第一篇:英美文學(xué)發(fā)展史
英美文學(xué)新古典主義時(shí)期
18世紀(jì)前半葉,英國(guó)社會(huì)安定,文學(xué)上崇尚新古典主義,其代表者是詩(shī)人蒲柏。他運(yùn)用英雄偶句體極為純熟,擅長(zhǎng)寫(xiě)諷刺詩(shī),但以發(fā)泄私怨居多。表現(xiàn)出啟蒙主義精神的主要是散文作家,他們推進(jìn)了散文藝術(shù),還開(kāi)拓了兩個(gè)文學(xué)新領(lǐng)域,即期刊隨筆和現(xiàn)實(shí)主義小說(shuō)。
期刊文學(xué)是應(yīng)廣大讀者的要求而興起。斯梯爾與艾迪生兩人有首創(chuàng)之功。前者創(chuàng)辦《閑談?wù)摺穲?bào)(1709~1711),后者繼出《旁觀者》報(bào)(1711~1712),將街談巷議和俱樂(lè)部里的風(fēng)趣幽默寫(xiě)上了期刊。艾迪生的文筆尤見(jiàn)典雅。后來(lái)笛福、斯威夫特、菲爾丁、約翰遜、哥爾德斯密斯等名家都曾主編期刊或?yàn)槠诳?,可?jiàn)此風(fēng)之盛。由于他們的努力,英國(guó)式的隨筆得到進(jìn)一步的提高,題材更廣泛,文筆也更靈活。更具英國(guó)特色而又對(duì)歐洲大陸產(chǎn)生重大影響的則是散文小說(shuō)。笛福的《魯濱孫飄流記》(1719)、《摩爾?弗蘭德斯》(1722)等書(shū)把水手和女仆當(dāng)做英雄人物來(lái)介紹,細(xì)節(jié)寫(xiě)得十分逼真,雖然書(shū)的結(jié)構(gòu)松散,作者卻有娓娓動(dòng)聽(tīng)的說(shuō)故事的本領(lǐng),使讀者始終保持興趣。他的文字口語(yǔ)化,善于繪聲繪形,而又迅捷有力。這些特點(diǎn),加上笛福對(duì)英國(guó)城鄉(xiāng)諸色人等的深刻了解,使他奠定了英國(guó)現(xiàn)實(shí)主義小說(shuō)的基礎(chǔ)。斯威夫特的《格利佛游記》(1726)是以諷刺朝政、表現(xiàn)人類的丑惡為目的的寓言,然而作為故事,也是十分引人入勝。他把現(xiàn)實(shí)細(xì)節(jié)放在十分奇特的幻想的情景之中,而幻想也是正在發(fā)展中的英國(guó)小說(shuō)所需要的。世紀(jì)中葉,理查遜用書(shū)信體小說(shuō)細(xì)致地描寫(xiě)遭遇不幸的少女的內(nèi)心,以《克拉麗莎》(1747~1748)等大部頭小說(shuō)感動(dòng)了一整代英國(guó)和西歐的讀者,法國(guó)啟蒙思想家狄德羅稱之為偉大創(chuàng)造力的表現(xiàn)。但在菲爾丁的眼里,理查遜只是市儈哲學(xué)的代表,于是他起而用仿作去諷刺之,其結(jié)果卻掌握了寫(xiě)小說(shuō)的藝術(shù),于是有了他自己的創(chuàng)作,其中最受稱道的是《棄嬰托姆?瓊斯的故事》(1749),它的人物、風(fēng)景、場(chǎng)面都是典型的英國(guó)式的。作者歌頌真誠(chéng)、熱心、忠實(shí)而又不受傳統(tǒng)束縛的青年男女,全書(shū)有一種爽朗、清新的空氣,而又結(jié)構(gòu)完整,把現(xiàn)實(shí)主義小說(shuō)推進(jìn)到了一個(gè)新的水平。當(dāng)時(shí)及稍后還有斯摩萊特、哥爾德斯密斯、斯特恩等人的小說(shuō),或擴(kuò)充了題材,或?qū)嶒?yàn)了新寫(xiě)法,都有建樹(shù),因此雖然世紀(jì)末出現(xiàn)了渲染神秘恐怖的“哥特小說(shuō)”,但是現(xiàn)實(shí)主義已經(jīng)成為英國(guó)小說(shuō)中的主流,繼續(xù)向前發(fā)展。菲爾丁的作品《棄嬰托姆?瓊斯的故事》插圖 出色的散文還見(jiàn)于其他文學(xué)品種。約翰遜的《詩(shī)人傳》(1779~1781)是傳記和文論的卓越結(jié)合,鮑斯韋爾的《約翰遜傳》(1791)開(kāi)辟了傳記文學(xué)的新境界,伯克的《論美洲的賦稅》(1774)展示了政治講演術(shù)的力量,羅吉《羅馬帝國(guó)衰亡史》(1776~1788)更以其深刻的啟蒙主義思想和典麗的文筆成為全歐欽仰的史學(xué)杰作。
然而散文之勢(shì)雖盛,詩(shī)歌并未沉寂,不僅有世紀(jì)初的蒲柏和湯姆遜在創(chuàng)作,就是一些散文名家,如斯威夫特、約翰遜和哥爾德斯密斯,也善于寫(xiě)詩(shī)。等到世紀(jì)后半葉,感傷主義抬頭,詩(shī)歌也復(fù)振,出現(xiàn)了揚(yáng)格的《夜思》(1742~1745)和格雷的《墓園挽歌》(1750)等佳作,反映了英國(guó)許多人在產(chǎn)業(yè)革命加緊進(jìn)行中所感到的痛苦和彷徨。珀西編的《英詩(shī)輯古》(1765)引起了對(duì)古民歌的愛(ài)好,于是仿作者有之,偽造者有之,形成一種對(duì)中世紀(jì)神往的風(fēng)氣。這時(shí)從經(jīng)濟(jì)不甚發(fā)達(dá)的蘇格蘭傳來(lái)了農(nóng)民詩(shī)人彭斯的聲音,他既是舊民歌的整理者,又是新詩(shī)篇的創(chuàng)造者,而吟唱的內(nèi)容則是愛(ài)情和自由、平等、博愛(ài)的新思想。后者正是法國(guó)啟蒙思想的結(jié)晶,在80年代之末導(dǎo)致了法國(guó)大革命。對(duì)這次革命的迎或拒,同情或反對(duì),使英國(guó)散文作家發(fā)生了嚴(yán)重的分裂,但大多數(shù)詩(shī)人卻在革命初起的“黎明”時(shí)刻對(duì)人類的未來(lái)充滿了希望。在這樣的氣氛中產(chǎn)生了浪漫主義詩(shī)歌。
浪漫主義時(shí)期
浪漫主義詩(shī)歌的第一個(gè)大詩(shī)人是布萊克。這個(gè)靠鐫版謀生的手工匠人是法國(guó)革命的熱烈的擁護(hù)者,但又反對(duì)它的哲學(xué)基礎(chǔ)理性主義,所寫(xiě)的詩(shī)也大異于18世紀(jì)的優(yōu)雅含蓄,而著重想象力和神啟式的宗教感,初期的《天真之歌》(1789)寫(xiě)得純真,《經(jīng)驗(yàn)之歌》(1794)寫(xiě)得沉痛;后來(lái)詩(shī)風(fēng)一變,轉(zhuǎn)而寫(xiě)作篇幅巨大的長(zhǎng)詩(shī)如《四天神》(1804),其中有一套獨(dú)特的象征和神話系統(tǒng)。
大學(xué)生華茲華斯和柯?tīng)柭芍螀s經(jīng)歷了另一種變化,即從擁護(hù)法國(guó)革命變成反對(duì),于是前者寄情山水,在大自然里找慰藉;后者神游異域和古代,以夢(mèng)境為歸宿。兩人的詩(shī)歌合集,題名《抒情歌謠集》,于1798年出版。兩年后再版,華茲華斯加了一個(gè)長(zhǎng)序,認(rèn)為“所有的好詩(shī)都是強(qiáng)烈情感的自然流露”,主張?jiān)娙恕斑x用人們真正用的語(yǔ)言”來(lái)寫(xiě)“普通生活里的事件和情境”,而反對(duì)以18世紀(jì)格雷為代表的“詩(shī)歌詞藻”。他進(jìn)而論述詩(shī)和詩(shī)人的崇高地位,認(rèn)為“詩(shī)是一切知識(shí)的開(kāi)始和終結(jié),它同人心一樣不朽”,而詩(shī)人則是“人性的最堅(jiān)強(qiáng)的保護(hù)者,是支持者和維護(hù)者。他所到之處都播下人的情誼和愛(ài)”。
這一理論有足夠的實(shí)踐作為支持。華茲華斯的小詩(shī)清新,長(zhǎng)詩(shī)清新而又深刻,他的十四行詩(shī)雄奇,他的《序曲》(1805)首創(chuàng)用韻文來(lái)寫(xiě)自傳式的“一個(gè)詩(shī)人的心靈的成長(zhǎng)”,無(wú)論在內(nèi)容和藝術(shù)上都開(kāi)了一代新風(fēng)。柯?tīng)柭芍瘟碛刑亻L(zhǎng)。他的《古舟子詠》(1798)借用了一個(gè)充滿了奇幻之美的航海故事,探索了罪和贖罪的問(wèn)題;他的短詩(shī)《忽必烈□》(1816)發(fā)掘了詩(shī)的音樂(lè)美和人心的聯(lián)想作用;他的理論著作《文學(xué)傳記》(1817)吸收了德國(guó)哲學(xué)家謝林的論點(diǎn),對(duì)浪漫主義詩(shī)歌的特色,尤其是想象力在詩(shī)歌創(chuàng)作中的重要作用,作了精辟的論述,使他成為英國(guó)文學(xué)批評(píng)史上最敏銳的理論家之一。
然而這兩人的詩(shī)才在短期的閃耀之后相繼熄滅了,另一代詩(shī)人在1815年左右起來(lái),把浪漫主義詩(shī)歌帶進(jìn)了更廣闊的境界。拜倫、雪萊、濟(jì)慈三人各有特色,但是都忠于法國(guó)革命的理想。拜倫是出于對(duì)暴政的反感,雪萊是著眼于未來(lái)的理想社會(huì),濟(jì)慈是由于憎恨這個(gè)使“青年臉色蒼白、骨瘦如鬼”的殘酷世界。在藝術(shù)上,他們都有重大的創(chuàng)新。拜倫在他的杰作《唐璜》(1818~1823)里一反歐洲舊傳說(shuō),把主人公從紈□子弟轉(zhuǎn)變成熱血青年,讓他兩度橫越歐陸,通過(guò)他的眼睛見(jiàn)證了又評(píng)論了廣闊的歐洲現(xiàn)實(shí),而作者在本詩(shī)里對(duì)于口語(yǔ)體的運(yùn)用又達(dá)到前所未有的高峰。拜倫詩(shī)如其人,始終為自由而斗爭(zhēng),產(chǎn)生了超越英國(guó)和歐洲的文化和政治上的重大影響。雪萊的抒情詩(shī)情思專注而意境高遠(yuǎn),鼓舞了當(dāng)時(shí)和后世的革命志士;他的哲理詩(shī)探討人類解放和理想的男女關(guān)系等重大問(wèn)題,以議論入詩(shī)而詩(shī)句依然絢爛多采;他有志于復(fù)興希臘式的詩(shī)劇,在《解放了的普羅米修斯》(1820)里他師法埃斯庫(kù)羅斯而又不取其懦弱,重申人的復(fù)興的勝利,詩(shī)句挺拔,取得了輝煌成就。而濟(jì)慈,這個(gè)英年夭折的天才,在1819年一年之內(nèi),寫(xiě)出了他幾乎全部最重要的詩(shī)篇:《心靈》、《夜鶯》、《希臘古甕》、《秋頌》、《許佩里翁》,每一篇都使人感染到年輕詩(shī)人是怎樣不知疲倦地追求著美,然而這卻只使他更憬然于當(dāng)時(shí)英國(guó)無(wú)處不見(jiàn)的丑,使他明白“只有那些把世界的苦難當(dāng)作苦難,而且苦難使他們不能安息的人”才能達(dá)到藝術(shù)巔峰。正是這對(duì)于“世界的苦難”所感到的切膚之痛使得濟(jì)慈的詩(shī)篇不僅瑰麗,而且深刻。
這一時(shí)期詩(shī)歌還有司各特、克萊普、莫爾、坎貝爾、胡德等人的作品,總的成就是驚人的。英國(guó)文學(xué)史上,莎士比亞去世以后,沒(méi)有另外一個(gè)時(shí)期有這樣多的第一流詩(shī)人,創(chuàng)作了這樣大量的為后世所珍視的第一流作品。
浪漫主義也有著名的散文作家,如哈茲里特和蘭姆,前者的《時(shí)代的精神》(1825)是精辟的文論;后者的《伊利亞隨筆集》(1823)以其風(fēng)趣、典雅得到了英國(guó)和世界無(wú)數(shù)讀者的欣賞。此外還有《一個(gè)英國(guó)鴉片服用者的自白》(1821)的作者德?昆西,《幻想的對(duì)話》(1824~1848)的作者蘭道爾,都講究風(fēng)格,喜作“美文”。德?昆西還運(yùn)用詞句的音韻,試圖在散文中造成詩(shī)的效果。與之成為對(duì)照的是平民政治家科貝特所寫(xiě)的《騎馬鄉(xiāng)行記》(1830),結(jié)合對(duì)民生疾苦的觀察和美好山水的感興,表明樸實(shí)有力的平易散文仍在發(fā)展。
散文的更大成就見(jiàn)于小說(shuō)。原來(lái)以寫(xiě)詩(shī)出名的司各特從1814年起寫(xiě)了27部長(zhǎng)篇?dú)v史小說(shuō),用雄邁的文筆再現(xiàn)了蘇格蘭、英格蘭和歐洲歷史上的一些有突出意義的事件,包括人民起義、民族矛盾、宗教沖突和近代國(guó)家在反封建的斗爭(zhēng)中的建立,展示了歷史的進(jìn)程,刻劃了眾多的英雄人物,留下了《威弗利》(1814)、《羅布?羅伊》(1817)、《米德洛西恩的監(jiān)獄》(1818)、《艾凡赫》(1819)等名著,不僅創(chuàng)建了一個(gè)新的小說(shuō)部門,而且對(duì)英、法、德、意、俄、美等國(guó)的小說(shuō)寫(xiě)作產(chǎn)生了影響。同樣有影響的,特別在英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的讀者當(dāng)中,是女作家?jiàn)W斯丁。她一共寫(xiě)了6部小說(shuō),都以鄉(xiāng)下紳士家女兒的婚姻為主題,用筆細(xì)膩而略帶嘲諷,寫(xiě)出了真愛(ài)情的可貴,偽善的可笑,創(chuàng)造了一類有見(jiàn)地、有個(gè)性的新的青年婦女典型,而小說(shuō)結(jié)構(gòu)勻稱,組織緊密 《傲慢與偏見(jiàn)》(1813)與《愛(ài)瑪》(1815)尤為精心之作。小說(shuō)在19世紀(jì)40至50年代得到更大的發(fā)展,這也是英國(guó)國(guó)內(nèi)階級(jí)斗爭(zhēng)激化的時(shí)期。列寧稱為“世界上第一次廣泛的、真正群眾性的、政治性的無(wú)產(chǎn)階級(jí)運(yùn)動(dòng)即憲章運(yùn)動(dòng)”帶來(lái)了憲章派文學(xué)。同時(shí)科學(xué)技術(shù)在加快發(fā)展,達(dá)爾文的劃時(shí)代的進(jìn)化論給了傳統(tǒng)信仰以猛烈沖擊。在宗教界內(nèi)部,出現(xiàn)了圍繞“牛津運(yùn)動(dòng)”的論爭(zhēng)。在政界和輿論界,圍繞谷物法和“英國(guó)現(xiàn)狀”問(wèn)題展開(kāi)了時(shí)間更長(zhǎng)的論爭(zhēng)。論爭(zhēng)鍛煉了散文。正是在這個(gè)多事之秋,散文文學(xué)成果累累,卡萊爾的《法國(guó)革命》(1837)和《過(guò)去和現(xiàn)在》(1843)、麥考萊的《英國(guó)史》(1849~1861)、羅斯金的《威尼斯之石》(1851~1853)、穆勒的《論自由》(1859)等便是明證。讀者層也在急劇擴(kuò)大;不少新刊物問(wèn)世,開(kāi)始了逐期連載長(zhǎng)篇作品的作法。
這樣的環(huán)境和氣氛使小說(shuō)作者更加關(guān)心社會(huì)上的重大問(wèn)題。狄更斯最初用幽默風(fēng)趣的筆觸寫(xiě)了《匹克威克外傳》(1837),使人們感染到他的樂(lè)觀主義;而不過(guò)兩年,他就在《奧列佛?特維斯特》(1838)里寫(xiě)孤兒的苦難和倫敦賊窟的黑暗;進(jìn)入40年代,他又寫(xiě)了一系列小說(shuō)揭發(fā)崇拜金錢的罪惡后果,其中《董貝父子》(1848)尤為深刻;《大衛(wèi)?科波菲爾》(1850)是一部充滿人世滄桑之感的成熟作品;接著而來(lái)的《荒涼山莊》(1853)、《艱難時(shí)世》(1854)與《小杜麗》(1857)則更見(jiàn)陰郁;《雙城記》(1859)強(qiáng)烈地譴責(zé)了法國(guó)貴族的殘酷,也表達(dá)了作者對(duì)于人民采取暴烈行動(dòng)的戒懼;60年代的《遠(yuǎn)大前程》(1861)寫(xiě)的是前程渺茫,而《我們共同的朋友》(1865)則用巨大的垃圾堆來(lái)作英國(guó)社會(huì)的象征。象征手法的更多使用和對(duì)于小說(shuō)結(jié)構(gòu)的注意是他后期小說(shuō)的特點(diǎn),表示了他在小說(shuō)藝術(shù)上的發(fā)展;然而他最吸引讀者的依然是他一貫保持的優(yōu)點(diǎn),即真實(shí)的細(xì)節(jié)與詩(shī)意的氣氛的結(jié)合,幽默、風(fēng)趣與悲劇性的基本人生處境的結(jié)合,具體情節(jié)與深遠(yuǎn)的社會(huì)意義的結(jié)合。這些結(jié)合,加上他對(duì)于語(yǔ)言的莎士比亞式的運(yùn)用,使狄更斯的小說(shuō)不僅內(nèi)容豐富、深刻,而且以其藝術(shù)上的創(chuàng)新對(duì)歐洲現(xiàn)實(shí)主義小說(shuō)的發(fā)展作出了獨(dú)特貢獻(xiàn)。
同樣關(guān)心社會(huì)問(wèn)題但在范圍與寫(xiě)法上不同于狄更斯的還有一大批別的作家。薩克雷的《名利場(chǎng)》(1847~1848)是另一部有長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)吸引力的巨著,用文雅的筆法諷刺了上層社會(huì)的貪婪和欺詐,而他的《亨利?埃斯蒙德》(1852)則發(fā)揚(yáng)了英國(guó)歷史小說(shuō)的優(yōu)良傳統(tǒng)。1847至1848年間是英國(guó)小說(shuō)的“奇跡年”:除了狄更斯的《董貝父子》和薩克雷的《名利場(chǎng)》外,還出版了夏洛蒂?勃朗特的《簡(jiǎn)?愛(ài)》,埃米莉?勃朗特的《呼嘯山莊》,蓋斯凱爾夫人的《瑪麗?巴頓》。更多女作家的出現(xiàn)是一個(gè)值得注意的現(xiàn)象,而她們各有特長(zhǎng):蓋斯凱爾夫人用同情的筆調(diào)寫(xiě)工人斗爭(zhēng);勃朗特姊妹一個(gè)把倔強(qiáng)、有個(gè)性的家庭女教師放在小說(shuō)的中心,讓她對(duì)有錢的小姐們發(fā)出抗議的聲音;另一個(gè)則用熾熱的情感寫(xiě)愛(ài)與恨的故事,以荒涼的約克郡的野地為背景,情節(jié)中充滿40年代特有的嚴(yán)厲性。稍后,另一個(gè)女作家喬治?艾略特寫(xiě)了一系列剖析倫理問(wèn)題的小說(shuō),其中充滿田野景色的《弗洛斯河上的磨坊》(1860)是一動(dòng)人的悲劇,而她的晚年作品《米德?tīng)栺R奇》(1871~1872)則又以缺乏愛(ài)情的痛苦的婚姻生活為中心,細(xì)致、深入地描寫(xiě)了一整個(gè)小市鎮(zhèn)的形形色色的人物。此外,這一時(shí)期里還有迪斯雷利寫(xiě)貧富對(duì)立的兩個(gè)英國(guó)的社會(huì)小說(shuō),里德和金斯利寫(xiě)為社會(huì)改革服務(wù)的揭露小說(shuō),特羅洛普寫(xiě)小鎮(zhèn)故事和以內(nèi)閣和議會(huì)為中心的政治小說(shuō),科林斯寫(xiě)對(duì)狄更斯也產(chǎn)生了影響的偵探小說(shuō),都留下了出色作品。進(jìn)入19世紀(jì)的后30年,英國(guó)小說(shuō)依然活力不衰,題材范圍繼續(xù)擴(kuò)大。梅瑞狄斯的《利己主義者》(1879)細(xì)致地分析了英國(guó)紳士在婚姻問(wèn)題上的虛妄的自信,而他的《維托利亞》(1867)和《克勞斯威的黛安娜》(1885)又描繪了一類參與政治斗爭(zhēng)的新女性;勞瑟福德在《皮市巷的革命》(1887)里寫(xiě)相信“異議派”教義的手工業(yè)者,勃特勒在《眾生之路》(1903)里寫(xiě)維多利亞時(shí)期中產(chǎn)階級(jí)的冰冷無(wú)愛(ài)的家庭生活,威廉?莫里斯在《夢(mèng)見(jiàn)約翰?保爾》(1888)里懷念舉行1381年起義的壯士。
英美文學(xué)超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義時(shí)期
超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義是20世紀(jì)20年代興起于法國(guó)的現(xiàn)代資產(chǎn)階級(jí)文藝思潮,也是第一次世界大戰(zhàn)后在法國(guó)出現(xiàn)的一個(gè)文學(xué)藝術(shù)流派,它的追隨者遍及美國(guó)、比利時(shí)、瑞士、德國(guó)、南斯拉夫、希臘、美國(guó)、墨西哥、巴西、日本及非洲。
超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義是從達(dá)達(dá)主義發(fā)展而來(lái)的。達(dá)達(dá)主義由特里斯唐·查拉于1916年在瑞士的蘇黎世創(chuàng)立。“達(dá)達(dá)”一詞是全無(wú)意義的。它實(shí)際上是主張推翻一切傳統(tǒng)的寫(xiě)作技巧,完全打亂人的思維表達(dá)方式,企圖以毫無(wú)意義的文字堆積取得驚人的效果。達(dá)達(dá)主義沒(méi)有系統(tǒng)的理論,也沒(méi)有成功的創(chuàng)作,只存在了短短的幾年。超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義一詞最先是在阿波利奈德一個(gè)劇本序(1917)中提出的:“人當(dāng)初企圖模仿行走,所創(chuàng)造的車輪子卻不象一條腿。這樣,人就在不知不覺(jué)中創(chuàng)造出超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義?!?/p>
1919年,安德烈.布勒東和保爾·艾呂雅、路易.阿拉貢等創(chuàng)辦了《文學(xué)》雜志,進(jìn)行了超想實(shí)主義的實(shí)驗(yàn)。1924年法國(guó)作家布勒等人在巴黎創(chuàng)立“超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義研究室”,并發(fā)表《超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義宣言》,創(chuàng)辦《超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義革命》雜志,宣布了這一流派的思想傾向和藝術(shù)觀點(diǎn)。他們以柏格森的直覺(jué)主義和弗洛伊德的精神分析學(xué)說(shuō)為哲學(xué)基礎(chǔ),否定文藝反映現(xiàn)實(shí)生活的基本創(chuàng)作規(guī)律,鼓吹超越現(xiàn)實(shí),超越理智,用“自然寫(xiě)作”的方法(即不受理性、道德準(zhǔn)則制約的寫(xiě)作法)來(lái)表現(xiàn)思想的真實(shí)活動(dòng)。他們相信夢(mèng)幻的下意識(shí)比事實(shí)更能表現(xiàn)出精神深處的真實(shí),因此提出要挖掘久受壓抑的下意識(shí)世界,使之居于主宰的地位。超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義作品大多雜亂無(wú)章,荒謬混亂,有的甚至用晦澀難懂的符號(hào)來(lái)代替文字,反映了當(dāng)時(shí)歐洲青年一代苦悶彷徨和找不到出路的狂亂不安的精神狀態(tài),除布勒東外,這一流派的代表作家還有法國(guó)的艾呂雅和阿拉貢、英國(guó)的托瑪斯等人。
至1930年為止的整整十年,是超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義的興盛時(shí)期。隨后,超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義的陣營(yíng)產(chǎn)生了分裂,阿拉貢和艾呂雅先后退出。
在理論上,超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義提出了一套文學(xué)主張。它的理論依據(jù)來(lái)自弗洛伊德的潛意識(shí)學(xué)和關(guān)于夢(mèng)的闡釋。超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義認(rèn)為,文學(xué)藝術(shù)要在人的復(fù)雜性后面發(fā)現(xiàn)它的統(tǒng)一;現(xiàn)實(shí)的表面不足于反映實(shí)現(xiàn)本身;超于現(xiàn)實(shí)之上存在著“某種組合形式”,這種形式能達(dá)到事物的本質(zhì)。這種形式之一是潛意識(shí),另一種就是夢(mèng)。潛意識(shí),反映了人的靈魂和世界的內(nèi)在秘密;表達(dá)了潛意識(shí),才能達(dá)到人對(duì)自己的完全意識(shí),才能解釋現(xiàn)實(shí)世界的動(dòng)因。夢(mèng),把人秘而不宣的東西完全剝露出來(lái),既顯示了過(guò)去和現(xiàn)在,也預(yù)知著未來(lái)。
超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義者極端強(qiáng)調(diào)人的內(nèi)在意識(shí)的重要性反映了他們對(duì)外在世界的一種厭倦情緒。他們自我標(biāo)榜是“精神的反叛者”,并要以他們的作品去實(shí)現(xiàn)這場(chǎng)“血腥的革命”。否定西方文明,中止人們的現(xiàn)存關(guān)系。所以,他們的言論既有不滿現(xiàn)實(shí)的一面,又深深打上了虛無(wú)主義和無(wú)政府主義的烙印。
超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義在藝術(shù)上還提出要注意幽默的手法,認(rèn)為有了幽默表明作家不向社會(huì)偏見(jiàn)屈服,這種手法是“絕望的面具”。因此,超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義的作品具有對(duì)一切事物采取笑謔態(tài)度的特點(diǎn),被稱為“黑色幽默”。超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義還提出追求“神奇”、“奇特”的藝術(shù)效果,他們的創(chuàng)作寓于各種不同的令人預(yù)料不到的形象比喻,故他們的作品都有意象豐富新穎的特色。但在很多場(chǎng)合下,由于比喻過(guò)于龐雜,想象過(guò)于離奇,又往往導(dǎo)致怪誕、晦澀和不可理解。最后,超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義主張自動(dòng)地“記錄思想,摒棄理智的一切控制,排除一切美學(xué)和道德的考慮”,為此,采用了一種“自動(dòng)寫(xiě)作法”,既把夢(mèng)幻和一剎那間的潛意識(shí)記錄下來(lái),而不考慮文學(xué)之間的聯(lián)系和美學(xué)效果。但超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義的這種嘗試并沒(méi)有取得“解放詩(shī)歌”的預(yù)期效果,反而使他們的大多數(shù)作品不可卒讀。
超現(xiàn)實(shí)主義存在的時(shí)間較長(zhǎng),這個(gè)流派頗有吸引力和生命力,不少的現(xiàn)代派都受其理論影響并加以發(fā)展。
英美文學(xué)-后現(xiàn)代主義文學(xué)
后現(xiàn)代主義時(shí)期是第二次世界大戰(zhàn)之後西方社會(huì)中出現(xiàn)的范圍廣泛的文學(xué)思潮,于20世紀(jì)70-80年代達(dá)到高潮。無(wú)論在文藝思想還是在創(chuàng)作技巧上,後現(xiàn)代主義文學(xué)都是現(xiàn)代主義文學(xué)的延續(xù)和發(fā)展。主流學(xué)術(shù)界曾經(jīng)不區(qū)分“現(xiàn)代”和“後現(xiàn)代”兩個(gè)概念,但由于二戰(zhàn)之後文學(xué)發(fā)展的特征已經(jīng)遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過(guò)了傳統(tǒng)的“現(xiàn)代主義”所能涵蓋的范圍,因此將後現(xiàn)代主義文學(xué)看作一個(gè)獨(dú)立的文學(xué)思潮,和古典主義、浪漫主義、現(xiàn)實(shí)主義以及現(xiàn)代主義并舉。
第二篇:英美文學(xué)
Analysis of Robinson Crusoe
2009級(jí)師范三班劉靜 Robinson Crusoe is written by Defoe(1660 ~ 1731), known as the father of English novel and the periodical literature.He is the father of the English novel and periodical literature, who was born in a family which was against the Anglican Protestant.His father is a businessman, doing business.His article influenced the later development of journal articles and newspaper.Because the speech, he was repeatedly arrested.At the age of 59 Defoe began writing fiction as a novelist, show remarkable ability.Robinson Crusoe Robinson is Defoe's first novel, is also one of the most famous novels.It is based on a British seaman on a deserted island alone for 4 years in exile records and creation.Robinson is the heroine of Defoe works in accordance with their ideals and created the character, he killed out of doing business, living on a desert island for 28 years, overcome all sorts of unimaginable difficulties.He start empty-handed, develop the island, not only to their own survival, and create a new world.He was a pioneer in the image, a real asset class hero.In this figure embodies the western ocean civilization tradition, with the outward development of curiosity, desire to conquer and spirit of adventure, praised the strength quality and working spirit.The novel opens English realistic novel road.In this novel, there are so many about the Wonderful part, but two points impress: one is the author of the narrative language easy to understand.In front of the book, the author use a lot of space to introduce Robinson in the sea to sea before, whether does not listen to parents' guide, but follow the guidance of the soul, the careful psychological description, the author description most incisive.Two is a fascinating story, the protagonist of nearly thirty years of life vividly in front of us, let our eyes as if emerging from a young life.Robinson Crusoe is to let a person look after all that the most primitive, most of my books, not only because it is the wonderful, and it gives us the modern enlightenment.The most qualities I learn from Robinson Crusoe is not his hard-working and brave, but his amazing mental capacity.One can imagine, a single large living alone on a desert island life ten years, no one to accompany him, even the most basic, and a person simply talk for a while to do.The deserted island there is no house, no rice, can only rely on his own hard to create a piece of heaven and earth.The first nonwhite character to be given a realistic, individualized, and humane portrayal in the English novel, Friday has a huge literary and cultural importance.Recent rewritings of the Crusoe story, like J.M.Coetzee’s Foe and Michel Tournier’s Friday, emphasize the sad consequences of Crusoe’s
failure to understand Friday and suggest how the tale might be told very differently from the native’s perspective.Besides his importance to our culture, Friday is a key figure within the context of the novel.Friday’s sincere questions to Crusoe about the devil, which Crusoe answers only
indirectly and hesitantly, leave us wondering whether Crusoe’s knowledge of Christianity is superficial and sketchy in contrast to Friday’s full
understanding of his own god Benamuckee.In short, Friday’s exuberance and emotional directness often point out the wooden conventionality of Crusoe’s personality.Despite Friday’s subjugation, however, Crusoe appreciates Friday much more than he would a mere servant.Crusoe does not seem to value intimacy with humans much, but he does say that he loves Friday, which is a
remarkable disclosure.Crusoe may bring Friday Christianity and clothing, but Friday brings Crusoe emotional warmth and a vitality of spirit that Crusoe’s own European heart lacks.This novel shows that we need to believe ourselves, where there is a will, there is way.Use our hands, then see a new world.What is more, we are not only live ourselves in the world, we need to care about others.Be brave, and
never lose hope.
第三篇:英美文學(xué)
術(shù)語(yǔ)解釋:
Couplets: a rhymed pair of Iambic pentameter lines.Blank verse: unrhymed Iambic pentameter lines.Sonnet: 14 Iambic pentameter lines which follows certain rhyme schemes.2.The conquest: In the year the Normans headed by which is mainly about 4.The Canterbury Tales, in Chaucer’s plan, was to exceed that of Boccaccio’s Decameron, but he failed and only 24 tales were written.5.William Shakespeare, one of the first founders of realism.6.In the first period of his work Shakespeare wrote:
1590The Second and Third part of King Henry VI
1591The First part of King Henry VI
1592The Life and Death of King Richard III;The Comedy of Errors
1593Titus Andronicus;The Taming of the Shrew
1594The Two Gentlemen of Verona;Love’s Labour’s Lost;Romeo and Juliet
1595The Life and Death of Richard II;A Midsummer Night’s Dream
***8Much Ado About Nothing;The Merry Wives of Windsor;The Life of King Henry V
1599The Life and Death of Julius Caesar;As You Like It
1600Twelfth Night, or, What You Will
In the second period:
1601 1602 Troilus and Cressida;All’s Well That Ends Well
160416051606Antony and Cleopatra
1607The Tragedy of Coriolanus;Timon of Athens
1608Pericles, Prince of Tyre
In the third period:
1609Cymbeline, King of Britain
1610The Winter’s Tale
1612The Tempest;The Life of King Henry VIII
7.Hamlet.To be, or not to be: that is the question: is soliloquy which used in a play on the stage and without a listener.To die, to sleep, no more.8.Francis Bacon is scientist, philosopher, essayist.John Donne, a metaphysical poets(玄學(xué)派詩(shī)人)
John Milton, his Paradise Lost, which tells how Satan rebelled against God and how Adam and Eve were driven1
out of Eden.John Bunyan, The plain man’s pathway to heaven.成功刻畫(huà)人物。
Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, the first English novel, 是一部現(xiàn)實(shí)主義小說(shuō),作品的主題是通過(guò)對(duì)主人公魯濱孫的成功刻畫(huà),歌頌資本主義上升時(shí)期那種不畏艱難和困苦,充滿野心和冒險(xiǎn)精神,富有百折不撓,頑強(qiáng)毅力和斗志,依靠自己的雙手改變一切、創(chuàng)造一切的自我?jiàn)^斗和創(chuàng)業(yè)精神。Is a realistic novel, the theme is according to the successfully describe of the hero Robinson, sing the praises of the not afraid of hardships and difficulties, and full of ambition and spirit of adventure , indomitable will power and fighting power, what’s more, the spirit of self-made depending on oneself in the liftperiod of capitalism.John Swift, his Gulliver’s Travels, 抨擊當(dāng)時(shí)英國(guó)的議會(huì)政治和反動(dòng)的宗教勢(shì)力,通過(guò)描寫(xiě)格列佛四次遇險(xiǎn),寫(xiě)出了作者看透了當(dāng)代的腐敗,以諷刺的方法,抨擊了當(dāng)時(shí)腐敗的社會(huì)。Attack the Britain
parliamentarism and reactionary religious forces, according to describe Gulliver’s four-time distress to show the writer has understood the contemporary social corruption, and attack the corrupted society by satire at that time.Henry Fielding is the father of English novel.John Smith is the first American writer.Thomas Jefferson is the writer of The Declaration of Independence.The literature of romanticism period is from American War of Independence to before the Civil War.combining historical romance loaded with symbolism and deep psychological themes, bordering on
surrealism.His depictions of the past are a version of historical fiction used only as a vehicle to express
Transcendentalism是美國(guó)浪漫主義最高潮時(shí)期的體驗(yàn),認(rèn)為世間萬(wàn)物都是平等的。
Henry David Thoreau is the beginner of transcendentalism.Herman Melville, American novelist, proser and poet.Moby Dick, in which shows the struggle between
mankind and nature and draw people’s attention on how to get along with nature properly.He wants to subvert transcendentalism.9.詩(shī)歌鑒賞
Sonnet 18
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?我能否將你比作夏天?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate:你比夏天更美麗溫婉。
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,狂風(fēng)將五月的蓓蕾凋殘,And summer's lease hath all too short a date;夏日的勾留何其短暫。
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,休戀那麗日當(dāng)空,And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,轉(zhuǎn)眼會(huì)云霧迷蒙。
And every fair from fair sometime declines,休嘆那百花飄零,By chance or nature's changing course untrimm'd:催折于無(wú)常的天命。
But thy eternal summer shall not fade唯有你永恒的夏日常新
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,你的美貌亦毫發(fā)無(wú)損。
Nor shall Death brag thou wand'rest in his shade,死神也無(wú)緣將你幽禁,When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st.你在我永恒的詩(shī)中長(zhǎng)存。
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,只要世間尚有人吟誦我的詩(shī)篇,So long lives this,and this gives life to thee.這詩(shī)就將不朽,永葆你的芳顏。
全詩(shī)的基本格律是五音步抑揚(yáng)格(iambic pentameter),包括三個(gè)四行組(quatrain)和一個(gè)對(duì)偶句(couplet),采用典型的莎氏十四行的韻式,即abab cdcd efef gg。
二、比喻和描述有時(shí)平淡或離奇,破壞意美
Sonnet 29
When, in disgrace with fortune and man's eyes當(dāng)我受盡命運(yùn)和人們的白眼,I all alone beweep my outcast state暗暗地哀悼自己的身世飄零,And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries徒用呼吁去干擾聾瞶的昊天,And look upon my self and curse my fate顧盼著身影,詛咒自己的生辰,Wishing me like to one more rich in hope愿我和另一個(gè)一樣富于希望,F(xiàn)eatured like him,like him with friends possess'd面貌相似,又和他一樣廣交游,Desiring this man's art and that man's scope希求這人的淵博,那人的內(nèi)行,With what I most enjoy contented least最賞心的樂(lè)事覺(jué)得最不對(duì)頭;
Yet in these thought myself almost despising可是,當(dāng)我正要這樣看輕自己,Haply I think on thee,and then my state忽然想起了你,于是我的精神,Like to the lark at break of day arising便象云雀破曉從陰霾的大地
From sullen earth sings hymns at heaven's gate振翮上升,高唱著圣歌在天門:
For thy sweet love remember'd such wealth brings一想起你的愛(ài)使我那么富有,That then I scorn to change my state with kings和帝王換位我也不屑于屈就。
賞析:對(duì)社會(huì)、對(duì)自己的命運(yùn)的不滿和無(wú)奈。格律是五音步抑揚(yáng)格(iambic pentameter).韻式,即abab
cdcd efef gg。
To a Waterfowl《 致 水 鳥(niǎo) 》
-----by William Cullen Bryant威廉·卡倫·布賴恩特
Whither, 'midst falling dew,披著滴落的露珠,While glow the heavens with the last steps of day,天空燦爛,白日的行程就要結(jié)束;
Far, through their rosy depths, dost thou pursue穿過(guò)玫瑰色的遙遠(yuǎn)空際,Thy solitary way?你往何方把孤單的前程追逐?
總結(jié):As the dew falls and the sun sets in the rosy depths of the heavens, I wonder where you(waterfowl)are
going?
Vainly the fowler's eye看你遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)飛翔而無(wú)計(jì)可施,Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong,捕鳥(niǎo)人的眼光徒勞眷顧;
As, darkly painted on the crimson sky,滿天紅霞把你映襯,Thy figure floats along.暗黑的身影飄飄飛舞。
總結(jié):the hunter can bring no harm to you ,you are free and safe.Without success, a hunter(fowler)might try to
bring you down as you float in silhouette against the crimson evening sky.Seek'st thou the plashy brink你是在尋找開(kāi)闊的大河之濱,Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide,還是波浪拍岸的水草之湖?
Or where the rocking billows rise and sink或者潮水沖刷的海灘,On the chafed ocean side?那里的巨浪奔騰起伏?
? 總結(jié):are you seeking for a place that is suitable for rest? Are you looking for the marshy edge of a lake,the bank of a river, or the shore of the ocean?
There is a Power whose care有上蒼把你關(guān)照,Teaches thy way along that pathless coast,--在無(wú)路的海岸為你指路,The desert and illimitable air,--在荒漠和無(wú)邊的空際,Lone wandering, but not lost.你孤單的飄蕩不致迷途。
? 總結(jié):There is a Power that leads you on your way across deserts and through unlimited expanses of air.You may be wandering and alone, but you are not lost.All day thy wings have fann'd你成天翕動(dòng)翅膀,At that far height, the cold thin atmosphere:任空氣稀薄暴風(fēng)寒冷,飛在高處,Yet stoop not, weary, to the welcome land,疲乏中你不肯降落舒適的大地,Though the dark night is near.即使黑夜即將緊閉它的帷幕。
總結(jié):you have been flying the whole day, but do not stop and have a rest though dark is coming.You have been flapping your wings all day high in the sky, yet you continue on even though night is near and land beckons beneath you.And soon that toil shall end,你很快就會(huì)結(jié)束這樣的勞苦,Soon shalt thou find a summer home, and rest,你即將找到你夏天的住處;
And scream among thy fellows;reeds shall bend休息中呼喚自己的伙伴,Soon o'er thy sheltered nest.蘆葦也會(huì)躬身把你的窩巢遮護(hù)。
? 總結(jié):you have a strong desire to be with your family;or, to achieve your goal.Soon your journey will
end.Soon you will descend to your summer home.There, you will scream among others of your kind and find secure shelter among the tall grasses.Thou'rt gone, the abyss of heaven你的身軀全被吞沒(méi),Hath swallowed up thy form;yet, on my heart天堂深淵里,你蹤影全無(wú);
Deeply hath sunk the lesson thou hast given,然而你的啟迪深深留在我的心底,And shall not soon depart.我將久久地久久地把它記住。
? 總結(jié):I can no longer see you, but I will never forget the lesson you taught me.He, who, from zone to zone,誰(shuí),從一個(gè)地方到另一個(gè)地方,Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight,指引你穿越無(wú)限的天空作必然的飛翔,In the long way that I must tread alone,也會(huì)在我必須獨(dú)自跋涉的長(zhǎng)途上,Will lead my steps aright.正確地引導(dǎo)我的腳步。
賞析:There are eight 4-line stanzas, in each stanza, their rhyme is abab.
第四篇:英美文學(xué)
《英美文學(xué)》復(fù)習(xí)方法
一、找到《英美文學(xué)》的輔導(dǎo)書(shū),例如《自考一本通》《自考直通車》等類型的漢語(yǔ)版輔導(dǎo)書(shū)。
二、先把漢語(yǔ)版輔導(dǎo)書(shū)的課文翻譯通讀,理解了全書(shū)每個(gè)章節(jié)的內(nèi)容和知識(shí)點(diǎn);用漢語(yǔ)記錄重點(diǎn);
三、第一輪復(fù)習(xí)順序:
1、先看英國(guó)文學(xué),后看美國(guó)文學(xué)
2、按照時(shí)間順序看,每個(gè)時(shí)代都有代表性文學(xué)流派和代表作家及代表性作品
3、按照課本的章節(jié)順序,看完漢語(yǔ)譯文后,對(duì)照英語(yǔ)譯文,劃出課本上對(duì)每個(gè)時(shí)代代表性流派,代表作家和代表作品的描述和評(píng)論。名詞性描述一般是填空題和選擇搭配題;評(píng)論部分是簡(jiǎn)單題和問(wèn)答題;*只看代表性的重要信息,非代表性作品和作家生平介紹不用看;記住某個(gè)時(shí)代某個(gè)流派有哪些代表作家,哪些代表性作品及該作品的簡(jiǎn)要介紹和評(píng)論。
4、按照章節(jié)劃出重點(diǎn)信息,然后整理筆記;
5、全部整理完畢之后,基本上對(duì)文學(xué)史和代表文學(xué)作品有了基本了解。
四、第二輪復(fù)習(xí)順序
1、找到歷年真題,做題的時(shí)候?qū)φ沾鸢?,尋找該答案在課文原文中的原始線索,并作好整理記錄;
2、整理理解全部真題的答案以后,對(duì)課本的重點(diǎn)知識(shí)就有了比較清楚的理解;
五、考前突擊復(fù)習(xí)
1、依據(jù)真題筆記和第二輪復(fù)習(xí)的筆記,對(duì)不熟悉的部分進(jìn)行重點(diǎn)復(fù)習(xí)。
2、根據(jù)以往考題的研究,舊題還會(huì)重新考,所以大家要關(guān)注所有做過(guò)的真題和各章節(jié)中沒(méi)有考過(guò)的但屬于代表性知識(shí)的部分,這些有可能是將要考的新題。自學(xué)考試已經(jīng)有歷史了,所以過(guò)去的真題加起來(lái)也就是全書(shū)的重點(diǎn)知識(shí)網(wǎng)絡(luò),所以認(rèn)真復(fù)習(xí)真題并理解消化,整理幫助記憶,這對(duì)于考試制勝是最好的辦法。
*警告:千萬(wàn)不要拋開(kāi)課本直接做真題;
千萬(wàn)不要死記硬背,而是要在理解的基礎(chǔ)上反復(fù)讀,抄寫(xiě),默記;反復(fù)整理筆記,新的筆記只記錄沒(méi)有掌握好的,直到最后的筆記成為提綱式的。
〈高級(jí)英語(yǔ)〉復(fù)習(xí)方法說(shuō)明;
一、對(duì)照輔導(dǎo)書(shū),精讀課文,做課后練習(xí);
二、找來(lái)歷年考試真題,認(rèn)真做,查到答案在課本中的相關(guān)地方
三、認(rèn)真復(fù)習(xí)真題,總結(jié)知識(shí)點(diǎn);錯(cuò)題本,反復(fù)研究錯(cuò)題
四、回到課本,從頭到尾認(rèn)真閱讀課文,全面復(fù)習(xí)重點(diǎn)知識(shí)點(diǎn);
五、整理真題,再次復(fù)習(xí)錯(cuò)題;
*高級(jí)英語(yǔ)上下冊(cè)32個(gè)單元,復(fù)習(xí)面積很大,所以必須早動(dòng)手,狠下功夫。
祝愿大家能夠取得優(yōu)秀的成績(jī)!
第五篇:英美文學(xué)
SIR THOMAS MALORY
(1405-1471)
The OutlineI.SIR THOMAS MALORY
II.Morte d' Arthur《亞瑟王之死》
III.Questions for Discussion
.SIR THOMAS MALORY(1405-1471)
Life: He was very rich because he inherited a
considerable estate in Warwickshire(a county in west
central England)upon his father's death in 1433 and he
seems to have quickly become drawn into the turmoil of
local politics.In 1445, he became a Member of
Parliament for his county: a rather unstable area during
this time because the usually powerful Earl of Warwick,was only in his mid-teens.A lot of political affairs in Warwickshire led Sir
Thomas into his numerous clashes with the law.From
1444 onwards, he was caught up in raids(襲擊)on the
attacks on the Duke of Buckingham and Combe Abbey
大修道院,大寺院 , as well as a number of thefts in the county
of Essex.Keen to blacken his name, Sir Thomas'
enemies branded(給某人加上污名)him “a rapist, church-
robber, extortioner(勒索者,敲詐者)and would-be
murderer".Unlucky or incompetent,Sir Thomas was certainly in prison almost
continuously throughout the 1450s, though he did
escape several times.His pardon came to him in
October 1462, followed by military service in
Northumbria.From then on he kept his head down,but may have become embroiled(使卷入)in Cook's
Conspiracy(陰謀活動(dòng))of 1468, for which he was
imprisoned.There, he turned to writing and earned
eternal fame.Sir Thomas died on 12th March 1471,probably in Newgate Prison(London).He was buried in the nearby Friary Church of St.Francis.II.Morte d' Arthur
《亞瑟王之死》
Malory's tale begins with the mysterious birth of Arthur and ends with his equally mysterious death.The central concern is with the adventures of Arthur and his famous Knights of the Round Table.The knights fight many battles and win glory, all of which is a credit to the name of King Arthur.Near the end of the story, however, the tide of good fortune turns.Launcelot, one of Arthur's knights, falls in love with Arfhur's queen, Guinever, and the lady
returns his love.One by one the other knight become discontented(使不滿), selfish, or
disillusioned(使醒悟;使不再抱幻想;使...的理想破滅).Thus weakened, the kingdom is attacked by force under Sir Mordred, Arthur's treacherous(背叛的;不忠的)nephew, and ultimately it goes down in defeat.Arthur is borne away(被...所驅(qū)使)on a barge(大型平底船)by three mysterious ladies of the Lake.Morte d‘Arthur was written in a time of transition.The feudal order was dying.By the time Malory began writing his story, soldiers were fighting with gunpowder, a middle class of
tradesmen was arising;and the practices of chivalry were being replaced(代替,取代)by a new aristocratic code.Malory, in a desire to escape the disorder and uneasiness of his day,tried to recapture lost ideals of the romantic past as recounted(敘述,講述)in his tale of noble kings, adventurous knights, and damsels(少女;閨女)in distress(悲痛;苦惱;憂傷;貧困,窮苦;危難;不幸;引起痛苦或悲痛的事物).This book is very important in English literature.Its Arthurian materials have a strong influence on literature of later centuries.III.Questions for Discussion
1.What are the features of Popular Ballads?
2.What is the story of Morte d‘Arthur ?
3.Why is Sir Thomas Malory an important writer the 15th century?
1.What are the features of Popular Ballads?
See the last paragraph on Page 50 to the fifth paragraph on Page 51.of our text book.What is the story of Morte d‘Arthur ?See Page 6 –9 of our PPt..Why is Sir Thomas Malory an important writer the 15th century?
See the first paragraph on Page 52 of our text book.