第一篇：本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)外文翻譯基本規(guī)范

本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）外文翻譯基本規(guī)范

一、要求

1、與畢業(yè)論文分開(kāi)單獨(dú)成文。

2、兩篇文獻(xiàn)。

二、基本格式

1、文獻(xiàn)應(yīng)以英、美等國(guó)家公開(kāi)發(fā)表的文獻(xiàn)為主（Journals from English speaking countries）。

2、畢業(yè)論文翻譯是相對(duì)獨(dú)立的，其中應(yīng)該包括題目、作者（可以不翻譯）、譯文的出處（雜志的名稱(chēng)）（5號(hào)宋體、寫(xiě)在文稿左上角）、關(guān)鍵詞、摘要、前言、正文、總結(jié)等幾個(gè)部分。

3、文獻(xiàn)翻譯的字體、字號(hào)、序號(hào)等應(yīng)與畢業(yè)論文格式要求完全一致。

4、文中所有的圖表、致謝及參考文獻(xiàn)均可以略去，但在文獻(xiàn)翻譯的末頁(yè)標(biāo)注：圖表、致謝及參考文獻(xiàn)已略去(見(jiàn)原文)。（空一行，字體同正文）

5、原文中出現(xiàn)的專(zhuān)用名詞及人名、地名、參考文獻(xiàn)可不翻譯，并同原文一樣在正文中標(biāo)明出處。

二、畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）外文翻譯

（一）畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）外文翻譯的內(nèi)容要求

外文翻譯內(nèi)容必須與所選課題相關(guān)，外文原文不少于6000個(gè)印刷符號(hào)。譯文末尾要用外文注明外文原文出處。

原文出處：期刊類(lèi)文獻(xiàn)書(shū)寫(xiě)方法：[序號(hào)]作者（不超過(guò)3人，多者用等或et al表示）.題（篇）名[J].刊名（版本）,出版年，卷次（期次）：起止頁(yè)次.原文出處：圖書(shū)類(lèi)文獻(xiàn)書(shū)寫(xiě)方法：[序號(hào)]作者.書(shū)名[M].版本.出版地：出版者,出版年.起止頁(yè)次.原文出處：論文集類(lèi)文獻(xiàn)書(shū)寫(xiě)方法：[序號(hào)]作者.篇名[A].編著者.論文集名

[C].出版地：出版者，出版年.起止頁(yè)次。

要求有外文原文復(fù)印件。

（二）畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）外文翻譯的撰寫(xiě)與裝訂的格式規(guī)范

第一部分：封面

1.封面格式:見(jiàn)“畢業(yè)論文（設(shè)計(jì)）外文翻譯封面”。普通A4紙打印即可。第二部分：外文翻譯主題

1.標(biāo)題

一級(jí)標(biāo)題，三號(hào)字，宋體，頂格，加粗

二級(jí)標(biāo)題，四號(hào)字，宋體，頂格，加粗

三級(jí)標(biāo)題，小四號(hào)字，宋體，頂格，加粗

2.正文

小四號(hào)字，宋體。

第三部分：版面要求

論文開(kāi)本大?。?10mm×297mm（A4紙）

版芯要求：左邊距：25mm，右邊距：25mm，上邊距：30mm，下邊距：25mm，頁(yè)眉邊距：23mm，頁(yè)腳邊

距：18mm

字符間距：標(biāo)準(zhǔn)

行距：1.25倍

頁(yè)眉頁(yè)角：頁(yè)眉的奇數(shù)頁(yè)書(shū)寫(xiě)—浙江師范大學(xué)學(xué)士學(xué)位論文外文翻譯。頁(yè)眉的偶數(shù)頁(yè)書(shū)寫(xiě)—外文翻譯

題目。在每頁(yè)底部居中加頁(yè)碼。（宋體、五號(hào)、居中）

裝訂順序是：封皮、中文翻譯、英文原文復(fù)印件。

第二篇：建筑學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯 題目： 德黑蘭城市發(fā)展

學(xué) 院: 專(zhuān) 業(yè): 學(xué) 號(hào): 學(xué)生姓名: 指導(dǎo)教師:

城市建設(shè)學(xué)院 建筑學(xué)

日 期: 二零一一年六月

First Chapter：Development of the city of Tehran

Ali Madanipour 武漢科技大學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

Tehran :the making of a metropolis，F(xiàn)irst Chapter：Development of the city of Tehran，Ali Madanipour，ISBN：0471957798，Press： New York John Wiley，1998，page five to page eleven。

第一章：德黑蘭市的發(fā)展

阿里.馬丹妮普爾

德黑蘭：一個(gè)大都市的建造，第一章：德黑蘭市的發(fā)展，阿里.馬丹妮普爾，書(shū)號(hào)：0471957798，紐約John Wiley出版社，1998，第五頁(yè)到第十一頁(yè)。

德黑蘭市的發(fā)展

全市已長(zhǎng)成了一定的規(guī)模性和復(fù)雜性，以這樣的程度，空間管理需要另外的手段來(lái)處理城市組織和不斷發(fā)展的復(fù)雜性，并為城市總體規(guī)劃做準(zhǔn)備。

第二次世界大戰(zhàn)后，在盟軍占領(lǐng)國(guó)家的期間，有一個(gè)時(shí)期的民主化，在冷戰(zhàn)時(shí)開(kāi)始的政治緊張局勢(shì)之后，它們互相斗爭(zhēng)對(duì)石油的控制權(quán)。這個(gè)時(shí)期已經(jīng)結(jié)束于1953年，結(jié)果 武漢科技大學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

是由政變產(chǎn)生了伊朗王，那個(gè)后來(lái)?yè)?dān)任了25年的行政君主的人。隨著高出生率和農(nóng)村向城市遷移，德黑蘭和其他大城市增長(zhǎng)加劇甚至比以前更快地。到1956年，德黑蘭的人口上升到150萬(wàn)，到了1966至300萬(wàn)，1976至450萬(wàn)，其規(guī)模也從1934年46平方公里到1976年的250平方公里。

從石油行業(yè)的收入增長(zhǎng)創(chuàng)造的盈余資源，需要流通和經(jīng)濟(jì)的吸收。50年代中期，特別是在工業(yè)化的驅(qū)動(dòng)下德黑蘭許多大城市有了新工作。20世紀(jì)60年代的土地改革釋放了大量來(lái)自農(nóng)業(yè)的農(nóng)村人口，這是不能吸收的指數(shù)人口增長(zhǎng)。這種新的勞動(dòng)力被吸引到城市：到新的產(chǎn)業(yè)，到似乎始終蓬勃發(fā)展建筑界，去服務(wù)不斷增長(zhǎng)公共部門(mén)和官僚機(jī)構(gòu)。德黑蘭的角色是國(guó)家的行政，經(jīng)濟(jì)，文化中心，它堅(jiān)定而鞏固地通往外面的世界。德黑蘭戰(zhàn)后的城市擴(kuò)張，是在管制、私營(yíng)部門(mén)的推動(dòng)，投機(jī)性的發(fā)展下進(jìn)行的。房屋一直供不應(yīng)求，并有大量可用的富余勞動(dòng)力和資本，因此在德黑蘭建筑行業(yè)蓬勃發(fā)展，土地和財(cái)產(chǎn)的價(jià)格不斷上漲。這個(gè)城市成長(zhǎng)為一個(gè)在某種意義上道路對(duì)外脫節(jié)的，城鎮(zhèn)和鄉(xiāng)村一體化的，郊區(qū)不斷增長(zhǎng)的新的定居點(diǎn)。這加強(qiáng)了社會(huì)的孤立性，破壞了郊區(qū)的花園和綠地，并使城市管理者的感到無(wú)能為力。1962年一位副市長(zhǎng)在德黑蘭表示：“建筑物和居民點(diǎn)已經(jīng)滿足人們所想要的無(wú)論何處何種樣子”，創(chuàng)造了一個(gè)“事實(shí)上城鎮(zhèn)相互連接的方式不當(dāng)”的城市（Nafisi, 1964,第426頁(yè)）。有許多事情迫切需要做，但市政府并沒(méi)有法律上或經(jīng)濟(jì)上有能力處理這進(jìn)程。

1966年市政法第一次規(guī)定了城規(guī)最高委員會(huì)的法律體制和土地利用規(guī)劃公司的綜合計(jì)劃。還有他一系列法律，以支持德黑蘭市的新的法律和體制安排，使住房和其他管理工作在城市中發(fā)展起來(lái)。最重要的一步是策劃的德黑蘭綜合計(jì)劃于1968年被批準(zhǔn)。它是由一個(gè)伊朗規(guī)劃師Fereydun Ghaffari領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下的美國(guó)的Victor Gruen和伊朗的Aziz Farmanfarmaian所共同產(chǎn)生的（Ardalan，1986）。該計(jì)劃確定的城市的問(wèn)題是：城市密度過(guò)高特別是城市中心、主要道路沿線商業(yè)活動(dòng)的膨脹、污染、不完善的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，貧困地區(qū)廣泛的失業(yè)和低收入群體不斷地遷移到德黑蘭。解決的辦法是城市自然社會(huì)和經(jīng)濟(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)的轉(zhuǎn)型。(Farmanfarmaian and Gruen, 1968).不過(guò)該提案大多主張形態(tài)上的變化，試圖強(qiáng)調(diào)一個(gè)現(xiàn)代化的理念，強(qiáng)加這個(gè)復(fù)雜的都市的秩序。設(shè)想這個(gè)城市的未來(lái)可向西形成一個(gè)線性多中心的形式，減少密度和市中心的擠塞情況。全市將形成10個(gè)地區(qū)，其他各區(qū)由綠化帶隔開(kāi)，每個(gè)地區(qū)約50萬(wàn)居民，并設(shè)置擁有高樓的商業(yè)及工業(yè)中心。各個(gè)地區(qū)（mantagheh）將分為若干區(qū)域（nahyeh）和社區(qū)（mahalleh）。每個(gè)區(qū)域人口約1.5到3萬(wàn)，有一所中學(xué)和商業(yè)中心以及其他必要設(shè)施。每個(gè)社區(qū)有大約5000居民，有一所小學(xué)和一個(gè)當(dāng)?shù)氐纳虡I(yè)中心。這些地區(qū)和區(qū)域?qū)⒂邢噙B的交通運(yùn)輸網(wǎng)絡(luò)，包括高速公路，捷運(yùn)路線及巴士路線。過(guò)境路線的站點(diǎn)會(huì)迅速發(fā)展為活動(dòng)度高居住密度高的節(jié)點(diǎn)。重建及改善計(jì)劃中將有60萬(wàn)人離開(kāi)中心地區(qū)(Farmanfarmaian and Gruen, 1968).。

幾乎所有這些措施可以追溯到那個(gè)擁有時(shí)尚規(guī)劃理念的時(shí)代，這主要是受英國(guó)新城鎮(zhèn)的影響。在Victor Gruen的《我們城市的心臟》（1965）書(shū)中，曾設(shè)想未來(lái)的中心大 武漢科技大學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

都市會(huì)由10個(gè)城市包圍，每個(gè)國(guó)家都有它自己的中心。這很像Ebenezer Howard’s（1960年，第142頁(yè)）提到的，那個(gè)四周被園林城市群包圍著的中心城市：“社會(huì)的城市”。在德黑蘭的規(guī)劃中，這一概念的直譯版被使用。另一個(gè)在英國(guó)新城鎮(zhèn)被使用的概念，比如Redditch和 Runcorn，是把公共交通路線作為城市的骨架的重要性，其停車(chē)點(diǎn)是它的重點(diǎn)服務(wù)中心。使用鄰里中心和小學(xué)來(lái)限制鄰里單元人口，這被廣泛應(yīng)用于這些新市鎮(zhèn)，這是一個(gè)曾在20世紀(jì)20年代在美國(guó)發(fā)展的想法(Mumford, 1954)。這些思想依然存在，但是，主要是在紙面上。該計(jì)劃已執(zhí)行，已在美國(guó)城市規(guī)劃中有根深蒂固的想法，包括了用高速公路網(wǎng)的不斷延伸去連接城市的脫節(jié)部分;在不同地區(qū)的社會(huì)管理和物理性質(zhì)的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行區(qū)劃;引進(jìn)容積率的控制發(fā)展的密度。

在20世紀(jì)70年代進(jìn)行的其他主要規(guī)劃工作包括Shahrak Gharb的局部發(fā)展新城鎮(zhèn)，以及Shahestan依照英國(guó)顧問(wèn)Llewelyn–Davies提出的規(guī)劃新的城市行政中心，雖然這被當(dāng)做正在上升的革命浪潮后來(lái)從未實(shí)施過(guò)。

革命和后革命時(shí)期可分為三個(gè)階段：革命（1979-1988年），重建（1989-1996年）和改革（1997-2004），每個(gè)都展示了德黑蘭城市規(guī)劃中不同的做法。

德黑蘭和其他城市經(jīng)過(guò)兩年大量實(shí)證，1979年有代表性的是一個(gè)革命的到來(lái)推翻了伊朗君主，由議會(huì)共和制和神父統(tǒng)治的不穩(wěn)定結(jié)合所取代。其原因可以追溯到在國(guó)王的發(fā)展模式導(dǎo)致了許多沖突，現(xiàn)代與傳統(tǒng)，經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展與政治發(fā)展，全球市場(chǎng)力量和地方資產(chǎn)階級(jí)力量，外國(guó)勢(shì)力和民族主義，腐敗和自滿中堅(jiān)分子與不滿的群眾。像1906年的革命一樣，許多隱藏意見(jiàn)的累積使1979的革命成為可能。在第一次革命，維新已占了上風(fēng)，而在第二次，傳統(tǒng)主義者贏得了領(lǐng)導(dǎo)。然而，無(wú)論革命的態(tài)度還是他們掌握政權(quán)之后的一系列重大問(wèn)題，包括城市發(fā)展都顯示出現(xiàn)代化的偏好。從這個(gè)意義上講，該國(guó)的這兩個(gè)爆炸革命事件可以被看作是在動(dòng)蕩中逐步轉(zhuǎn)型所作的努力（Madanipour，1998，2003）。革命是在與伊拉克長(zhǎng)期戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)（1980-1988）之后，其間停止了經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展。在城市發(fā)展方面的投資減少，而農(nóng)村地區(qū)和省城受到革命政府的青睞，同時(shí)遏制從農(nóng)村向城市遷移并與大城市公平對(duì)待。在此期間主要規(guī)劃干預(yù)是對(duì)白天城市中心的私家車(chē)活動(dòng)的限制。同時(shí)，戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)和新政府的免費(fèi)或低費(fèi)用的設(shè)施，吸引了更多的人承諾向首都城市移民，到1986年人口達(dá)600萬(wàn)。從20世紀(jì)50年代城市人口的增長(zhǎng)速度已開(kāi)始減慢，而直到80年代中期首都的增長(zhǎng)都更快，但是它的增長(zhǎng)率也開(kāi)始下降（Khatam, 1993）。在革命和戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)后，正?；椭亟〞r(shí)期開(kāi)始了，其中大部分持續(xù)到上世紀(jì)90年代。這期間見(jiàn)證了德黑蘭城市規(guī)劃的若干努力。但是沒(méi)有一個(gè)有效的框架來(lái)管理劇烈的城市發(fā)展。綜合計(jì)劃在革命后遭到攻擊，因?yàn)樗徽J(rèn)為無(wú)法適應(yīng)變化。1998年，市長(zhǎng)批評(píng)它主要是形態(tài)上的發(fā)展規(guī)劃、植根于前政權(quán)的政治框架、并沒(méi)有足夠重視實(shí)際操作問(wèn)題（Dehaghani，1995）。

綜合計(jì)劃的25年壽命在1991年結(jié)束。一個(gè)伊朗顧問(wèn)公司（A-Tech）受委托于1985年籌備1986-1996期間的規(guī)劃。經(jīng)過(guò)多次延遲，在1993年，該計(jì)劃最終被城市規(guī)劃高級(jí)理事會(huì)批準(zhǔn)。該計(jì)劃還注重增長(zhǎng)的管理和線性空間戰(zhàn)略，利用了城市區(qū)域，次區(qū)域，地 武漢科技大學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

區(qū)，小區(qū)和鄰里尺度。它促進(jìn)保護(hù)、權(quán)力下放、多中心發(fā)展，有五個(gè)衛(wèi)星新市鎮(zhèn)，并發(fā)展住宅增加城市密度。該協(xié)會(huì)建議，城市在5個(gè)亞區(qū)中被劃分成22個(gè)區(qū)，每個(gè)區(qū)都擁有自己的服務(wù)中心（Shahrdari-e Tehran, 2004）。

1993年的計(jì)劃不受市政當(dāng)局歡迎，不同意它的估價(jià)和優(yōu)先次序，認(rèn)為它不現(xiàn)實(shí)、昂貴、無(wú)法實(shí)施。1996-2001年期間市政當(dāng)局自己做了一個(gè)戰(zhàn)略規(guī)劃，它被認(rèn)為是德黑蘭市政的第一個(gè)規(guī)劃或是德黑蘭80。它強(qiáng)調(diào)對(duì)一個(gè)城市提出戰(zhàn)略和政策來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)他們的第一個(gè)規(guī)劃，而不是以介紹土地利用規(guī)劃為目標(biāo)。它把城市的主要問(wèn)題確定為能提供服務(wù)的資源短缺、城市發(fā)展模式和速度、環(huán)境污染、缺乏有效的公共交通工具、效率低下和官僚主義。然后市政府對(duì)城市的未來(lái)遠(yuǎn)景概述了六個(gè)主要特征：一個(gè)清潔的城市，建設(shè)便于運(yùn)動(dòng)的城市公園和綠化帶，新的文化和體育設(shè)施，改革發(fā)展的城市組織，以及對(duì)城市空間的改善，包括土地利用和保護(hù)的全面和詳細(xì)的計(jì)劃的編制規(guī)劃(Shahrdari-e Tehran, 1996)。

全市實(shí)施了1968年的計(jì)劃中提出的一部分建議，諸如增加南方的綠色開(kāi)放空間，或是興建高速公路網(wǎng);開(kāi)放城市的大部分地區(qū)使之得到新的發(fā)展以緩解全城的運(yùn)作。繼承1993年計(jì)劃的意見(jiàn)，市政府放寬容積率限制，并允許熱鬧地帶有更高的密度。然而，這并非基于規(guī)劃的考慮，主要是為了使市政當(dāng)局的財(cái)政獨(dú)立。這在發(fā)展產(chǎn)業(yè)區(qū)廣受歡迎，但受到公民的爭(zhēng)議。開(kāi)發(fā)者可以通過(guò)向市政府繳納罰款建立更高的建筑物，而不必考慮對(duì)周?chē)h(huán)境的影響，這個(gè)政策俗稱(chēng)“密度銷(xiāo)售”。該城市的面貌，特別是在其北部地區(qū)，是在短期內(nèi)改變的，其中包括中通過(guò)寬闊的街道和高速公路連接高樓大廈。在較貧窮的南部，一個(gè)大型的重建項(xiàng)目Navab穿過(guò)密集而破舊的建筑物建造高速公路，建立龐大的上層建筑的各個(gè)方面。這個(gè)城市的行政邊界擴(kuò)大了兩次，一次向外，一次向西，涵蓋了700平方公里的22個(gè)區(qū)市。

這個(gè)時(shí)期的重建爭(zhēng)議隨著民主的改革而產(chǎn)生，它重新啟動(dòng)了城市市議會(huì)的選舉，這首先造成了市長(zhǎng)和市政府關(guān)系的制度混亂。該會(huì)于2001年公布了自己的城市構(gòu)想作為德黑蘭憲章，這總結(jié)了大會(huì)上安理會(huì)成員、非政府組織和市政專(zhuān)家之間原則上同意的問(wèn)題。該憲章主要采納了可持續(xù)性和民主性原則，被用于開(kāi)發(fā)自然和處理環(huán)境、交通、社會(huì)、文化、經(jīng)濟(jì)問(wèn)題、城市管理戰(zhàn)略、區(qū)域性城市，國(guó)家和國(guó)際角色。

Development of the city of Tehran The city had grown in size and complexity to such an extent thatits spatial managementneeded additional tools, which resulted in the growing complexity of municipalorganization, and in the preparation of a comprehensive plan for the city.After the Second World War, during which the Allied forces occupied the country, there was a period of democratization, followed by political tensions of the start of the cold war, 武漢科技大學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

and struggles over the control of oil.This period was ended in 1953 by a coup detat that returned the Shah to power, who then acted as an executive monarch for the next 25 years.With high birth rates and an intensification of rural–urban migration, Tehran— and other large cities—grew even faster than before.By 1956, Tehran’s population rose to 1.5 million, by 1966 to 3 million, and by 1976 to 4.5 million;its size grew from 46 km2 in 1934 to 250 km2 in 1976(Kariman, 1976;Vezarat-e Barnameh va Budgeh, 1987).Revenues from the oil industry rose, creating surplus resources that needed to be circulated and absorbed in the economy.An industrialization drive from the mid-1950s created many new jobs in big cities, particularly in Tehran.The land reforms of the 1960s released large numbers of rural population from agriculture, which was not able to absorb the exponential demographic growth.This new labour force was attracted to cities: to the new industries, to the construction sector which seemed to be always booming, to services and the constantly growing public sector bureaucracy.Tehran’s role as the administrative, economic, and cultural centre of the country, and its gateway to the outside world, was firmly consolidated.Urban expansion in postwar Tehran was based on under-regulated, private-sector driven, speculative development.Demand for housing always exceeded supply, and a surplus of labor and capital was always available;hence the flourishing construction industry and the rising prices of land and property in Tehran.The city grew in a disjointed manner in all directions along the outgoing roads, integrating the surrounding towns and villages, and growing new suburban settlements.This intensified social segregation, destroyed suburban gardens and green spaces, and left the city managers feeling powerless.A deputy mayor of the city in 1962 commented that in Tehran, ‘‘the buildings and settlements have been developed by whomever has wanted in whatever way and wherever they have wanted’’, creating a city that was ‘‘in fact a number of towns connected to each other in an inappropriate way’’(Nafisi, 1964, p.426).There was a feeling that something urgently needed to be done, but the municipality was not legally or financially capable of dealing with this process.The 1966 Municipality Act provided, for the first time, a legal framework for the formation of the Urban Planning High Council and for the establishment of land-use planning in the form of comprehensive plans.A series of other laws followed, underpinning new legal and institutional arrangements for the Tehran municipality, allowing the Ministry of Housing and others to work together in managing the growth of the city.The most important step taken in planning was the approval of the Tehran Comprehensive Plan in 1968.It was produced by a consortium of Aziz Farmanfarmaian Associates of Iran and Victor Gruen Associates of the 武漢科技大學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

United States, under the direction of Fereydun Ghaffari, an Iranian city planner(Ardalan, 1986).The plan identified the city’s problems as high density, especially in the city centre;expansion of commercial activities along the main roads;pollution;inefficient infrastructure;widespread unemployment in the poorer areas, and the continuous migration of low-income groups to Tehran.The solution was to be found in the transformation of the city’s physical, social and economic fabric(Farmanfarmaian and Gruen, 1968).The proposals were, nevertheless, mostly advocating physical change, attempting, in a modernist spirit, to impose a new order onto this complex metropolis.The future of the city was envisaged to be growing westward in a linear polycentric form, reducing the density and congestion of the city centre.The city would be formed of 10 large urban districts, separated from each other by green belts,each with about 500,000 inhabitants, a commercial and an industrial centre with high-rise buildings.Each district(mantagheh)would be subdivided into a number of areas(nahyeh)and neighborhoods(mahalleh).An area, with a population of about 15–30,000, would have a high school and a commercial centre and other necessary facilities.A neighborhood, with its 5000 inhabitants, would have a primary school and a local commercial centre.These districts and areas would be linked by a transportation network, which included motorways, a rapid transit route and a bus route.The stops on the rapid transit route would be developed as the nodes for concentration of activities with a high residential density.A number of redevelopment and improvement schemes in the existing urban areas would relocate 600,000 people out of the central areas(Farmanfarmaian and Gruen, 1968).Almost all these measures can be traced to the fashionable planning ideas of the time, which were largely influenced by the British New Towns.In his book, The Heart of Our Cities, Victor Gruen(1965)had envisaged the metropolis of tomorrow as a central city surrounded by 10 additional cities,each with its own centre.This resembled Ebenezer Howard’s(1960, p.142)‘‘social cities’’, in which a central city was surrounded by a cluster of garden cities.In Tehran’s plan, a linear version of this concept was used.Another linear concept, which was used in the British New Towns of the time such as Redditch and Runcorn, was the importance of public transport routes as the town’s spine, with its stopping points serving as its foci.The use of neighborhood units of limited population, focused on a neighborhood centre and a primary school, was widely used in these New Towns, an idea that had been developed in the 1920s in the United States(Mumford, 1954).These ideas remained, however, largely on paper.Some of the plan’s ideas that were implemented, which were rooted in American city planning, included a network of freeways to connect the disjointed 武漢科技大學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

parts of the sprawling metropolis;zoning as the basis for managing the social and physical character of different areas;and the introduction of Floor Area Ratios for controlling development densities.Other major planning exercises, undertaken in the 1970s, included the partial development of a New Town, Shahrak Gharb, and the planning of a new administrative centre for the city—Shahestan—by the British consultants Llewelyn–Davies, although there was never time to implement the latter, as the tides of revolution were rising.Planning through policy development: reconstruction after the revolution and war The revolutionary and post-revolutionary period can be divided into three phases: revolution(1979–1988), reconstruction(1989–1996), and reform(1997–2004), each demonstrating different approaches to urban planning in Tehran.After two years of mass demonstrations in Tehran and other cities, the year 1979 was marked by the advent of a revolution that toppled the monarchy in Iran, to be replaced by a state which uneasily combined the rule of the clergy with parliamentary republicanism.Its causes can be traced in the shortcomings of the Shah’s model of development, which led to clashes between modernization and traditions, between economic development and political underdevelopment, between global market forces and local bourgeoisie, between foreign influence and nationalism, between a corrupt and complacent elite and discontented masses.Like the revolution of 1906, a coalition of many shades of opinion made the revolution of 1979 possible.In the first revolution, the modernizers had the upper hand, while in the second the traditionalists won the leadership.However, the attitudes of both revolutions—and the regimes that followed them—to a number of major issues, including urban development, show a preference for modernization.In this sense, both revolutions can be seen as explosive episodes in the country’s troubled efforts at progressive transformation(Madanipour, 1998, 2003).The revolution was followed by a long war(1980–1988)with Iraq, which halted economic development.Investment in urban development dwindled, while rural areas and provincial towns were favoured by the revolutionary government, both to curb rural–urban migration and to strike a balance with large cities.The key planning intervention in this period was to impose daytime restrictions on the movement of private cars in the city centre.Meanwhile, the war and the promise of free or low-cost facilities by the new government attracted more migrants to the capital city, its population reaching 6 million by 1986.The rate of population growth in the city had started to slow down from the 1950s, while the metropolitan region was growing faster until the mid-1980s, when its growth rate also started to decline(Khatam, 1993).After the revolution and war, a period of normalization and reconstruction started, which 武漢科技大學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

lasted for most of the 1990s.This period witnessed a number of efforts at urban planning in Tehran.Once again, urban development had intensified without an effective framework to manage it.The comprehensive plan came under attack after the revolution, as it was considered unable to cope with change.In 1998, the Mayor criticized it for being mainly a physical development plan, for being rooted in the political framework of the previous regime, and for not paying enough attention to the problems of implementation(Dehaghani, 1995).The comprehensive plan’s 25-year lifespan came to an end in 1991.A firm of Iranian consultants(A-Tech)was commissioned in 1985 to prepare a plan for the period of 1986–1996.After much delay, it was only in 1993 that the plan was finally approved by the Urban Planning High Council.This plan also focused on growth management and a linear spatial strategy, using the scales of urban region, subregion, district, area and neighbourhood.It promoted conservation, decentralization, polycentric development, development of five satellite new towns, and increasing residential densities in the city.It proposed that the city be divided into 22 districts within five sub-regions, each with its own service centre(Shahrdari-e Tehran, 2004).The 1993 plan was not welcomed by the municipality, which disagreed with its assessments and priorities, finding it unrealistic, expensive, and impossible to implement.The municipality produced its own strategic plan for the period 1996–2001, known as Tehran Municipalty’s First Plan, or Tehran 80.Rather than introducing a land-use plan as its goal, this was the first plan for the city that emphasized a set of strategies and propose d policies to achieve them.It identified the city’s main problems as shortage of resources to deliver its services;the pace and pattern of urban growth;environmental pollution;the absence of effective public transport, and inefficient bureaucracy.The municipality’s vision for the future of the city was then outlined to have six major characteristics: a clean city, ease of movement in the city, the creation of parks and green spaces, the development of new cultural and sports facilities, reform of the municipal organization, and planning for the improvement of urban space, including preparation of comprehensive and detailed plans for land use and conservation(Shahrdari-e Tehran, 1996).The municipality implemented part of the proposals, such as increasing the amount of green open spaces in the south, or constructing new parts of the motorway network, which was proposed by the 1968 plan;opening large parts of the city to new development, and easing movement across the city.Following the advice of the 1993 plan, the municipality relaxed FAR limits and allowed higher densities through bonus zoning.This, however, was not based on planning considerations, but was mainly to bring financial autonomy to the municipality.This proved to be popular with the development industry, but controversial with citizens.Developers could build taller buildings by paying fines to the municipality, in a 武漢科技大學(xué)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

policy popularly known as ‘‘selling density’’, without having to show their impacts on the surrounding environment.The face of the city, particularly in its northern parts, was transformed in a short period, consisting of medium to high-rise buildings connected through wide streets and motorways.In the poorer south, a major redevelopment project, Navab, cut a motorway through the dense and decayed fabric, building gigantic superstructures on each side.The city’s administrative boundaries were expanded twice, once outward and then westward, to encompass 22 district municipalities in 700 km2.This controversial period of reconstruction was followed by a period of democratic reform, which re-launched an elected city council for the city, which at first caused institutional confusion about its relationship with the mayor and the municipality.The council published its own vision of the city as Tehran Charter in 2001, which was the summary of the principles agreed between council members, non-governmental organizations, and urban experts at a congress about the subject.The Charter adopted sustainability and democracy as its key principles, which were used to develop strategies for natural and built environments, transport, social, cultural and economic issues, urban management, and the city’s regional, national and international roles.

第三篇：畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)外文翻譯(原文)

畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）——外文翻譯（原文）

NEWAPPLICATIONOFDATABASE

Relational databases have been in use for over two decades.A large portion of the applications of relational databases have been in the commercial world, supporting such tasks as transaction processing for banks and stock exchanges, sales and reservations for a variety of businesses, and inventory and payroll for almost of all companies.We study several new applications, which have become increasingly important in recent years.First.Decision-support system

As the online availability of data has grown, businesses have begun to exploit the available data to make better decisions about increase sales.We can extract much information for decision support by using simple SQL queries.Recently however, people have felt the need for better decision support based on data analysis and data mining, or knowledge discovery, using data from a variety of sources.Database applications can be broadly classified into transaction processing and decision support.Transaction-processing systems are widely used today, and companies have accumulated a vast amount of information generated by these systems.The term data mining refers loosely to finding relevant information, or “discovering knowledge,” from a large volume of data.Like knowledge discovery in artificial intelligence, data mining attempts to discover statistical rules and patterns automatically from data.However, data mining differs from machine learning in that it deals with large volumes of data, stored primarily on disk.Knowledge discovered from a database can be represented by a set of rules.We can discover rules from database using one of two models:

In the first model, the user is involved directly in the process of knowledge discovery.In the second model, the system is responsible for automatically discovering knowledge from the database, by detecting patterns and correlations in the data.Work on automatic discovery of rules has been influenced strongly by work in the artificial-intelligence community on machine learning.The main differences lie in the volume of data handled in databases, and in the need to access disk.Specialized data-mining algorithms have been developed to handle large volumes of disk-resident data efficiently.The manner in which rules are discovered depends on the class of data-mining application.We illustrate rule discovery using two application classes: classification and associations.Second.Spatial and Geographic Databases

Spatial databases store information related to spatial locations, and provide support for efficient querying and indexing based on spatial locations.Two types of spatial databases are particularly important:

Design databases, or computer-aided-design(CAD)databases, are spatial databases used to store design information about how objects---such as buildings, cars or aircraft---are constructed.Other important examples of computer-aided-design databases are integrated-circuit and electronic-device layouts.Geographic databases are spatial databases used to store geographic information, such as maps.Geographic databases are often called geographic information systems.Geographic data are spatial in nature, but differ from design data in certain ways.Maps and satellite images are typical examples of geographic data.Maps may provide not only location information-such

as boundaries, rivers and roads---but also much more detailed information associated with locations, such as elevation, soil type, land usage, and annual rainfall.Geographic data can be categorized into two types: raster data(such data consist a bit maps or pixel maps, in two or more dimensions.), vector data(vector data are constructed from basic geographic objects).Map data are often represented in vector format.Third.Multimedia Databases

Recently, there has been much interest in databases that store multimedia data, such as images, audio, and video.Today multimedia data typically are stored outside the database, in files systems.When the number of multimedia objects is relatively small, features provided by databases are usually not important.Database functionality becomes important when the number of multimedia objects stored is large.Issues such as transactional updates, querying facilities, and indexing then become important.Multimedia objects often have descriptive attributes, such as those indicating when they were created, who created them, and to what category they belong.One approach to building a database for such multimedia objects is to use database for storing the descriptive attributes, and for keeping track of the files in which the multimedia objects are stored.However, storing multimedia outside the database makes it harder to provide database functionality, such as indexing on the basis of actual multimedia data content.It can also lead to inconsistencies, such a file that is noted in the database, but whose contents are missing, or vice versa.It is therefore desirable to store the data themselves in the database.Forth.Mobility and Personal Databases

Large-scale commercial databases have traditionally been stored in central computing facilities.In the case of distributed database applications, there has usually been strong central database and network administration.Two technology trends have combined to create applications in which this assumption of central control and administration is not entirely correct:

1.The increasingly widespread use of personal computers, and, more important, of laptop or “notebook” computers.2.The development of a relatively low-cost wireless digital communication infrastructure, base on wireless local-area networks, cellular digital packet networks, and other technologies.Wireless computing creates a situation where machines no longer have fixed locations and network addresses.This complicates query processing, since it becomes difficult to determine the optimal location at which to materialize the result of a query.In some cases, the location of the user is a parameter of the query.A example is a traveler’s information system that provides data on hotels, roadside services, and the like to motorists.Queries about services that are ahead on the current route must be processed based on knowledge of the user’s location, direction of motion, and speed.Energy(battery power)is a scarce resource for mobile computers.This limitation influences many aspects of system design.Among the more interesting consequences of the need for energy efficiency is the use of scheduled data broadcasts to reduce the need for mobile system to transmit queries.Increasingly amounts of data may reside on machines administered by users, rather than by database administrators.Furthermore, these machines may, at times, be disconnected from the network.Summary

Decision-support systems are gaining importance, as companies realize the value of the on-line data collected by their on-line transaction-processing systems.Proposed extensions to SQL, such as the cube operation, help to support generation of summary data.Data mining seeks to discover

knowledge automatically, in the form of statistical rules and patterns from large databases.Data visualization systems help humans to discover such knowledge visually.Spatial databases are finding increasing use today to store computer-aided design data as well as geographic data.Design data are stored primarily as vector data;geographic data consist of a combination of vector and raster data.Multimedia databases are growing in importance.Issues such as similarity-based retrieval and delivery of data at guaranteed rates are topics of current research.Mobile computing systems have become common, leading to interest in database systems that can run on such systems.Query processing in such systems may involve lookups on server database.畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）——外文翻譯（譯文）

數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)的新應(yīng)用

我們使用關(guān)系數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)已經(jīng)有20多年了，關(guān)系數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)應(yīng)用中有很大一部分都用于商業(yè)領(lǐng)域支持諸如銀行和證券交易所的事務(wù)處理、各種業(yè)務(wù)的銷(xiāo)售和預(yù)約，以及幾乎所有公司都需要的財(cái)產(chǎn)目錄和工資單管理。下面我們要研究幾個(gè)新的應(yīng)用，近年來(lái)它們變得越來(lái)越重要。

1、決策支持系統(tǒng)

由于越來(lái)越多的數(shù)據(jù)可聯(lián)機(jī)獲得，企業(yè)已開(kāi)始利用這些可獲得的數(shù)據(jù)來(lái)對(duì)自己的行動(dòng)做出更好的決策，比如進(jìn)什么貨，以及如何最好的吸引顧客以提高銷(xiāo)售額。我們可以通過(guò)使用簡(jiǎn)單的SQL查詢(xún)語(yǔ)句提供大量用于決策支持的信息。但是，人們最近感到需要使用多種數(shù)據(jù)源的數(shù)據(jù)，以便在數(shù)據(jù)分析和數(shù)據(jù)挖掘（或知識(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)）的基礎(chǔ)上，更好的來(lái)做決策支持。

數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)應(yīng)用從廣義上可分為事務(wù)處理和決策支持兩類(lèi)。事務(wù)處理系統(tǒng)現(xiàn)在正被廣泛使用，并且公司已經(jīng)積累了大量由這類(lèi)系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生的信息。

數(shù)據(jù)挖掘這個(gè)概念廣義上講是指從大量數(shù)據(jù)中發(fā)現(xiàn)有關(guān)信息，或“發(fā)現(xiàn)知識(shí)”。與人工智能中的知識(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)類(lèi)似，數(shù)據(jù)挖掘試圖自動(dòng)從數(shù)據(jù)中發(fā)現(xiàn)統(tǒng)計(jì)規(guī)則和模式。但是，數(shù)據(jù)挖掘和機(jī)器學(xué)習(xí)的不同在于它處理的是大量數(shù)據(jù)，它們主要存儲(chǔ)在磁盤(pán)上。

從數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)中發(fā)現(xiàn)的知識(shí)可以用一個(gè)規(guī)則集表示。我們用如下兩個(gè)模型之一從數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)中發(fā)現(xiàn)規(guī)則：

● 在第一個(gè)模型中，用戶直接參與知識(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)的過(guò)程

● 在第二個(gè)模型中，系統(tǒng)通過(guò)檢測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)的模式和相互關(guān)系，自動(dòng)從數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)中發(fā)現(xiàn)知識(shí)。有關(guān)自動(dòng)發(fā)現(xiàn)規(guī)則的研究很大程度上是受人工智能領(lǐng)域在知識(shí)學(xué)習(xí)方面研究的影響。其主要的區(qū)別在于數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)中處理的數(shù)據(jù)量，以及是否需要訪問(wèn)磁盤(pán)。已經(jīng)有一些具體的數(shù)據(jù)挖掘算法用于高效地處理放在磁盤(pán)上的大量數(shù)據(jù)。

規(guī)則發(fā)現(xiàn)的方式依賴(lài)于數(shù)據(jù)挖掘應(yīng)用的類(lèi)型。我們用兩類(lèi)應(yīng)用闡述規(guī)則發(fā)現(xiàn)：分類(lèi)和關(guān)聯(lián)。

2、空間和地理數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)

空間數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)存儲(chǔ)有關(guān)空間位置的信息，并且對(duì)高效查詢(xún)和基于空間位置的索引提供支持。有兩種空間數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)特別重要：

● 設(shè)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)或計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)（CAD）數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)是用于存儲(chǔ)設(shè)計(jì)信息的空間數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)，這些信息主要是關(guān)于物體（如建筑、汽車(chē)或是飛機(jī)）是如何構(gòu)造的。另一個(gè)計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)的重要例子是整合電路和電子設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì)圖。

● 地理數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)是用于存儲(chǔ)地理信息（如地圖）的空間數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)。地理數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)常稱(chēng)為地理信息系統(tǒng)。

地理數(shù)據(jù)本質(zhì)上是空間的，但與設(shè)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)相比在幾個(gè)方面有所不同。地圖和衛(wèi)星圖像是地理數(shù)據(jù)的典型例子。地圖不僅可提供位置信息，如邊界、河流和道路，而且還可以提供許多和位置相關(guān)的詳細(xì)信息，如海拔、土壤類(lèi)型、土地使用和年降雨量。地理數(shù)據(jù)可以分為兩類(lèi)：光柵數(shù)據(jù)（這種數(shù)據(jù)由二維或更高維的位圖或像素圖組成）、矢量數(shù)據(jù)（由基本幾何對(duì)象構(gòu)成）。地圖數(shù)據(jù)常以矢量形式表示。

3、多媒體數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)

最近，有關(guān)多媒體數(shù)據(jù)（如圖像、聲音和視頻）的數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)的研究很熱門(mén)。現(xiàn)在多媒體數(shù)據(jù)通常存儲(chǔ)在數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)以外的文件系統(tǒng)中。當(dāng)多媒體對(duì)象的數(shù)目相對(duì)較少時(shí)，數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)提供的特點(diǎn)往往不那么重要。但是當(dāng)存儲(chǔ)的多媒體對(duì)象數(shù)目較多時(shí)，數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)的功能就變得重要起來(lái)?？傊?，事務(wù)更新、查詢(xún)機(jī)制和索引也開(kāi)始變的很重要。多媒體對(duì)象常常有描述屬性，如指明它們是何時(shí)創(chuàng)建的、誰(shuí)創(chuàng)建的，以及它們屬于哪一類(lèi)。構(gòu)造這種多媒體對(duì)象的數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)的方法之一是用數(shù)據(jù)存儲(chǔ)描述屬性，并且跟蹤存儲(chǔ)這些媒體對(duì)象的文件。

但是，將多媒體數(shù)據(jù)存儲(chǔ)在數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)之外，使得難于提供數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)的功能，譬如基于實(shí)際多媒體數(shù)據(jù)內(nèi)容的索引。此外這種情況還會(huì)造成不一致，譬如一個(gè)文件在數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)中做了記錄，但其內(nèi)容卻丟失了；或其相反情況。因此我們更希望將數(shù)據(jù)本身存儲(chǔ)在數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)中。

4、移動(dòng)性和個(gè)人數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)

大型商用數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)傳統(tǒng)上是存儲(chǔ)在中央計(jì)算設(shè)備上的。在分布式數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)應(yīng)用中，通常有強(qiáng)大的中央數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)和網(wǎng)絡(luò)管理。然而以下這兩個(gè)技術(shù)趨勢(shì)的結(jié)合產(chǎn)生了一些應(yīng)用，這些應(yīng)用使中央控制和管理不再完全正確：

● 個(gè)人計(jì)算機(jī)越來(lái)越廣泛的使用，其中更重要的 是便攜式或“筆記本”計(jì)算機(jī)的使用?！?基于無(wú)限局域網(wǎng)、蜂窩數(shù)字包網(wǎng)絡(luò)，以及其他技術(shù)成本相對(duì)低廉的無(wú)線數(shù)字通信基礎(chǔ)設(shè)

施的發(fā)展。

無(wú)線計(jì)算使得計(jì)算機(jī)不必有固定的位置和網(wǎng)絡(luò)地址這使得查詢(xún)處理更加復(fù)雜，因?yàn)樗y于決定實(shí)體化查詢(xún)結(jié)果的最佳位置。某些情況下，用戶的位置是一個(gè)查詢(xún)參數(shù)。例如，一個(gè)旅客信息系統(tǒng)提供關(guān)于酒店、路邊服務(wù)的信息及類(lèi)似信息給乘車(chē)的旅客。有關(guān)當(dāng)前道路前放服務(wù)的查詢(xún)必須根據(jù)用戶的位置、移動(dòng)的方向及速度進(jìn)行處理。

能源（電池能源）對(duì)應(yīng)動(dòng)計(jì)算機(jī)來(lái)說(shuō)是有限的資源，這一限制影響了系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)的許多方面。能源效率需求最有趣的結(jié)果之一的使用計(jì)劃的數(shù)據(jù)廣播來(lái)減少傳輸查詢(xún)中移動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的需求。越來(lái)越多的數(shù)據(jù)會(huì)放在由用戶管理、而不是由數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)管理員管理的計(jì)算機(jī)上，并且這些計(jì)算機(jī)有時(shí)可能與網(wǎng)絡(luò)斷開(kāi)連接。

5、總結(jié)

隨著企業(yè)認(rèn)識(shí)到聯(lián)機(jī)事務(wù)處理系統(tǒng)收集的聯(lián)機(jī)數(shù)據(jù)的價(jià)值，決策支持系統(tǒng)也越發(fā)變得重要了?，F(xiàn)已提出SQL擴(kuò)展，如cube操作，能幫助系統(tǒng)生成匯總數(shù)據(jù)。數(shù)據(jù)挖掘致力于從大數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)中自動(dòng)發(fā)現(xiàn)統(tǒng)計(jì)規(guī)律和模式等知識(shí)。數(shù)據(jù)可視化系統(tǒng)幫助人們從視覺(jué)上發(fā)現(xiàn)這些知識(shí)。

目前，空間數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)正越來(lái)越多的被應(yīng)用于存儲(chǔ)計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)和地理數(shù)據(jù)。設(shè)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)基本上是以矢量數(shù)據(jù)的形式存儲(chǔ)，而地理數(shù)據(jù)則包含矢量數(shù)據(jù)和光柵數(shù)據(jù)。

多媒體數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)正變得越來(lái)越重要?；谙嗨菩缘牟樵?xún)以及按可以確保的速率傳送數(shù)據(jù)是當(dāng)前研究的重要課題。

移動(dòng)計(jì)算系統(tǒng)的普及使人們對(duì)這類(lèi)系統(tǒng)上運(yùn)行的數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)產(chǎn)生了濃厚的興趣。在這類(lèi)系統(tǒng)上的查詢(xún)處理可能會(huì)設(shè)計(jì)在服務(wù)器端數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)上的查找。

第四篇：畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯

外文原文

Overview of JSp Technology

Benefits of JSp

JSp pages are translated into servlets.So, fundamentally, any task JSp pages can perform could also be accomplished by servlets.However, this underlying equivalence does not mean that servlets and JSp pages are equally appropriate in all scenarios.The issue is not the power of the technology, it is the convenience, productivity, and maintainability of one or the other.After all, anything you can do on a particular computer platform in the Java programming language you could also do in assembly language.But it still matters which you choose.JSp provides the following benefits over servlets alone:

?It is easier to write and maintain the HTML.Your static code is ordinary HTML: no extra backslashes, no double quotes, and no lurking Java syntax.?You can use standard Web-site development tools.Even HTML tools that know nothing about JSp can be used because they simply ignore the JSp tags.?You can divide up your development team.The Java programmers can work on the dynamic code.The Web developers can concentrate on the presentation layer.On large projects, this division is very important.Depending on the size of your team and the complexity of your project, you can enforce a weaker or stronger separation between the static HTML and the dynamic content.Now, this discussion is not to say that you should stop using servlets and use only JSp instead.By no means.Almost all projects will use both.For some requests in your project, you will use servlets.For others, you will use JSp.For still others, you will combine them with the MVC architecture.You want the appropriate tool for the job, and servlets, by themselves, do not complete your toolkit.Advantages of JSp Over Competing Technologies

A number of years ago, Marty was invited to attend a small 20-person industry roundtable discussion on software technology.Sitting in the seat next to Marty was James Gosling, inventor of the Java programming language.Sitting several seats away was a high-level manager from a very large software company in Redmond, Washington.During the discussion, the moderator brought up the subject of Jini, which at that time was a new Java technology.The moderator asked the manager what he thought of it, and the manager responded that it was too early to tell, but that it seemed to be an excellent idea.He went on to say that they would keep an eye on it, and if it seemed to be catching on, they would follow his company's usual “embrace and extend” strategy.At this point, Gosling lightheartedly interjected “You mean disgrace and distend.”

Now, the grievance that Gosling was airing was that he felt that this company would take technology from other companies and suborn it for their own purposes.But guess what? The shoe is on the other foot here.The Java community did not invent the idea of designing pages as a mixture of static HTML and dynamic code marked with special tags.For example, ColdFusion did it years earlier.Even ASp(a product from the very software company of the aforementioned manager)popularized this approach before JSp came along and decided to jump on the bandwagon.In fact, JSp not only adopted the general idea, it even used many of the same special tags as ASp did.So, the question becomes: why use JSp instead of one of these other technologies? Our first response is that we are not arguing that everyone should.Several of those other technologies are quite good and are reasonable options in some situations.In other situations, however, JSp is clearly better.Here are a few of the reasons.Versus.NET and Active Server pages(ASp)

.NET is well-designed technology from Microsoft.ASp.NET is the part that directly competes with servlets and JSp.The advantages of JSp are twofold.First, JSp is portable to multiple operating systems and Web servers;you aren't locked into deploying on Windows and IIS.Although the core.NET platform runs on a few non-Windows platforms, the ASp part does not.You cannot expect to deploy serious ASp.NET applications on multiple servers and operating systems.For some applications, this difference does not matter.For others, it matters greatly.Second, for some applications the choice of the underlying language matters greatly.For example, although.NET's C# language is very well designed and is similar to Java, fewer programmers are familiar with either the core C# syntax or the many auxiliary libraries.In addition, many developers still use the original version of ASp.With this version, JSp has a clear advantage for the dynamic code.With JSp, the dynamic part is written in Java, not VBScript or another ASp-specific language, so JSp is more powerful and better suited to complex applications that require reusable components.You could make the same argument when comparing JSp to the previous version of ColdFusion;with JSp you can use Java for the “real code” and are not tied to a particular server product.However, the current release of ColdFusion is within the context of a J2EE server, allowing developers to easily mix ColdFusion and servlet/JSp code.Versus pHp

pHp(a recursive acronym for “pHp: Hypertext preprocessor”)is a free, open-source, HTML-embedded scripting language that is somewhat similar to both ASp and JSp.One advantage of JSp is that the dynamic part is written in Java, which already has an extensive ApI for networking, database access, distributed objects, and the like, whereas pHp requires learning an entirely new, less widely used language.A second advantage is that JSp is much more widely supported by tool and server vendors than is pHp.Versus pure Servlets

JSp doesn't provide any capabilities that couldn't, in principle, be accomplished with servlets.In fact, JSp documents are automatically translated into servlets behind the scenes.But it is more convenient to write(and to modify!)regular HTML than to use a zillion println statements to generate the HTML.plus, by separating the presentation from the content, you can put different people on different tasks: your Web page design experts can build the HTML by using familiar tools and either leave places for your servlet programmers to insert the dynamic content or invoke the dynamic content indirectly by means of XML tags.Does this mean that you can just learn JSp and forget about servlets? Absolutely not!JSp developers need to know servlets for four reasons:

1.JSp pages get translated into servlets.You can't understand how JSp works without understanding servlets.2.JSp consists of static HTML, special-purpose JSp tags, and Java code.What kind of Java code? Servlet code!You can't write that code if you don't understand servlet programming.3.Some tasks are better accomplished by servlets than by JSp.JSp is good at generating pages that consist of large sections of fairly well structured HTML or other character data.Servlets are better for generating binary data, building pages with highly variable structure, and performing tasks(such as redirection)that involve little or no output.4.Some tasks are better accomplished by a combination of servlets and JSp than by either servlets or JSp alone.Versus JavaScript

JavaScript, which is completely distinct from the Java programming language, is normally used to dynamically generate HTML on the client, building parts of the Web page as the browser loads the document.This is a useful capability and does not normally overlap with the capabilities of JSp(which runs only on the server).JSp pages still include SCRIpT tags for JavaScript, just as normal HTML pages do.In fact, JSp can even be used to dynamically generate the JavaScript that will be sent to the client.So, JavaScript is not a competing technology;it is a complementary one.It is also possible to use JavaScript on the server, most notably on Sun ONE(formerly iplanet), IIS, and BroadVision servers.However, Java is more powerful, flexible, reliable, and portable.Versus WebMacro or Velocity

JSp is by no means perfect.Many people have pointed out features that could be improved.This is a good thing, and one of the advantages of JSp is that the specification is controlled by a community that draws from many different companies.So, the technology can incorporate improvements in successive releases.However, some groups have developed alternative Java-based technologies to try to address these deficiencies.This, in our judgment, is a mistake.Using a third-party tool like Apache Struts that augments JSp and servlet technology is a good idea when that tool adds sufficient benefit to compensate for the additional complexity.But using a nonstandard tool that tries to replace JSp is a bad idea.When choosing a technology, you need to weigh many factors: standardization, portability, integration, industry support, and technical features.The arguments for JSp alternatives have focused almost exclusively on the technical features part.But portability, standardization, and integration are also very important.For example, the servlet and JSp specifications define a standard directory structure for Web applications and provide standard files(.war files)for deploying Web applications.All JSp-compatible servers must support these standards.Filters can be set up to apply to any number of servlets or JSp pages, but not to nonstandard resources.The same goes for Web application security settings.Besides, the tremendous industry support for JSp and servlet technology results in improvements that mitigate many of the criticisms of JSp.For example, the JSp Standard Tag Library and the JSp 2.0 expression language address two of the most well-founded criticisms: the lack of good iteration constructs and the difficulty of accessing dynamic results without using either explicit Java code or verbose jsp:useBean elements.10.4 Misconceptions About JSp

Forgetting JSp Is Server-Side Technology

Here are some typical questions Marty has received(most of them repeatedly).?Our server is running JDK 1.4.So, how do I put a Swing component in a JSp page?

?How do I put an image into a JSp page? I do not know the proper Java I/O commands to read image files.?Since Tomcat does not support JavaScript, how do I make images that are highlighted when the user moves the mouse over them?

?Our clients use older browsers that do not understand JSp.What should we do?

?When our clients use “View Source” in a browser, how can I prevent them from seeing the JSp tags?

All of these questions are based upon the assumption that browsers know something about the server-side process.But they do not.Thus:

?For putting applets with Swing components into Web pages, what matters is the browser's Java version—the server's version is irrelevant.If the browser supports the Java 2 platform, you use the normal AppLET(or Java plug-in)tag and would do so even if you were using non-Java technology on the server.?You do not need Java I/O to read image files;you just put the image in the directory for Web resources(i.e., two levels up from WEB-INF/classes)and output a normal IMG tag.?You create images that change under the mouse by using client-side JavaScript, referenced with the SCRIpT tag;this does not change just because the server is using JSp.?Browsers do not “support” JSp at all—they merely see the output of the JSp page.So, make sure your JSp outputs HTML compatible with the browser, just as you would do with static HTML pages.?And, of course you need not do anything to prevent clients from seeing JSp tags;those tags are processed on the server and are not part of the output that is sent to the client.Confusing Translation Time with Request Time

A JSp page is converted into a servlet.The servlet is compiled, loaded into the server's memory, initialized, and executed.But which step happens when? To answer that question, remember two points:

?The JSp page is translated into a servlet and compiled only the first time it is accessed after having been modified.?Loading into memory, initialization, and execution follow the normal rules for servlets.Table 1 gives some common scenarios and tells whether or not each step occurs in that scenario.The most frequently misunderstood entries are highlighted.When referring to the table, note that servlets resulting from JSp pages use the _jspService method(called for both GET and pOST requests), not doGet or dopost.Also, for initialization, they use the jspInit method, not the init method.Table 1.JSp Operations in Various Scenarios

JSp page translated into servletServlet compiledServlet loaded into server's memoryjspInit called_jspService called

page first written

Request 1YesYesYesYesYes

Request 2NoNoNoNoYes

Server restarted

Request 3NoNoYesYesYes

Request 4NoNoNoNoYes

page modified

Request 5YesYesYesYesYes

Request 6NoNoNoNoYes

中文翻譯

JSp技術(shù)概述

一、JSp的好處

JSp頁(yè)面最終會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)換成servler。因而，從根本上，JSp頁(yè)面能夠執(zhí)行的任何任務(wù)都可以用servler來(lái)完成。然而，這種底層的等同性并不意味著servler和JSp頁(yè)面對(duì)于所有的情況都等同適用。問(wèn)題不在于技術(shù)的能力，而是二者在便利性、生產(chǎn)率和可維護(hù)性上的不同。畢竟，在特定平臺(tái)上能夠用Java編程語(yǔ)言完成的事情，同樣可以用匯編語(yǔ)言來(lái)完成，但是選擇哪種語(yǔ)言依舊十分重要。

和單獨(dú)使用servler相比，JSp提供下述好處：

?JSp中HTML的編寫(xiě)與維護(hù)更為簡(jiǎn)單。JSp中可以使用常規(guī)的HTML：沒(méi)有額外的反斜杠，沒(méi)有額外的雙引號(hào)，也沒(méi)有暗含的Java語(yǔ)法。

?能夠使用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的網(wǎng)站開(kāi)發(fā)工具。即使對(duì)那些對(duì)JSp一無(wú)所知的HTML工具，我們也可以使用，因?yàn)樗鼈儠?huì)忽略JSp標(biāo)簽（JSp tags）。

?可以對(duì)開(kāi)發(fā)團(tuán)隊(duì)進(jìn)行劃分。Java程序員可以致力于動(dòng)態(tài)代碼。Web開(kāi)發(fā)人員可以將經(jīng)理集中在表示層（presentation layer）上。對(duì)于大型的項(xiàng)目，這種劃分極為重要。依據(jù)開(kāi)發(fā)團(tuán)隊(duì)的大小，及項(xiàng)目的復(fù)雜程度，可以對(duì)靜態(tài)HTML和動(dòng)態(tài)內(nèi)容進(jìn)行弱分離（weaker separation）和強(qiáng)分離（stronger separation）。

在此，這個(gè)討論并不是讓您停止使用servlets，只使用JSp。幾乎所有的項(xiàng)目都會(huì)同時(shí)用到這兩種技術(shù)。針對(duì)項(xiàng)目中的某些請(qǐng)求，您可能會(huì)在MVC構(gòu)架下組合使用這兩項(xiàng)技術(shù)。我們總是希望用適當(dāng)?shù)墓ぞ咄瓿上鄬?duì)應(yīng)的工作，僅僅是servlet并不能填滿您的工具箱。

二、JSp相對(duì)于競(jìng)爭(zhēng)技術(shù)的優(yōu)勢(shì)

許多年前，Marty受到邀請(qǐng),參加一個(gè)有關(guān)軟件技術(shù)的小型(20個(gè)人)研討會(huì).做在Marty旁邊的人是James Gosling---Java編程語(yǔ)言的發(fā)明者。隔幾個(gè)位置,是來(lái)自華盛頓一家大型軟件公司的高級(jí)經(jīng)理。在討論過(guò)程中,研討會(huì)的主席提出了Jini的議題,這在當(dāng)時(shí)是一項(xiàng)新的Java技術(shù).主席向該經(jīng)理詢(xún)問(wèn)他的想法.他繼續(xù)說(shuō),他們會(huì)持續(xù)關(guān)注這項(xiàng)技術(shù),如果這項(xiàng)技術(shù)變得流行起來(lái),他們會(huì)遵循公司的“接受并擴(kuò)充(embrace and extend)”的策略.此時(shí), Gosling隨意地插話說(shuō)“你的意思其實(shí)就是不接受且不擴(kuò)充(disgrace and distend)。”

在此, Gosling的抱怨顯示出，他感到這個(gè)公司會(huì)從其他公司那里拿走技術(shù),用于他們自己的目的.但你猜這次怎么樣?這次鞋子穿在了另一只腳上。Java社團(tuán)沒(méi)有發(fā)明這一思想----將頁(yè)面設(shè)計(jì)成由靜態(tài)HTML和用特殊標(biāo)簽標(biāo)記的動(dòng)態(tài)代碼混合組成.。ColdFusion多年前就已經(jīng)這樣做了。甚至ASp(來(lái)自于前述經(jīng)理所在公司的一項(xiàng)產(chǎn)品)都在JSp出現(xiàn)之前推廣了這種方式。實(shí)際上,JSp不只采用了這種通用概念,它甚至使用許多和ASp相同的特殊標(biāo)簽。

因此,問(wèn)題變成:為什么使用JSp,而不使用其他技術(shù)呢?我們的第一反應(yīng)是我們不是在爭(zhēng)論所有的人應(yīng)該做什么。其他這些技術(shù)中,有一些也很不錯(cuò),在某些情況下也的確是合情合理的選擇.然而,在其他情形中,JSp明顯要更好一些。下面給出幾個(gè)理由。

與.NET和Active Server pages(ASp)相比

.NET是Microsoft精心設(shè)計(jì)的一項(xiàng)技術(shù)。ASp.NET是與servlets和JSp直接競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的技術(shù)。JSp的優(yōu)勢(shì)體現(xiàn)在兩個(gè)方面。

首先,JSp可以移植到多種操作系統(tǒng)和Web服務(wù)器,您不必僅僅局限于部署在Windows 和IIS上盡管核心.NET平臺(tái)可以在好幾種非Windows平臺(tái)上運(yùn)行，但ASp這一部分不可以。您不能期望可以將重要的ASp.NET應(yīng)用部署到多種服務(wù)器和操作系統(tǒng)。對(duì)于某些應(yīng)用，這種差異沒(méi)有什么影響。但有些應(yīng)用，這種差異卻非常重要。

其次，對(duì)于某些應(yīng)用，底層語(yǔ)言的選擇至關(guān)重要。例如，盡管.NET的C#語(yǔ)言設(shè)計(jì)優(yōu)良，且和Java類(lèi)似，但熟悉核心C#語(yǔ)法和眾多工具庫(kù)的程序員很少。此外,許多開(kāi)發(fā)者依舊使用最初版本的ASp。相對(duì)于這個(gè)版本,JSp在動(dòng)態(tài)代碼方面擁有明顯的優(yōu)勢(shì)。使用JSp,動(dòng)態(tài)部分是用Java編寫(xiě)的,而非VBScript過(guò)其他ASp專(zhuān)有的語(yǔ)言,因此JSp更為強(qiáng)勁,更適合于要求組件重用的復(fù)雜應(yīng)用。

當(dāng)將JSp與之前版本的ColdFusion對(duì)比時(shí)，您可能會(huì)得到相同的結(jié)論。應(yīng)用JSp，您可以使用Java編寫(xiě)“真正的代碼”，不必依賴(lài)于特定的服務(wù)器產(chǎn)品。然而，當(dāng)前版本的ColdFusion滿足J2EE服務(wù)器的環(huán)境，允許開(kāi)發(fā)者容易的混合使用ColdFusion和Servlet/JSp代碼。

與pHp相比

pHp（“pHp：Hypertext preprocessor”的遞歸字母縮寫(xiě)詞）是免費(fèi)的、開(kāi)放源代碼的、HTML嵌入其中的腳本語(yǔ)言，與ASp和JSp都有某種程度的類(lèi)似。JSp的一項(xiàng)優(yōu)勢(shì)是動(dòng)態(tài)部分用Java編寫(xiě)，而Java已經(jīng)在聯(lián)網(wǎng)、數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)訪問(wèn)、分布式對(duì)象等方面擁有廣泛的ApI，而pHp需要學(xué)習(xí)全新的、應(yīng)用相對(duì)廣泛的語(yǔ)言。JSp的第二項(xiàng)優(yōu)勢(shì)是，和pHp相比，JSp擁有極為廣泛的工具和服務(wù)器提供商的支持。

與純Servlet相比

原則上，JSp并沒(méi)有提供Servlet不能完成的功能。實(shí)際上，JSp文檔在后臺(tái)被自動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)換成Servlet。但是編寫(xiě)（和修改）常規(guī)的HTML，要比無(wú)數(shù)println語(yǔ)句生成HTML要方便得多。另外，通過(guò)將表示與內(nèi)容分離，可以為不同的人分配不同的任務(wù)：網(wǎng)頁(yè)設(shè)計(jì)人員使用熟悉的工具構(gòu)建HTML，要么為Servlet程序員留出空間插入動(dòng)態(tài)內(nèi)容，要么通過(guò)XML標(biāo)簽間接調(diào)用動(dòng)態(tài)內(nèi)容。

這是否表示您只可以學(xué)習(xí)JSp，將Servlet丟到一邊呢？當(dāng)然不是！由于以下4種原因，JSp開(kāi)發(fā)人員需要了解Servlet：

（1）JSp頁(yè)面會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)換成Servlet。不了解Servlet就無(wú)法知道JSp如何工作。

（2）JSp由靜態(tài)HTML、專(zhuān)用的JSp標(biāo)簽和Java代碼組成。哪種類(lèi)型的Java代碼呢？當(dāng)然是Servlet代碼！如果不了解Servlet編程，那么就無(wú)法編寫(xiě)這種代碼。

（3）一些任務(wù)用Servlet完成比用JSp來(lái)完成要好。JSp擅長(zhǎng)生成由大量組織有序的結(jié)構(gòu)化HTML或其他字符數(shù)據(jù)組成的頁(yè)面。Servlet擅長(zhǎng)生成二進(jìn)制數(shù)據(jù)，構(gòu)建結(jié)構(gòu)多樣的頁(yè)面，以及執(zhí)行輸出很少或者沒(méi)有輸出的任務(wù)（比如重定向）。

（4）有些任務(wù)更適合于組合使用Servlet和JSp來(lái)完成，而非單獨(dú)使用Servlet或JSp。

與JavaScript相比

JavaScript和Java編程語(yǔ)言完全是兩碼事，前者一般用于在客戶端動(dòng)態(tài)生成HTML，在瀏覽器載入文檔時(shí)構(gòu)建網(wǎng)頁(yè)的部分內(nèi)容。這是一項(xiàng)有用的功能，一般與JSp的功能（只在服務(wù)器端運(yùn)行）并不發(fā)生重疊。和常規(guī)HTML頁(yè)面一樣，JSp頁(yè)面依舊可以包括用于JavaScript的SCRIpT標(biāo)簽。實(shí)際上，JSp甚至能夠用來(lái)動(dòng)態(tài)生成發(fā)送到客戶端的JavaScript。因此，JavaScript不是一項(xiàng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)技術(shù)，它是一項(xiàng)補(bǔ)充技術(shù)。

JavaScript也可以用在服務(wù)器端，最因人注意的是SUN ONE（以前的iplanet）、IIS和BroadVision服務(wù)器。然而，Java更為強(qiáng)大靈活、可靠且可移植。

與WebMacro和Velocity相比

JSp決非完美。許多人都曾指出過(guò)JSp中能夠改進(jìn)的功能。這是一件好事，JSp的優(yōu)勢(shì)之一是該規(guī)范由許多不同公司組成的社團(tuán)控制。因此，在后續(xù)版本中，這項(xiàng)技術(shù)能夠得到協(xié)調(diào)的改進(jìn)。

但是，一些組織已經(jīng)開(kāi)發(fā)出了基于Java的替代技術(shù)，試圖彌補(bǔ)這些不足。據(jù)我們的判斷，這樣做是錯(cuò)誤的。使用擴(kuò)充JSp和Servlet技術(shù)的第三方工具，如Apache Structs，是一種很好的思路，只要該工具帶來(lái)的好處能夠補(bǔ)償工具帶來(lái)的額外復(fù)雜性。但是，試圖使用非標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的工具代替JSp則不理想。在選擇一項(xiàng)技術(shù)時(shí)，需要權(quán)衡許多方面的因素：標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化、可移植性、集成性、行業(yè)支持和技術(shù)特性。對(duì)于JSp替代技術(shù)的爭(zhēng)論幾乎只是集中在技術(shù)特性上，而可移植性、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化和集成性也十分重要。例如，Servlet和JSp規(guī)范為Web應(yīng)用定義了一個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的目錄結(jié)構(gòu)，并提供用于部署Web應(yīng)用的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文件（.war文件）。所有JSp兼容的服務(wù)器必須支持這些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。我們可以建立過(guò)濾器作用到任意樹(shù)木的Servlet和JSp頁(yè)面上，但不能用于非標(biāo)準(zhǔn)資源。Web應(yīng)用安全設(shè)置也同樣如此。

此外，業(yè)界對(duì)JSp和Servlet技術(shù)的巨大支持使得這兩項(xiàng)技術(shù)都有了巨大的進(jìn)步，從而減輕了對(duì)JSp的許多批評(píng)。例如，JSp標(biāo)準(zhǔn)標(biāo)簽庫(kù)和JSp 2.0表達(dá)式語(yǔ)言解決了兩種最廣泛的批評(píng)：缺乏良好的迭代結(jié)構(gòu)；不使用顯式的Java代碼或冗長(zhǎng)的jsp:useBean元素難以訪問(wèn)動(dòng)態(tài)結(jié)果。

三、對(duì)JSp的誤解

忘記JSp技術(shù)是服務(wù)器端技術(shù)

下面是Marty收到的一些典型問(wèn)題（大部分問(wèn)題不止一次的出現(xiàn)）。

?我們的服務(wù)器正在運(yùn)行JDK1.4。我如何將Swing組件用到JSp頁(yè)面中呢？

?我如何將圖像放到JSp頁(yè)面中？我不知道讀取圖像文件應(yīng)該使用哪些Java I/O命令。

?Tomcat不支持JavaScript，當(dāng)用戶在圖像上移動(dòng)鼠標(biāo)時(shí)，我如何使圖像突出顯示呢？

?我們的客戶使用不理解JSp的舊瀏覽器。我應(yīng)該怎么做？

?當(dāng)我們的客戶在瀏覽器中使用“View Source”（查看源代碼）時(shí)，如何阻止他們看到JSp標(biāo)簽？

所有這些問(wèn)題都基于瀏覽器對(duì)服務(wù)器端的過(guò)程在有所了解的假定之上。但事實(shí)上瀏覽器并不了解服務(wù)器端的過(guò)程。因此：

?如果要將使用Swing組件的applet放到網(wǎng)頁(yè)中，重要的是瀏覽器的Java版本，和服務(wù)器的Java版本無(wú)關(guān)。如果瀏覽器支持Java 2平臺(tái)，您可以使用正常的AppLET（或Java插件）標(biāo)簽，即使在服務(wù)器上使用了非Java技術(shù)也須如此。

?您不需要Java I/O來(lái)讀取圖像文件，您只需將圖像放在存儲(chǔ)Web資源的目錄中（即WEB-INF/classes向上兩級(jí)的目錄），并輸出一個(gè)正常的IMG標(biāo)簽。

?您應(yīng)該用SCRIpT標(biāo)簽，使用客戶端JavaScript創(chuàng)建在鼠標(biāo)下會(huì)更改的圖像，這不會(huì)由于服務(wù)器使用JSp而改變。

?瀏覽器根本不“支持”JSp----它們看到的只是JSp頁(yè)面的輸出。因此，如同對(duì)待靜態(tài)HTML頁(yè)面一樣，只需確保JSp輸出的HTML與瀏覽器兼容。

?當(dāng)然，您不需要采取什么措施來(lái)阻止客戶看到JSp標(biāo)簽，這些標(biāo)簽在服務(wù)器上進(jìn)行處理，發(fā)送給客戶的輸出中并不出現(xiàn)。

混淆轉(zhuǎn)換期間和請(qǐng)求期間

JSp頁(yè)面需要轉(zhuǎn)換成servlet。Servlet在編譯后，載入到服務(wù)器的內(nèi)容中，初始化并執(zhí)行。但是每一步發(fā)生在什么時(shí)候呢？要回答這個(gè)問(wèn)題，要記住以下兩點(diǎn)：

?JSp頁(yè)面僅在修改后第一次被訪問(wèn)時(shí)，才會(huì)被轉(zhuǎn)換成servlet并進(jìn)行編譯；

?載入到內(nèi)存中、初始化和執(zhí)行遵循servlet的一般規(guī)則。

表1列出一些常見(jiàn)的情形，講述在該種情況下每一步是否發(fā)生。最常被誤解的項(xiàng)已經(jīng)突出標(biāo)示出來(lái)。在參考該表時(shí)，要注意，由JSp頁(yè)面生成的servlet使用_jspService方法（GET和pOST請(qǐng)求都調(diào)用該函數(shù)），不是doGet或dopost方法。同樣，對(duì)于初始化，它們使用jspInit方法，而非init方法。

表1 各種情況下的JSp操作

將JSp 頁(yè)面轉(zhuǎn)換成servlet編譯Servlet 將Servlet 載入到服務(wù)器內(nèi)存中調(diào)用jspInit 調(diào)用_jspService

頁(yè)面初次創(chuàng)建

請(qǐng)求 1有有有有有

請(qǐng)求 2無(wú)無(wú)無(wú)無(wú)有

服務(wù)器重啟后

請(qǐng)求3無(wú)無(wú)有有有

請(qǐng)求 4無(wú)無(wú)無(wú)無(wú)有

頁(yè)面修改后

請(qǐng)求 5有有有有有

請(qǐng)求 6無(wú)無(wú)無(wú)無(wú)有

第五篇：本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）規(guī)范

畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）是人才培養(yǎng)過(guò)程中的一個(gè)重要環(huán)節(jié)。加強(qiáng)對(duì)本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）全過(guò)程的組織與管理，建立規(guī)范化的管理制度，是保證畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）質(zhì)量的重要前提。

一、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的組織管理

（一）畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作的組織與管理職責(zé)

....學(xué)校、系、專(zhuān)業(yè)教研室三級(jí)分工負(fù)責(zé)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)工作的管理、指導(dǎo)、檢查、考核和總結(jié)。

1．教務(wù)處的職責(zé)

....教務(wù)處作為學(xué)校教學(xué)管理的職能部門(mén)，負(fù)責(zé)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的總體管理工作。其主要職責(zé)是：

（1）制定本校畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作的有關(guān)政策、制度及規(guī)定；

（2）組織對(duì)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作的檢查和監(jiān)督；

（3）審核畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）答辯委員會(huì)名單；

（4）負(fù)責(zé)全校畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）經(jīng)費(fèi)的分配；

（5）協(xié)調(diào)校內(nèi)有關(guān)部門(mén)，為畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作的順利進(jìn)行提供保證；

（6）組織對(duì)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作的考核、總結(jié)、評(píng)估等。

2．各系的職責(zé)

....各系負(fù)責(zé)本系畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）全過(guò)程的管理。明確一名系主任負(fù)責(zé)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)工作，教學(xué)秘書(shū)負(fù)責(zé)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）過(guò)程中的日常管理工作。各系的主要職責(zé)是：

（1）組織有關(guān)教研室根據(jù)教學(xué)計(jì)劃和本系具體情況擬定畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作計(jì)劃和具體實(shí)施措施，組織落實(shí)本系畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的具體工作，如確定下達(dá)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）任務(wù)的時(shí)間、本系對(duì)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的具體要求等；

（2）組織對(duì)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作的中期檢查；

（3）確定本系各專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）答辯委員會(huì)名單上報(bào)教務(wù)處；

（4）負(fù)責(zé)本系學(xué)生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的成績(jī)管理；

（5）檢查本系畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）答辯工作；

（6）負(fù)責(zé)本系畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）經(jīng)費(fèi)的管理。

3．專(zhuān)業(yè)教研室的職責(zé)

....專(zhuān)業(yè)教研室作為直接組織和指導(dǎo)學(xué)生進(jìn)行畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的基層單位，其主要任務(wù)是：

（1）審核確定畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）題目及指導(dǎo)教師；

（2）負(fù)責(zé)組織學(xué)生的選題工作；

（3）按要求審定畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)任務(wù)書(shū)；

（4）檢查學(xué)生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）進(jìn)度、質(zhì)量和紀(jì)律，檢查指導(dǎo)教師對(duì)學(xué)生的指導(dǎo)情況；

（5）提出畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）答辯委員會(huì)組成；

（6）組織對(duì)學(xué)生答辯資格的審查和畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的評(píng)閱、答辯及成績(jī)?cè)u(píng)定工作；

（7）收集、整理、保存畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）有關(guān)資料及畢業(yè)論文、圖紙等，評(píng)選優(yōu)秀畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文），總結(jié)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作。

4．其它

....在校外進(jìn)行的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文），各系視具體情況可以指派指導(dǎo)教師，也可單獨(dú)委托對(duì)方單位具有中級(jí)及以上職稱(chēng)的技術(shù)人員指導(dǎo)，但畢業(yè)答辯必須按學(xué)校的統(tǒng)一要求安排在校內(nèi)進(jìn)行。

（二）畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作程序

....畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作的程序是：

選題---下達(dá)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）任務(wù)書(shū)---中期檢查---評(píng)閱、答辯資格審查---答辯---評(píng)定成績(jī)---論文收存

1．畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的選題

....選題關(guān)系到畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)工作的質(zhì)量，它是保證教學(xué)基本要求的重要環(huán)節(jié)。

我校理工類(lèi)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）主要有以下幾種類(lèi)型：工程設(shè)計(jì)型、產(chǎn)品開(kāi)發(fā)型、實(shí)驗(yàn)研究型、軟件開(kāi)發(fā)與仿真型、綜合型等。文科、管理類(lèi)專(zhuān)業(yè)本科畢業(yè)論文可以是理論性論文、應(yīng)用軟件設(shè)計(jì)或調(diào)查報(bào)告。

....無(wú)論何種類(lèi)型的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文），必須符合“華北電力大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作暫行規(guī)定”中有關(guān)選題的要求。

選題程序：

....指導(dǎo)教師選定畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）題目報(bào)專(zhuān)業(yè)教研室---專(zhuān)業(yè)教研室集體研究審定畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）題目---教研室組織學(xué)生選題---教研室主任批準(zhǔn)---畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）題目報(bào)系、教務(wù)處備案。

2．指導(dǎo)教師下達(dá)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）任務(wù)

....指導(dǎo)教師應(yīng)提前做好畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的準(zhǔn)備工作，為指導(dǎo)的每個(gè)學(xué)生認(rèn)真填寫(xiě)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）任務(wù)書(shū)，經(jīng)教研室審定后，在畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）開(kāi)始前發(fā)給學(xué)生，并提供有關(guān)的參考資料。

....為了充分發(fā)揮畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）在人才培養(yǎng)中的作用，各系及教研室根據(jù)具體情況或?qū)W校要求，可提前半年及以上下達(dá)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）任務(wù)。

3．中期檢查

....為確保畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）質(zhì)量，使其真正達(dá)到預(yù)期目的，校、系、專(zhuān)業(yè)教研室三級(jí)都要加強(qiáng)對(duì)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）全過(guò)程的管理，尤其要進(jìn)行畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的中期檢查。教研室領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、系領(lǐng)導(dǎo)不定期地檢查畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）情況，教務(wù)處則隨機(jī)抽查。各級(jí)檢查的主要內(nèi)容有：

（1）學(xué)生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）進(jìn)度是否正常；

（2）是否按畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）任務(wù)書(shū)安排的預(yù)定計(jì)劃進(jìn)行；

（3）指導(dǎo)教師是否認(rèn)真負(fù)責(zé)，是否經(jīng)常親臨現(xiàn)場(chǎng)檢查、指導(dǎo)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文），聽(tīng)取學(xué)生對(duì)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作的匯報(bào)；

（4）學(xué)生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的態(tài)度和紀(jì)律如何；

（5）發(fā)現(xiàn)問(wèn)題及時(shí)解決。

4．畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）評(píng)閱和答辯資格審查

....畢業(yè)論文或畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書(shū)撰寫(xiě)完后，學(xué)生應(yīng)在畢業(yè)答辯前提前一周將自己的畢業(yè)論文、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書(shū)、圖紙等交指導(dǎo)教師審查、修改和評(píng)閱。指導(dǎo)教師結(jié)合畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的全過(guò)程對(duì)學(xué)生進(jìn)行全面考核，對(duì)每個(gè)學(xué)生的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）作出事實(shí)求是的評(píng)價(jià)，寫(xiě)出評(píng)語(yǔ)?？己说闹饕獌?nèi)容有：

（1）學(xué)生是否較好地掌握了課題所涉及到的基礎(chǔ)理論、基本技能和專(zhuān)業(yè)知識(shí)；

（2）學(xué)生是否按畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）指導(dǎo)書(shū)所提出的設(shè)計(jì)內(nèi)容和時(shí)間，獨(dú)立完成了畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）各環(huán)節(jié)所必須完成的任務(wù)；

（3）畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）完成的質(zhì)量和在完成過(guò)程中所表現(xiàn)的創(chuàng)造性工作情況，獨(dú)立思考、獨(dú)立工作、組織管理、文字及口頭表達(dá)能力、與他人合作能力等情況；

（4）畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)中所表現(xiàn)出的學(xué)習(xí)態(tài)度、學(xué)習(xí)紀(jì)律等情況。

畢業(yè)答辯資格審查按華北電力大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作的有關(guān)規(guī)定執(zhí)行。

5．畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）答辯與成績(jī)?cè)u(píng)定

....畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）完成后要在規(guī)定的時(shí)間內(nèi)組織答辯，以檢查學(xué)生是否達(dá) 到畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的目的和基本要求。

....畢業(yè)答辯由各系按專(zhuān)業(yè)組成的答辯委員會(huì)負(fù)責(zé)組織，各專(zhuān)業(yè)答辯委員會(huì)名 單于答辯前張榜公布，同時(shí)公布答辯地點(diǎn)、時(shí)間和學(xué)生答辯順序。答辯委員會(huì)參考“華北電力大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作暫行規(guī)定”中畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）成績(jī)?cè)u(píng)定標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和比例評(píng)定學(xué)生的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）成績(jī)并寫(xiě)出評(píng)語(yǔ)。成績(jī)?cè)u(píng)定中，要注重體現(xiàn)學(xué)生的獨(dú)立見(jiàn)解、創(chuàng)新性和實(shí)踐能力。

畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）答辯委員會(huì)的職責(zé)：

（1）在系主任領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下組織并主持畢業(yè)答辯工作；

（2）討論和確定學(xué)生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）的最后成績(jī)及評(píng)語(yǔ)。

為了把好畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）答辯關(guān)，系和專(zhuān)業(yè)教研室可根據(jù)本系的具體情況，從已進(jìn)行了答辯的學(xué)生中再抽取不同成績(jī)層次的學(xué)生進(jìn)行畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）質(zhì)量監(jiān)控性質(zhì)的二次答辯。

6．畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）總結(jié)

....為客觀地反映畢業(yè)生在知識(shí)、能力、素質(zhì)等方面的情況，改進(jìn)教學(xué)工作，提高教學(xué)質(zhì)量，規(guī)范教學(xué)管理，在每屆畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作

結(jié)束之后，各專(zhuān)業(yè)教研室應(yīng)從畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）改革、選題情況、鞏固學(xué)生所學(xué)知識(shí)、提高基本技能、培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的創(chuàng)新意識(shí)和能力、科學(xué)的工作方法和工作態(tài)度、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）反映出的學(xué)校的本科教育教學(xué)質(zhì)量以及存在的問(wèn)題、對(duì)今后教學(xué)工作的建議、本屆畢業(yè)生的水平等方面認(rèn)真作好總結(jié)，不斷改進(jìn)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）工作。

二、畢業(yè)論文的撰寫(xiě)規(guī)范及要求

（一）畢

責(zé)任者.出版地:出版者,出版年,文獻(xiàn)數(shù)量

示例:夏小華,高為柄.非線性系統(tǒng)控制及解耦.第2版.北京:科學(xué)出版社,1997

(2)期刊

順序號(hào) 作者.題名.其他責(zé)任者.刊名,年,卷(期):在原文獻(xiàn)中的位置

示例:高為柄,程勉,夏小華.非線性控制系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展.自動(dòng)化學(xué)報(bào),1991,17(4):513～52

3(3)論文集

順序號(hào) 作者.題名.見(jiàn):編者.文集名.出版地:出版者,出版年.在原文獻(xiàn)中的位置

示例:Fox R L, Willmert K D.不等式約束的連桿曲線最優(yōu)化設(shè)計(jì).見(jiàn):機(jī)構(gòu)學(xué)譯文集編寫(xiě)組.機(jī)構(gòu)學(xué)譯文集.北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社,1982.232～2

42(4)技術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)

順序號(hào) 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)代號(hào) 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)順序號(hào)—發(fā)布年 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)名稱(chēng)

示例:GB3100～3102—93 量和單位

(5)學(xué)位論文

順序號(hào) 作者.題名:[學(xué)位論文].保存地:保存者,年份

示例:陳淮金.多機(jī)電力系統(tǒng)分散最優(yōu)勵(lì)磁控制器的研究:[學(xué)位論文].北京:清華大學(xué)電機(jī)工程系,1988

(6)會(huì)議論文

順序號(hào) 作者.題名.會(huì)議名稱(chēng),會(huì)址,會(huì)議年份

示例:夏小華,高為柄.穩(wěn)定設(shè)計(jì)中的分解和參數(shù)化方法.全國(guó)控制與決策會(huì)議,黃山,1993

文后參考文獻(xiàn)表式樣見(jiàn)附件六。

10．附錄

....未盡事宜可將其列在附錄中加以說(shuō)明。原始測(cè)定結(jié)果、分析報(bào)告、圖表、測(cè)試報(bào)告單、譯文等，均可列在附錄中，附錄序號(hào)用“附錄A、附錄B”等字樣表示。式樣見(jiàn)附件七。

附 件1中文摘要式樣 附件2英文摘要式樣 附件3目錄式樣 附件4正文式樣

附件5圖表式樣 附件6參考文獻(xiàn)式樣 附件7附錄式樣