(xué)的水平,是更復(fù)雜的裝置,即它們是由微處理器操縱的。這些微處理器可以是 8 位,16 位或 32 位處理器。它們可以使得控制器在操縱工程中顯非常柔性??刂破髂芡ㄟ^通信線發(fā)送信號(hào),使它能與機(jī)械手各軸交流信息,在機(jī)器人的機(jī)械手和控制器之間的雙向交流信息可以保持操作和位置經(jīng)常更新,控制器亦能控制安裝在機(jī)器人手腕上的任何工具??刂破饕灿信c廠內(nèi)各計(jì)算機(jī)進(jìn)行通信的任務(wù),這種通信聯(lián)系使機(jī)器人成為計(jì)算機(jī)輔助制造(CAM)系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)組成部分。存儲(chǔ)器?;谖⑻幚砥鞯南到y(tǒng)運(yùn)行時(shí)要與固態(tài)的存儲(chǔ)裝置相連,這些存儲(chǔ)裝置可以是磁泡,隨機(jī)存儲(chǔ)器、軟盤、磁帶等。每種記憶存儲(chǔ)裝置均能貯存、編輯信息以備后續(xù)調(diào)用和編輯。C.動(dòng)力源 動(dòng)力源是給機(jī)器人和機(jī)器手提供動(dòng)力的單元。傳給機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)的動(dòng)力源有兩種,一種是用于控制器的交流電,另一種是用于驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)械手各軸的動(dòng)力源,例如,如果機(jī)器人的機(jī)械手是有液壓和氣動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)的,控制信號(hào)便傳送到這些裝置中,驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)器人運(yùn)動(dòng)。對(duì)于每一個(gè)機(jī)器人系統(tǒng),動(dòng)力是用來操縱機(jī)械手的。這些動(dòng)力可來源與液壓動(dòng)力源、氣壓動(dòng)力源或電源,這些能源是機(jī)器人工作單元整體的一部分。
robot The industr ial robot is a tool t hat is used in t he manufact ur ing environment to increase product ivit y.It can be used to do rout ine and tedious assembly line jobs, or it can per form jobs t hat might be hazardous to t he human worker.For example ,one of t he first indust r ial robot was used to replace t he nuclear fuel rods in nuclear power plant s.A human doing t his job might be exposed to har mful amount s of radiat ion.The indust r ial robot can also operat e on t he assembly line, putt ing toget her small component s, such as placing electronic component s on a pr int ed circuit board.Thus, t he human worker can be relieved of t he rout ine operat ion of t his t edious t ask.Robot s can also be programmed to defuse bombs, to serve t he handicapped, and to per for m funct ions in numerous applicat ions in our societ y.The robot can be t hought of as a machine t hat will move an endoperat ed.t hese microprocessors are eit her 8-bit , 16-bit ,or 32-bit processors.t his power allows t he controller to be ver y flexible in it s operat ion.The cont roller can send elect ric signals over communicat ion lines t hat allow it to t alk wit h t he var ious axes of t he manipulator.This t wo-way communicat ion bet ween t he robot manipulator and t he cont roller maint ains a const ant updat e of t he end t he operat ion of t he syst em.The cont roller also controls any tooling placed on t he end of t he robot ’s wr ist.The cont roller also has t he job of communicat ing wit h t he different plant comput ers.The communicat ion link est ablishes t he robot as part a comput er-assist ed manufact ur ing(CAM)syst em.As t he basic definit ion st at ed, t he robot is a reprogrammable, mult ifunct ional manipulator.Therefore, t he controller must contain some of memor y stot age.The microprocessor-based syst ems operates in conjunct ion wit h solid-st at e divices.These memor y devices may be magnet ic bubbles, random-access memony, floppy disks,or magnet ic tape.Each memor y storage device stores program infor mat ion fir or for edit ing.C.power suppy The power supply is t he unit t hat supplies power to t he controller and t he manipulator.The t ype of power are delivered to t he robot ic syst em.One t ype of power is t he AC power for operat ion of t he cont roller.The ot her t ype of power is used for dr iving t he var ious axes of t he manipulator.For example, if t he robot manipulator is cont rolled by hydraulic or pneumat ic drives, cont rol singals are sent to t hese devices causing mot ion of t he robot.For each robot ic syst em, power is required to operat e t he manipulator.This power can be developed from eit her a hydraulic power source, a pneumat ic power source,or an elect ric power source.There power sources are part of t he total component s of t he robot ic work cell.
第四篇:關(guān)于現(xiàn)代工業(yè)機(jī)械手外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯@中英文翻譯@外文翻譯
附錄
About Modenr Industrial Manipulayor Robot is a type of mechantronics equipment which synthesizes the last research achievement of engine and precision engine, micro-electronics and computer, automation control and drive, sensor and message dispose and artificial intelligence and so on.With the development of economic and the demand for automation control, robot technology is developed quickly and all types of the robots products are come into being.The practicality use of robot not only solves the problems which are difficult to operate for human being, but also advances the industrial automation program.Modern industrial robots are true marvels of engineering.A robot the size of a person can easily carry a load over one hundred pounds and move it very quickly with a repeatability of 0.006inches.Furthermore these robots can do that 24hours a day for years on end with no failures whatsoever.Though they are reprogrammable, in many applications they are programmed once and then repeat that exact same task for years.At present, the research and development of robot involves several kinds of technology and the robot system configuration is so complex that the cost at large is high which to a certain extent limit the robot abroad use.To development economic practicality and high reliability robot system will be value to robot social application and economy development.With he rapid progress with the control economy and expanding of the modern cities, the let of sewage is increasing quickly;with the development of modern technology and the enhancement of consciousness about environment reserve, more and more people realized the importance and urgent of sewage disposal.Active bacteria method is an effective technique for sewage disposal.The abundance requirement for lacunaris plastic makes it is a consequent for plastic producing with automation and high productivity.Therefore, it is very necessary to design a manipulator that can automatically fulfill the plastic holding.With the analysis of the problems in the design of the plastic
holding manipulator and synthesizing the robot research and development condition in recent years, a economic scheme is concluded on the basis of the analysis of mechanical configuration, transform system, drive device and control system and guided by the idea of the characteristic and complex of mechanical configuration, electronic, software and hardware.In this article, the mechanical configuration combines the character of direction coordinate which can improve the stability and operation flexibility of the system.The main function of the transmission mechanism is to transmit power to implement department and complete the necessary movement.In this transmission structure, the screw transmission mechanism transmits the rotary motion into linear motion.Worm gear can give vary transmission ratio.Both of the transmission mechanisms have a characteristic of compact structure.The design of drive system often is limited by the environment condition and the factor of cost and technical lever.The step motor can receive digital signal directly and has the ability to response outer environment immediately and has no accumulation error, which often is used in driving system.In this driving system, open-loop control system is composed of stepping motor, which can satisfy the demand not only for control precision but also for the target of economic and practicality.On this basis, the analysis of stepping motor in power calculating and style selecting is also given.The analysis of kinematics and dynamics for object holding manipulator is given in completing the design of mechanical structure and drive system.Current industrial approaches to robot arm control treat each joint of the robot arm as a simple joint servomechanism.The servomechanism approach models the varying dynamics of a manipulator inadequately because it neglects the motion and configuration of the whole arm mechanism.These changes in the parameters of the controlled system sometimes are significant enough to render conventional feedback control strategies ineffective.The result is reduced servo response speed and damping, limiting the precision and speed of the end-effecter and making it appropriate only for limited-precision tasks.Manipulators controlled in this manner move at slow speeds with unnecessary vibrations.Any significant performance gain in this and other areas of robot arm control require the consideration of more efficient dynamic models, sophisticated control approaches, and the use of dedicated computer architectures and parallel processing techniques.In the industrial production and other fields, people often endangered by such factors as high temperature, corrode, poisonous gas and so forth at work, which have increased labor intensity and even jeopardized the life sometimes.The corresponding problems are solved since the robot arm comes out.The arms can catch, put and carry objects, and its movements are flexible and diversified.It applies to medium and small-scale automated production in which production varieties can be switched.And it is widely used on soft automatic line.The robot arms are generally made by withstand high temperatures, resist corrosion of materials to adapt to the harsh environment.So they reduced the labor intensity of the workers significantly and raised work efficiency.The robot arm is an important component of industrial robot, and it can be called industrial robots on many occasions.Industrial robot is set machinery, electronics, control, computers, sensors, artificial intelligence and other advanced technologies in the integration of multidisciplinary important modern manufacturing equipment.Widely using industrial robots, not only can improve product quality and production, but also is of great significance for physical security protection, improvement of the environment for labor, reducing labor intensity, improvement of labor productivity, raw material consumption savings and lowering production costs.There are such mechanical components as ball footbridge, slides, air control mechanical hand and so on in the design.A programmable controller, a programming device, stepping motors, stepping motors drives, direct current motors, sensors, switch power supply, an electromagnetism valve and control desk are used in electrical connection.Robot is the automated production of a kind used in the process of crawling and moving piece features automatic device, which is mechanized and automated production process developed a new type of device.In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of hightech fields has become a rapidly developed a new technology, which further promoted the development of robot, allowing robot to better achieved with the combination of mechanization and automation.Robot can replace humans completed the risk of duplication of boring work, to reduce human labor intensity and improve labor productivity.Manipulator has been applied more and more widely, in the machinery industry, it can be used for parts assembly, work piece handling, loading and unloading, particularly in the automation of CNC machine tools, modular machine tools more commonly used.At present, the robot has developed into a FMS flexible manufacturing systems and flexible manufacturing cell in an important component of the FMC.The machine tool equipment and machinery in hand together constitute a flexible manufacturing system or a flexible manufacturing cell, it was adapted to small and medium volume production, you can save a huge amount of the work piece conveyor device, compact, and adaptable.When the work piece changes, flexible production system is very easy to change will help enterprises to continuously update the marketable variety, improve product quality, and better adapt to market competition.At present, China's industrial robot technology and its engineering application level and comparable to foreign countries there is a certain distance, application and industrialization of the size of the low level of robot research and development of a direct impact on raising the level of automation in China, from the economy, technical considerations are very necessary.Therefore, the study of mechanical hand design is very meaningful.關(guān)于現(xiàn)代工業(yè)機(jī)械手
機(jī)器人是典型的機(jī)電一體化裝置,它綜合運(yùn)用了機(jī)械與精密機(jī)械、微電子與計(jì)算機(jī)、自動(dòng)控制與驅(qū)動(dòng)、傳感器與信息處理以及人工智能等多學(xué)科的最新研究成果,隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)技術(shù)的發(fā)展和各行各業(yè)對(duì)自動(dòng)化程度要求的提高,機(jī)器人技術(shù)得到了迅速發(fā)展,出現(xiàn)了各種各樣的機(jī)器人產(chǎn)品。現(xiàn)代工業(yè)機(jī)器人是人類真正的奇跡工程。一個(gè)像人那么大的機(jī)器人可以輕松地抬起超過一百磅并可以在誤差0.006英寸內(nèi)重復(fù)運(yùn)動(dòng)。更重要的是這些機(jī)器人可以每天24小時(shí)不停止地工作。在許多應(yīng)用中他們是通過編程控制的,但是他們一旦編程一次,他們可以重復(fù)地做同一個(gè)工作許多年。機(jī)器人產(chǎn)品的實(shí)用化,既解決了許多單靠人力難以解決的實(shí)際問題,又促進(jìn)了工業(yè)自動(dòng)化的進(jìn)程。
目前,由于機(jī)器人的研制和開發(fā)涉及多方面的技術(shù),系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜,開發(fā)和研制的成本普遍較高,在某種程度上限制了該項(xiàng)技術(shù)的廣泛應(yīng)用,因此,研制經(jīng)濟(jì)型、實(shí)用化、高可靠性機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)具有廣泛的社會(huì)現(xiàn)實(shí)意義和經(jīng)濟(jì)價(jià)值。由于我國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)建設(shè)和城市化的快速發(fā)展,城市污染排水放量增長(zhǎng)很快,污水處理已經(jīng)擺在了人們的議事日程上來。隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展和人類知識(shí)水平的提高,人們?cè)絹碓秸J(rèn)識(shí)到污水處理的重要性和迫切性,科學(xué)家和研究人員發(fā)現(xiàn)塑料制品在水中時(shí)用于污水處理的很有效地污泥菌群的附著體。塑料制品的大量需求,使得塑料制品生產(chǎn)的自動(dòng)化和高效率要求成為經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的必然。本文結(jié)合塑料一次擠出成型機(jī)和塑料抓取機(jī)械手的研制過程中出現(xiàn)的問題,綜述近幾年機(jī)器人技術(shù)研究和發(fā)展的狀況,在從分發(fā)揮機(jī)、電、軟、硬件各自特點(diǎn)和優(yōu)勢(shì)互補(bǔ)的基礎(chǔ)上,對(duì)物料抓取機(jī)械手整體機(jī)械結(jié)構(gòu)、傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)、驅(qū)動(dòng)裝置和控制系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行了分析和設(shè)計(jì),提出了一套經(jīng)濟(jì)型設(shè)計(jì)方案。采用直角坐標(biāo)和關(guān)節(jié)坐標(biāo)相結(jié)合的框架式機(jī)械結(jié)構(gòu)形式,這種方式能夠提高系統(tǒng)的穩(wěn)定性和操作靈活性。傳動(dòng)裝置的作用是將驅(qū)動(dòng)元件的動(dòng)力傳遞給機(jī)器人機(jī)械手相應(yīng)的執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu),以實(shí)現(xiàn)各種必要的運(yùn)動(dòng),傳動(dòng)方式上采用結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊、傳動(dòng)比答得蝸輪蝸桿傳動(dòng)和將旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)換為直線運(yùn)動(dòng)的螺旋傳動(dòng)。機(jī)械手驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)往往受到作業(yè)環(huán)境條件的限制,同時(shí)也要考慮價(jià)格因素的影響以及能夠達(dá)到的技術(shù)水平。由于步進(jìn)電機(jī)能都直接接收數(shù)字量,響應(yīng)速度快而且工作可靠并無累計(jì)誤差,常用作數(shù)字控制系統(tǒng)驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)的動(dòng)力元件,因此,在驅(qū)動(dòng)裝置中采用由步進(jìn)電機(jī)構(gòu)成的環(huán)控制方式,這種方式技能滿足控制精度的要求,又能達(dá)到經(jīng)濟(jì)型、實(shí)用化目的。
目前的工業(yè)機(jī)械臂控制將每一個(gè)機(jī)械臂的聯(lián)合看做一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的聯(lián)合伺服。伺服方法不能從分地模仿不同的動(dòng)力學(xué)機(jī)械手,因?yàn)樗雎粤藱C(jī)械手整體的運(yùn)動(dòng)和配置。這些控制系統(tǒng)的參數(shù)的變化有時(shí)是足夠重要,以至于使常規(guī)的反饋控制方法失效。其結(jié)果是減少了伺服相應(yīng)的速度和阻尼,限制了京都和最終效應(yīng)的速度,使系統(tǒng)僅適用于有限精度的工作。機(jī)械手以這種方式控制速度降低而沒有不必要的震動(dòng)。任何在這一領(lǐng)域和其它領(lǐng)域的機(jī)械臂性能增益要求更有效率的動(dòng)態(tài)模型、精密的控制方法、專門的計(jì)算機(jī)架構(gòu)和并行處理技術(shù)。
在工業(yè)生產(chǎn)和其它領(lǐng)域內(nèi),由于工作的需要,人們經(jīng)常受到高溫、腐蝕及有毒氣體等因素的危害,增加了工人的勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度,甚至于危及生命。自從機(jī)械手問世以來,相應(yīng)的各種難題迎刃而解。機(jī)械手可在空間抓、放、搬運(yùn)物體,動(dòng)作靈活多樣,適用于可變換生產(chǎn)品種的中、小批量自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn),廣泛應(yīng)用于柔性自動(dòng)線。機(jī)械手一般由耐高溫,抗腐蝕的材料制成,以適應(yīng)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)惡劣環(huán)境,大大降低了工人的勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度,提高了工作效率。機(jī)械手是工業(yè)機(jī)器人的重要組成部分,在很多情況下它就可以稱為工業(yè)機(jī)器人。工業(yè)機(jī)器人集機(jī)械、電子、控制、計(jì)算機(jī)、傳感器、人工智能等多學(xué)科先進(jìn)技術(shù)于一體化的現(xiàn)代制造業(yè)重要的自動(dòng)化裝備。廣泛采用工業(yè)機(jī)器人,不僅可以提高產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量與產(chǎn)量,而且對(duì)保障人身安全,改善勞動(dòng)環(huán)境,減輕勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度,提高勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率,節(jié)約原材料消耗以及降低生產(chǎn)成本,有著十分重要的意義。
工業(yè)機(jī)械手是工業(yè)機(jī)器人的一個(gè)重要分支。它的特點(diǎn)是可通過編程來完成各種預(yù)期的作業(yè)任務(wù),在構(gòu)造和性能上兼有人和機(jī)器各自的優(yōu)點(diǎn),尤其體現(xiàn)了人的智能和適應(yīng)性。機(jī)械手作業(yè)的準(zhǔn)確性和各種環(huán)境中完成作業(yè)的能力,在國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)各領(lǐng)域有著廣闊的發(fā)展前景。隨著工業(yè)自動(dòng)化的發(fā)展, 出現(xiàn)了數(shù)控加工中心,它在減輕工人的勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度的同時(shí), 大大提高了勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率。但數(shù)控加工中常見的上下料工序, 通常仍采用人工操作或傳統(tǒng)繼電器控制的半自動(dòng)化裝置。前者費(fèi)時(shí)費(fèi)工、效率低;后者因設(shè)計(jì)復(fù)雜, 需較多繼電器,接線繁雜, 易受車體振動(dòng)干擾,而存在可靠性差、故障多、維修困難等問題??删幊绦蚩刂破鱌LC控制的上下料機(jī)械手控制系統(tǒng)動(dòng)作簡(jiǎn)便、線路設(shè)計(jì)合理、具有較強(qiáng)的抗干擾能力, 保證了系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行的可靠性,降低了維修率, 提高了工作效率。機(jī)械手技術(shù)涉及到力學(xué)、機(jī)械學(xué)、電氣液壓技術(shù)、自動(dòng)控制技術(shù)、傳感器技術(shù)和計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)等科學(xué)領(lǐng)域,是一門跨學(xué)科綜合技術(shù)。
機(jī)械手主要由手部和運(yùn)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)組成。手部是用來抓持工件(或工具)的部件,根據(jù)被抓持物件的形狀、尺寸、重量、材料和作業(yè)要求而有多種結(jié)構(gòu)形式,如夾持型、托持型和吸附型等。運(yùn)動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu),使手部完成各種轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)(擺動(dòng))、移動(dòng)或復(fù)合運(yùn)動(dòng)來實(shí)現(xiàn)規(guī)定的動(dòng)作,改變被抓持物件的位置和姿勢(shì)......機(jī)械手是在自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過程中使用的一種具有抓取和移動(dòng)工件功能的自動(dòng)化裝置,它是在機(jī)械化、自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過程中發(fā)展起來的一種新型裝置。近年來,隨著電子技術(shù)特別是電子計(jì)算機(jī)的廣泛應(yīng)用,機(jī)器人的研制和生產(chǎn)已成為高技術(shù)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)迅速發(fā)展起來的一門新興技術(shù),它更加促進(jìn)了機(jī)械手的發(fā)展,使得機(jī)械手能更好地實(shí)現(xiàn)與機(jī)械化和自動(dòng)化的有機(jī)結(jié)合。機(jī)械手能代替人類完成危險(xiǎn)、重復(fù)枯燥的工作,減輕人類勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度,提高勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)力。機(jī)械手越來越廣泛的得到了應(yīng)用,在機(jī)械行業(yè)中它可用于零部件組裝,加工工件的搬運(yùn)、裝卸,特別是在自動(dòng)化數(shù)控機(jī)床、組合機(jī)床上使用更普遍。目前,機(jī)械手已發(fā)展成為柔性制造系統(tǒng)FMS和柔性制造單元FMC中一個(gè)重要組成部分。把機(jī)床設(shè)備和機(jī)械手共同構(gòu)成一個(gè)柔性加工系統(tǒng)或柔性制造單元,它適應(yīng)于中、小批量生產(chǎn),可以節(jié)省龐大的工件輸送裝置,結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊,而且適應(yīng)性很強(qiáng)。當(dāng)工件變更時(shí),柔性生產(chǎn)系統(tǒng)很容易改變,有利于企業(yè)不斷更新適銷對(duì)路的品種,提高產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量,更好地適應(yīng)市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的需要。而目前我國(guó)的工業(yè)機(jī)器人技術(shù)及其工程應(yīng)用的水平和國(guó)外比還有一定的距離,應(yīng)用規(guī)模和產(chǎn)業(yè)化水平低,機(jī)械手的研究和開發(fā)直接影響到我國(guó)自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)水平的提高,從經(jīng)濟(jì)上、技術(shù)上考慮都是十分必要的。因此,進(jìn)行機(jī)械手的研究設(shè)計(jì)是非常有意義的。
第五篇:中英文對(duì)照資料外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)
中英文對(duì)照資料外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)
平設(shè)計(jì)任何時(shí)期平面設(shè)計(jì)可以參照一些藝術(shù)和專業(yè)學(xué)科側(cè)重于視覺傳達(dá)和介紹。采用多種方式相結(jié)合,創(chuàng)造和符號(hào),圖像和語句創(chuàng)建一個(gè)代表性的想法和信息。平面設(shè)計(jì)師可以使用印刷,視覺藝術(shù)和排版技術(shù)產(chǎn)生的最終結(jié)果。平面設(shè)計(jì)常常提到的進(jìn)程,其中溝通是創(chuàng)造和產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)。共同使用的平面設(shè)計(jì)包括雜志,廣告,產(chǎn)品包裝和網(wǎng)頁設(shè)計(jì)。例如,可能包括產(chǎn)品包裝的標(biāo)志或其他藝術(shù)作品,舉辦文字和純粹的設(shè)計(jì)元素,如形狀和顏色統(tǒng)一件。組成的一個(gè)最重要的特點(diǎn),尤其是平面設(shè)計(jì)在使用前現(xiàn)有材料或不同的元素。平面設(shè)計(jì)涵蓋了人類歷史上諸多領(lǐng)域,在此漫長(zhǎng)的歷史和在相對(duì)最近爆炸視覺傳達(dá)中的第20和21世紀(jì),人們有時(shí)是模糊的區(qū)別和重疊的廣告藝術(shù),平面設(shè)計(jì)和美術(shù)。畢竟,他們有著許多相同的內(nèi)容,理論,原則,做法和語言,有時(shí)同樣的客人或客戶。廣告藝術(shù)的最終目標(biāo)是出售的商品和服務(wù)。在平面設(shè)計(jì),“其實(shí)質(zhì)是使以信息,形成以思想,言論和感覺的經(jīng)驗(yàn)”。在唐朝(618-906)之間的第4和第7世紀(jì)的木塊被切斷打印紡織品和后重現(xiàn)佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷書籍。在19世紀(jì)后期歐洲,尤其是在英國(guó),平面設(shè)計(jì)開始以獨(dú)立的運(yùn)動(dòng)從美術(shù)中分離出來。蒙德里安稱為父親的圖形設(shè)計(jì)。他是一個(gè)很好的藝術(shù)家,但是他在現(xiàn)代廣告中利用現(xiàn)代電網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)在廣告、印刷和網(wǎng)絡(luò)布局網(wǎng)格。于1849年,在大不列顛亨利科爾成為的主要力量之一在設(shè)計(jì)教育界,該國(guó)政府通告設(shè)計(jì)在雜志設(shè)計(jì)和制造的重要性。他組織了大型的展覽作為慶祝現(xiàn)代工業(yè)技術(shù)和維多利亞式的設(shè)計(jì)。從1892年至1896年威廉?莫里斯凱爾姆斯科特出版社出版的書籍的一些最重要的平面設(shè)計(jì)產(chǎn)品和工藝美術(shù)運(yùn)動(dòng),并提出了一個(gè)非常賺錢的商機(jī)就是出版?zhèn)ゴ笪谋菊摰膱D書并以高價(jià)出售給富人。莫里斯證明了市場(chǎng)的存在使平面設(shè)計(jì)在他們自己擁有的權(quán)利,并幫助開拓者從生產(chǎn)和美術(shù)分離設(shè)計(jì)。這歷史相對(duì)論是,然而,重要的,因?yàn)樗鼮榈谝淮沃卮蟮姆磻?yīng)對(duì)于十九世紀(jì)的陳舊的平面設(shè)計(jì)。莫里斯的工作,以及與其他私營(yíng)新聞運(yùn)動(dòng),直接影響新藝術(shù)風(fēng)格和間接負(fù)責(zé)20世紀(jì)初非專業(yè)性平面設(shè)計(jì)的事態(tài)發(fā)展。誰創(chuàng)造了最初的“平面設(shè)計(jì)”似乎存在爭(zhēng)議。這被歸因于英國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)師和大學(xué)教授Richard Guyatt,但另一消息來源于20世紀(jì)初美國(guó)圖書設(shè)計(jì)師William Addison Dwiggins。倫敦地鐵的標(biāo)志設(shè)計(jì)是愛德華約翰斯頓于1916年設(shè)計(jì)的一個(gè)經(jīng)典的現(xiàn)代而且使用了系統(tǒng)字體設(shè)計(jì)。在20世紀(jì)20年代,蘇聯(lián)的建構(gòu)主義應(yīng)用于“智能生產(chǎn)”在不同領(lǐng)域的生產(chǎn)。個(gè)性化的運(yùn)動(dòng)藝術(shù)在 2 俄羅斯大革命是沒有價(jià)值的,從而走向以創(chuàng)造物體的功利為目的。他們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)的建筑、劇院集、海報(bào)、面料、服裝、家具、徽標(biāo)、菜單等。Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年書中編纂了新的現(xiàn)代印刷原則,他后來否認(rèn)他在這本書的法西斯主義哲學(xué)主張,但它仍然是非常有影響力。Tschichold,包豪斯印刷專家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一納吉,和El Lissitzky 是平面設(shè)計(jì)之父都被我們今天所知。他們首創(chuàng)的生產(chǎn)技術(shù)和文體設(shè)備,主要用于整個(gè)二十世紀(jì)。隨后的幾年看到平面設(shè)計(jì)在現(xiàn)代風(fēng)格獲得廣泛的接受和應(yīng)用。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)結(jié)束后,美國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)的建立更需要平面設(shè)計(jì),主要是廣告和包裝等。移居國(guó)外的德國(guó)包豪斯設(shè)計(jì)學(xué)院于1937年到芝加哥帶來了“大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)”極簡(jiǎn)到美國(guó);引發(fā)野火的“現(xiàn)代”建筑和設(shè)計(jì)。值得注意的名稱世紀(jì)中葉現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)包括阿德里安Frutiger,設(shè)計(jì)師和Frutiger字體大學(xué);保蘭德,從20世紀(jì)30年代后期,直到他去世于1996年,采取的原則和適用包豪斯他們受歡迎的廣告和標(biāo)志設(shè)計(jì),幫助創(chuàng)造一個(gè)獨(dú)特的辦法,美國(guó)的歐洲簡(jiǎn)約而成為一個(gè)主要的先驅(qū)。平面設(shè)計(jì)稱為企業(yè)形象;約瑟夫米勒,羅克曼,設(shè)計(jì)的海報(bào)嚴(yán)重尚未獲取1950年代和1960年代時(shí)代典型。從道路標(biāo)志到技術(shù)圖表,從備忘錄到參考手冊(cè),增強(qiáng)了平面設(shè)計(jì)的知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)讓??勺x性增強(qiáng)了文字的視覺效果。設(shè)計(jì)還可以通過理念或有效的視覺傳播幫助銷售產(chǎn)品。將它應(yīng)用到產(chǎn)品和公司識(shí)別系統(tǒng)的要素像標(biāo)志、顏色和文字。連同這些被定義為品牌。品牌已日益成為重要的提供的服務(wù)范圍,許多平面設(shè)計(jì)師,企業(yè)形象和條件往往是同時(shí)交替使用。教科書的目的是本科目,如地理、科學(xué)和數(shù)學(xué)。這些出版物已布局理論設(shè)計(jì)說明和圖表。一個(gè)常見的例子,在使用圖形,教育是圖表人體解剖學(xué)。平面設(shè)計(jì)也適用于布局和格式的教育材料,使信息更容易和更容易理解的。平面設(shè)計(jì)是應(yīng)用在娛樂行業(yè)的裝飾,景觀和視覺故事。其他的例子娛樂設(shè)計(jì)用途包括小說,漫畫,電影中的開幕和閉幕,在舞臺(tái)上節(jié)目的和道具的安排。這也包括藝術(shù)品在T恤衫的應(yīng)用和其他物品的出售。從科學(xué)雜志報(bào)道,提出意見和事實(shí)往往是提高圖形和深思熟慮的組成視覺信息-被稱為信息的設(shè)計(jì)。報(bào)紙,雜志,博客,電視和電影紀(jì)錄片,可以使用平面設(shè)計(jì)通知及娛樂。隨著網(wǎng)絡(luò),信息與經(jīng)驗(yàn)的交互設(shè)計(jì)的工具,Adobe和Flash正越來越多地被用來說明的背景新聞。一個(gè)平面設(shè)計(jì)項(xiàng)目可能涉及程式化和介紹現(xiàn)有的文字,或者事先存在的意向或圖像開發(fā)的平面設(shè)計(jì)師。例如,一家報(bào)紙的故事始于記者和攝影記者,然后成為平面設(shè)計(jì)師的工作安排到一個(gè)合理的頁面布局,并確定是否有任何其他圖形元素應(yīng)當(dāng)要求。在一本雜志的文章或廣告,往往是平面設(shè)計(jì)師或藝術(shù)總監(jiān)將委員會(huì)攝影師或插圖創(chuàng)建原始文件只是被納入設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)劃?,F(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)的做法已經(jīng)擴(kuò)展到了現(xiàn)代的計(jì)算機(jī),例如在使用所見的用戶界面,通常被稱為交互式設(shè)計(jì),或多媒體設(shè)計(jì)。任何圖形元素用于設(shè)計(jì)之前,圖形元素必須是源于通過視覺藝術(shù)技能。這些圖形通常(但并不總是)被設(shè)計(jì)師開發(fā)。視覺藝術(shù)的作品主要是視覺性的東西從使用傳統(tǒng)的傳播媒介、攝影或電腦產(chǎn)生的藝術(shù)。平面設(shè)計(jì)原則可以適用于每一個(gè)人的版畫藝術(shù)元素,并最終組成。3 印刷術(shù)是藝術(shù),工藝和技術(shù)型,修改類型字形,并安排類型的設(shè)計(jì)。類型字形(字符)的創(chuàng)建和修改使用各種說明方法。這項(xiàng)安排的類型是選擇字體、大小、線長(zhǎng)、主要的(行距)和文字的間距。刷術(shù)是由排字工機(jī),排字,印刷工人,圖形藝術(shù)家,藝術(shù)總監(jiān),工作者和辦事員。直到數(shù)字時(shí)代,印刷成為一個(gè)專業(yè)的領(lǐng)域。數(shù)字化開辟了新的視覺設(shè)計(jì)師和用戶。排版設(shè)計(jì)師平面設(shè)計(jì)的一部分,是在網(wǎng)頁設(shè)計(jì)中是圖形設(shè)計(jì),處理安排風(fēng)格(內(nèi)容)的要素。從早期的照明網(wǎng)頁手工復(fù)制書籍的中世紀(jì)和程序,以錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜的現(xiàn)代雜志和目錄布局,適當(dāng)?shù)木W(wǎng)頁設(shè)計(jì)公司長(zhǎng)期以來一直是考慮的印刷材料,與印刷媒體,內(nèi)容通常包括類型(文字,圖片(照片)偶爾發(fā)生持有者圖形的內(nèi)容,沒有印刷油墨,如模具/激光切割,燙金壓印或盲目壓花。平面設(shè)計(jì)師常常專心研究于界面設(shè)計(jì),如網(wǎng)頁設(shè)計(jì)和軟件設(shè)計(jì),最終用戶的交互性是一個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)考慮的布局或接口。視覺溝通技巧、互動(dòng)溝通技巧與用戶互動(dòng)得相結(jié)合和在線品牌推廣,平面設(shè)計(jì)師往往與軟件開發(fā)和網(wǎng)絡(luò)開發(fā)人員創(chuàng)建的外觀和風(fēng)格的網(wǎng)站或軟件應(yīng)用程序,來加強(qiáng)用戶或網(wǎng)絡(luò)網(wǎng)站的訪問者互動(dòng)體驗(yàn)。版畫是在紙上,其他有機(jī)材料或者表面上印刷藝術(shù)品的過程。每一張不會(huì)被復(fù)制,但時(shí)最初的因?yàn)樗皇且粋€(gè)復(fù)制的另一藝術(shù)作品,并在技術(shù)上稱為留下深刻的印象。繪畫或素描,另一方面,創(chuàng)造了獨(dú)特的原始藝術(shù)品。版畫是由一個(gè)單一的原始表面創(chuàng)造的,在技術(shù)上已經(jīng)作為基質(zhì)而被已知。常見的矩陣包括:金屬板,通常是銅或鋅的雕刻或蝕刻石料,用于光刻;塊木刻的木材,油氈和織物板的絲網(wǎng)印刷。但也有許多其他種類,討論如下:作品從一個(gè)單一的印刷板創(chuàng)造一個(gè)版本,在現(xiàn)代通常每個(gè)簽署和編號(hào),形成限量。打印也可編制成冊(cè),作為藝術(shù)家的書籍。一個(gè)單一的打印可能是產(chǎn)品的一種或多種技術(shù)。色彩學(xué)領(lǐng)域是如何在打印機(jī)上和顯示器上用眼睛識(shí)別顏色和如何解釋和組織這些色彩。眼睛的視網(wǎng)膜被兩個(gè)被命名為視桿和視錐的感光體涵蓋。視桿對(duì)光很敏感但是對(duì)顏色不是很敏感。視錐卻與視桿恰恰相反。他們對(duì)光不太敏感,但是顏色可以被感知。隨著科技的發(fā)展,人們?cè)絹碓秸J(rèn)識(shí)到環(huán)境問題日益嚴(yán)重,大氣污染、森林破壞、水土流失、土地沙漠
化、水資源污染、大量物種滅絕、石油、天然氣、煤等資源枯竭。作為工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師,應(yīng)該有強(qiáng)烈的環(huán)境 保護(hù)意識(shí),使得自己的設(shè)計(jì)建立在不破壞環(huán)境及節(jié)約自然資源的基礎(chǔ)上。
其中,溫室效應(yīng)、臭氧層破壞和酸雨是當(dāng)今全球性的三大環(huán)境問題。
溫室效應(yīng)就是大氣變暖的效應(yīng)其形成原因是太陽短波輻射可以透過大氣射入地面,而地面增暖后放
出的長(zhǎng)波輻射卻被大氣中的二氧化碳就像一層厚厚的玻璃,把地球變成了一個(gè)大暖房。甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟烴以及水汽等也對(duì)溫室效應(yīng)有所貢獻(xiàn)。隨著人口的急劇增加和工業(yè)的迅速發(fā)展,越來越多的二氧化碳 排入大氣中;
又由于森林被大量砍伐,大氣中原本應(yīng)被森林吸收的二氧化碳沒有被吸收,致使二氧化碳 逐漸增加,溫室效應(yīng)也不斷增強(qiáng)。溫室效應(yīng)的后果十分嚴(yán)重,自然生態(tài)將隨之發(fā)生重大變化,荒漠將擴(kuò)
大,土地侵蝕加重,森林退向極地,旱澇災(zāi)害嚴(yán)重,雨量增加;溫帶冬天更濕、夏天更旱;熱帶也將變 得更濕,干熱的亞熱帶變得更干旱,迫使原有水利工程重新調(diào)整。沿海將受到嚴(yán)重威脅。由于氣溫升高,兩極冰塊將融化,使海平面上升,將會(huì)淹沒許多城市和港口。
臭氧層破壞現(xiàn)象引起科學(xué)界及整個(gè)國(guó)際社會(huì)的震動(dòng)。美國(guó)的兩位科學(xué)家 Monila 和 Rowland 指出,正是人為的活動(dòng)造成了今天的臭氧洞。元兇就是現(xiàn)在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龍。
酸雨目前已成為一種范圍廣泛、跨越國(guó)界的大氣污染現(xiàn)象。酸雨破壞土壤,使湖泊酸化,危害動(dòng)植
物生長(zhǎng);刺激人的皮膚,誘發(fā)皮膚病,引起肺水腫、肺硬化;會(huì)腐蝕金屬制品、油漆、皮革、紡織品和 含碳酸鹽的建筑。
總而言之,人類生活的環(huán)境已經(jīng)日益惡化。
而惡化的原因大部分屬于人類本身的不良生活方式和不 尊重客觀規(guī)律,急功近利,對(duì)于地球資源的使用沒有科學(xué)的計(jì)劃性,而且在設(shè)計(jì)、制造產(chǎn)品以及日常生
活中缺乏保護(hù)環(huán)境的意識(shí),以至于自毀家園,其危害不僅于當(dāng)代,而且嚴(yán)重影響了子孫后代的生存。
環(huán)境問題在很大程度上是由于人們的不良設(shè)計(jì)、生活方式造成的后果。于是給設(shè)計(jì)師們提出了一個(gè)
嚴(yán)肅的問題:作為設(shè)計(jì)師,應(yīng)肩負(fù)起保護(hù)環(huán)境的歷史重任!
工業(yè)在為人類創(chuàng)造大量物質(zhì)財(cái)富的同時(shí),也給世界帶來了災(zāi)難。工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)在為人類創(chuàng)造了現(xiàn)代生活
方式的同時(shí),也加速了資源、能源的消耗,并對(duì)地球的生態(tài)平衡造成了巨大的破壞。
所以,作為工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師,建立環(huán)境意識(shí)體現(xiàn)了其道德和社會(huì)責(zé)任心。設(shè)計(jì)師必須對(duì)自己的設(shè)計(jì)負(fù)責(zé),必須把人類的健康幸福,自然與人類的和諧共存作為設(shè)計(jì)中心遵循的原則。
設(shè)計(jì)師還必須掌握必要的材料、工藝、化工、制造等方面的知識(shí),使得其設(shè)計(jì)不對(duì)環(huán)境造成危害而 成為可能。
“可持續(xù)發(fā)展設(shè)計(jì)” 這一概念的提出,對(duì)于人性的回歸及世界真正意義上的發(fā)展具有劃時(shí)代的意義。他體現(xiàn)了設(shè)計(jì)師的道德與責(zé)任,已成為 21 世紀(jì)設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)展的總趨勢(shì)。從此,人類傳統(tǒng)工業(yè)文明發(fā)展模式
轉(zhuǎn)向現(xiàn)代生態(tài)文明發(fā)展模式。它是社會(huì)進(jìn)步,經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng),環(huán)境保護(hù)三者之間的協(xié)同。
可持續(xù)發(fā)展是人們應(yīng)遵循的一種全新的倫理、道德和價(jià)值觀念。其本質(zhì)在于:充分利用現(xiàn)代科技,大力開發(fā)綠色資源,發(fā)展清潔生產(chǎn),不斷改善和優(yōu)化生態(tài)環(huán)境,促使人與自然的和諧發(fā)展,人口、資源 和環(huán)境相互協(xié)調(diào)。
解決可持續(xù)反展問題是一個(gè)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新和行為模式轉(zhuǎn)變的問題。
可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略是解決在不危害未來幾代人的需求前提下,盡量滿足當(dāng)代人的需求的問題。實(shí)現(xiàn)目
前利益與長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)利益的統(tǒng)一,為子孫后代留下發(fā)展空間。
目前可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略考慮的問題有:循環(huán)性、綠色能源、生態(tài)效率。
綠色設(shè)計(jì)源于人們對(duì)于現(xiàn)代技術(shù)文化所引起的環(huán)境及生態(tài)破壞的反思。綠色設(shè)計(jì)著眼于人與自然的
生態(tài)平衡關(guān)系,在設(shè)計(jì)過程的每一個(gè)決策中都充分考慮到環(huán)境效益,盡量減少對(duì)環(huán)境的破壞。
對(duì)工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師而言,綠色設(shè)計(jì)的核心是“ 3R ”,即“減少”(Reduce)、“再循環(huán)”(Recycle)和“再 利用”(Reuse)。不僅要盡量減少物質(zhì)和能源的消耗、減少有害物質(zhì)的排放,而且要使產(chǎn)品及零件能夠 5 方便的分類回收,并再生循環(huán)或重新利用。
綠色設(shè)計(jì)不僅是一種技術(shù)層面的考慮,更重要的是一種觀念 上的變革。
要求設(shè)計(jì)師放棄那種過分強(qiáng)調(diào)產(chǎn)品在外觀上標(biāo)新立異的做法,而將重點(diǎn)放在真正意義上的創(chuàng) 新上面,已一種更為負(fù)責(zé)的方法去創(chuàng)造產(chǎn)品的形態(tài),用更簡(jiǎn)潔、長(zhǎng)久的造型使產(chǎn)品盡可能地延長(zhǎng)其使用 壽命。
從材料方面要考慮: 原材料的存量和可再生性,獲取材料時(shí)的環(huán)境能源的消耗與污染,后續(xù)加工時(shí)
環(huán)境材料的易加工性,低能耗性、低污染性,報(bào)廢時(shí)的可回收性。
從加工制造方面要考慮:加工制造階段需要將污染減至最少,或?qū)⑽廴鞠麥缭谏a(chǎn)過程初始階段。
從包裝、運(yùn)輸、銷售等方面要考慮:包裝的環(huán)境性能、綠色包裝,良好的可運(yùn)輸性、降低自重、減 少能耗,當(dāng)?shù)鼗a(chǎn)及減少物流過程消耗。
從產(chǎn)品的使用階段考慮: 使用中的能耗、資源消耗。
產(chǎn)品更新?lián)Q代時(shí)環(huán)境性能的模塊化、可重組性、產(chǎn)品的使用模式等因素。
從產(chǎn)品的報(bào)廢階段考慮:易拆卸性,便于分解和分類,材料可回收性和可再利用性,零部件可重組 性或移作它用等因素。
清潔的能源:如考慮太陽能、水電、風(fēng)力的清潔燃料;清潔的材料,涉及低污染、無毒、易降解和 可回收性;清潔的制造過程,考慮低能耗、少排放的制造;清潔的產(chǎn)品,涉及使用中節(jié)能、環(huán)保、報(bào)廢 后的回收。
零部件的再生利用濕可持續(xù)戰(zhàn)略的有力措施。事實(shí)證明: 報(bào)廢的產(chǎn)品拆卸后,經(jīng)分析,其中材料在
改進(jìn)設(shè)計(jì)后可重用和經(jīng)翻新后可重用的比例可以提高。
比如:一輛報(bào)廢車中,金屬材料占 80 %,其中,有色金屬占 3 %~ 4.7 %。世界鋼產(chǎn)量中的 45 %是 由廢鋼鐵生產(chǎn)出的。中國(guó)鋼產(chǎn)量的 25 %是由廢鋼鐵生產(chǎn)的。
產(chǎn)品全生命周期管理是指從人對(duì)產(chǎn)品的需求開始,到產(chǎn)品淘汰報(bào)廢的全部生命歷程。其中包括產(chǎn)
品需求分析產(chǎn)品計(jì)劃、概念設(shè)計(jì)、產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)、數(shù)字化仿真、工藝準(zhǔn)備、工藝規(guī)劃、生產(chǎn)測(cè)試和質(zhì)量監(jiān)控、銷售與分銷、使用、維護(hù)與維修,以及報(bào)廢與回收等主要階段。將先進(jìn)的管理理念和一流的信息技術(shù)有
機(jī)融入到現(xiàn)代企業(yè)的工業(yè)和商業(yè)運(yùn)作中,從而使企業(yè)在數(shù)字經(jīng)濟(jì)時(shí)代能夠有效地調(diào)整經(jīng)營(yíng)手段和管理方式,以發(fā)揮企業(yè)前所未有的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。幫助企業(yè)進(jìn)行產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新,贏得市場(chǎng),并獲得額外利潤(rùn),以提高企業(yè)產(chǎn)品的價(jià)值。
GRAPHIC DESIGN The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation.Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.Graphic design often refers to both the process by which the communication is created and the products which are generated.Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design.For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza.In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art.After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.In graphic design, “the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience.” During the Tang dynasty(618–906)between the 4th and 7th century A.D.wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design.He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout.In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures.He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and 2 made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art.The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles.This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.Who originally coined the term “graphic design” appears to be in dispute.It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography.He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today.They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging.The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a “mass-produced”minimalism to America;sparking a wild fire of “modern”architecture and design.Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger;Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity;and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era.3 From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge.Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication.It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text.Together these are defined as branding(see also advertising).Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably.Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math.These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams.A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy.Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage.This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information-known as information design.Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain.With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer.For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required.In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout.Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills.These graphics are often(but not always)developed 4 by a graphic designer.Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art.Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.Type glyphs(characters)are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading(line spacing)and letter spacing.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements(content)on a page.Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material.With print media, elements usually consist of type(text), images(pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor.Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print.Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression.Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork.Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching;stone, used for lithography;blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing.But there are many other kinds, discussed below.Works printed from a single