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      畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯(5篇)

      時(shí)間:2019-05-13 14:11:56下載本文作者:會(huì)員上傳
      簡介:寫寫幫文庫小編為你整理了多篇相關(guān)的《畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯》,但愿對(duì)你工作學(xué)習(xí)有幫助,當(dāng)然你在寫寫幫文庫還可以找到更多《畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯》。

      第一篇:畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

      國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易:對(duì)進(jìn)口商和出口商的詳細(xì)描述

      霍爾格·布仁里奇基婭拉·克里斯庫勒

      摘要:本文提供了一組從事國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易企業(yè)的一些新穎的特殊案例,采用的獨(dú)特?cái)?shù)據(jù)來自于進(jìn)出口企業(yè)的世界第二大服務(wù)出口國——英國。數(shù)據(jù)顯示在英國只有一小部分的公司從事國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易,并且行業(yè)分布廣泛,無論從公司規(guī)模、生產(chǎn)力還是公司其他特點(diǎn)來看,該國服務(wù)貿(mào)易商與其他貿(mào)易商的區(qū)別還是很大的。本文同時(shí)也提供了詳細(xì)的數(shù)據(jù)證明該國服務(wù)進(jìn)出口商貿(mào)易模式,比如市場供應(yīng)量、每個(gè)市場的出口和進(jìn)口貨值以及在單個(gè)市場銷售總量中所占的份額。本文將運(yùn)用現(xiàn)有的服務(wù)和貨物貿(mào)易理論來對(duì)上述現(xiàn)象進(jìn)行充分的解釋。研究結(jié)果表明,企業(yè)間的異質(zhì)性是服務(wù)貿(mào)易的主要特征。此外,在企業(yè)層面上來講,服務(wù)貿(mào)易與貨物貿(mào)易還是有許多共同點(diǎn),并由此得出結(jié)論:現(xiàn)存的異質(zhì)性貨物貿(mào)易公司模型同樣也能夠作為很好的出發(fā)點(diǎn)來解釋相關(guān)的服務(wù)貿(mào)易。

      關(guān)鍵字:國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易,企業(yè)層次解析

      1、引言

      服務(wù)貿(mào)易一直是國際貿(mào)易發(fā)展過程中增長最快的部分,20世紀(jì)90年代初以 來,服務(wù)貿(mào)易以將近10%的年增長率快速增長,在2006年服務(wù)貿(mào)易的總出口量達(dá)到了2800億美元(根據(jù)世界貿(mào)易組織,2008年)。在同一時(shí)期,服務(wù)的內(nèi)容也迅速轉(zhuǎn)向以高新技術(shù)密集型為代表的新類別。比如引起激烈討論的服務(wù)外包等商業(yè)服務(wù)類。一般來說,鑒于發(fā)達(dá)經(jīng)濟(jì)體服務(wù)行業(yè)的未來發(fā)展趨勢以及重要性,服務(wù)貿(mào)易自由化在過去以及現(xiàn)在都被作為貿(mào)易談判的重要環(huán)節(jié)并不會(huì)讓人們感到奇怪。

      盡管如此,我們還是發(fā)現(xiàn)很少的公司從事服務(wù)貿(mào)易行業(yè)。這與貨物貿(mào)易的相關(guān)研究形成了鮮明的對(duì)比,貨物貿(mào)易的相關(guān)研究為出口國提供了很多鮮明的實(shí)例,最近研究表明,貨物貿(mào)易的相關(guān)研究同樣也能為進(jìn)口企業(yè)提供有效的實(shí)例。這些企業(yè)都是大型的,生產(chǎn)力很高的企業(yè),企業(yè)使用了更多的資本密集型的生產(chǎn)工序,還聘請了高技能勞動(dòng)力(詳見貝爾納,杰森,1995,1999;貝爾納等,2007;瓦格內(nèi)爾,2007;格林納威,科內(nèi)爾勒,2007)。此文獻(xiàn)的數(shù)據(jù)也表明,部分企業(yè)的貨物出口額常常很低。即使在出口商中,大部分的公司只會(huì)在很少的幾個(gè)國外市場進(jìn)行貿(mào)易,并把自己的主要銷售目標(biāo)放在了國內(nèi)市場(貝爾納,杰森,1999;伊頓等,2004;貝爾納等,2009)。這些研究同樣激發(fā)了更多學(xué)者推出更多的理論文獻(xiàn),并通過許多嘗試將這些事例融入不同的理論框架(例如:梅利茲,2003;貝爾納等,2003,2009;伊頓等,2008)。

      本文通過對(duì)2000年——2005年在英國服務(wù)貿(mào)易進(jìn)出口的兩個(gè)獨(dú)特的企業(yè)級(jí)數(shù)據(jù)的分析,我們首次為從事服務(wù)貿(mào)易的公司提出了一套可比的程式化事例。這些數(shù)據(jù)的第一個(gè)年度受訪者資料(ARD)包含了企業(yè)級(jí)服務(wù)進(jìn)出口貿(mào)易的價(jià)值信息以及相關(guān)附加變量的取值范圍,同時(shí),這也做為英國的民營企業(yè)的樣本象征。這能使我們能夠輕易區(qū)分服務(wù)進(jìn)出口公司以及不從事服務(wù)貿(mào)易的公司,也能讓我們能夠分析這些群體之間的差異性。我們還將ARD與ITIS(國家貿(mào)易服務(wù)查詢)進(jìn)行結(jié)合。因?yàn)镮TIS能夠提供更多詳細(xì)的服務(wù)貿(mào)易公司信息。比如:與該國進(jìn)行貿(mào)易的國家以及該國服務(wù)進(jìn)出口貿(mào)易模式。

      我們將使用這兩套數(shù)據(jù)以及一些其他附加的原始數(shù)據(jù)來描繪出英國服務(wù)進(jìn)

      出口的貿(mào)易特點(diǎn)和貿(mào)易模式。我們的首要目標(biāo)是改進(jìn)現(xiàn)有的關(guān)于服務(wù)貿(mào)易的相關(guān)理論文獻(xiàn)。以下詳細(xì)提及描述的文獻(xiàn),目前要么完全倚靠完全競爭或者壟斷競爭理論框架要么完全依靠具有代表性的公司。研究表明,這種抽象略看企業(yè)異質(zhì)性的顯著水平,使得我們難以了解國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易的一些重要方面。本文的第一部分主要從更加詳細(xì)的方面分析了企業(yè)的異質(zhì)性,同時(shí)還提供了提套經(jīng)驗(yàn)規(guī)律,可以使得未來具有異質(zhì)性的服務(wù)貿(mào)易的公司模型能夠復(fù)制。我們主要將以兩個(gè)步驟來使得上述企業(yè)級(jí)貨物貿(mào)易在經(jīng)驗(yàn)規(guī)律文獻(xiàn)下能夠慢慢地有序發(fā)展。

      第一步是使用ARD來識(shí)別英國的公司里的服務(wù)貿(mào)易進(jìn)出口商,然后將這些服務(wù)貿(mào)易商與不從事服務(wù)貿(mào)易的企業(yè)進(jìn)行比較。在第二個(gè)步驟中,我們會(huì)將ARD以及ITIS的相關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行結(jié)合分析,以便不僅能夠了解進(jìn)出口狀況,也能夠?qū)氖路?wù)貿(mào)易的企業(yè)的貿(mào)易模式提供更多的細(xì)節(jié)。

      為了今后的理論工作提供投入,我們對(duì)于研究結(jié)果的政策影響也十分感興趣。例如:我們的研究結(jié)果有助于我們了解過去和未來的服務(wù)貿(mào)易實(shí)施自由化的后果。類似貨物貿(mào)易自由化,服務(wù)貿(mào)易自由化可能導(dǎo)致純粹的國內(nèi)企業(yè)的市場份額,以及從事服務(wù)貿(mào)易的企業(yè)變化。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),進(jìn)口商和出口商的許多公司特點(diǎn)(生產(chǎn)力,技術(shù)密集度等)與國內(nèi)企業(yè)不同,本文建議在服務(wù)貿(mào)易自由化之后,增加總的生產(chǎn)率和技能的需求將有重要的意義。

      2、文獻(xiàn)綜述

      關(guān)于服務(wù)貿(mào)易的理論文獻(xiàn)中占主導(dǎo)地位的主題是分從貿(mào)易不同的程度來看,析服務(wù)貿(mào)易與貨物貿(mào)易有哪些不同,以及如何影響先前的貨物貿(mào)易理論成果。比如:希爾(1977)認(rèn)為,大多數(shù)服務(wù)的主要特點(diǎn)是要求聯(lián)合生產(chǎn)必須同時(shí)消費(fèi)和生產(chǎn)。因?yàn)榉?wù)不能儲(chǔ)存,對(duì)于一項(xiàng)交易來說,生產(chǎn)者和消費(fèi)者都必須是現(xiàn)行的,服務(wù)交易必須發(fā)生在同一時(shí)間,可能的話應(yīng)該發(fā)生在同一地點(diǎn)。迪爾朵夫(1985年)和梅爾文(1989)認(rèn)為法律服務(wù)貿(mào)易的比較優(yōu)勢功能可能失效,或至少需要重新解釋。米爾扎和尼科萊蒂(2004)指出,進(jìn)行聯(lián)合生產(chǎn)時(shí)取得的從出口國和進(jìn)口國的投入通常需要服務(wù)貿(mào)易。

      在引力方程框架的基礎(chǔ)上,過去十年的服務(wù)貿(mào)易的工作經(jīng)驗(yàn)同樣也增加了。這些貨物貿(mào)易文獻(xiàn)論文缺乏詳細(xì)的微觀層面的數(shù)據(jù),也沒有分析國家或行業(yè)服務(wù)貿(mào)易的總體水平數(shù)據(jù)(如弗氏和文候得,木村和李。2002年,2006;海德,2009)這些研究結(jié)果是與貨物貿(mào)易的相關(guān)研究是類似。例如海德等(2009)和木村和李(2006)估計(jì)可比較的貨物和服務(wù)貿(mào)易細(xì)則以及找到類似的彈性估計(jì)。海德,邁耶和里斯還表明,其他變量在貨物貿(mào)易的重力回歸被發(fā)現(xiàn),比如共同的語言或共享的殖民地起源,都會(huì)相應(yīng)地增加商品和服務(wù)貿(mào)易。

      3、定義和數(shù)據(jù)描述

      在本節(jié)中,我們描述的企業(yè)級(jí)數(shù)據(jù)服務(wù)進(jìn)口和出口,并使用額外的變量。我們首先解釋在本文中國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易的定義,然后說明我們的主要數(shù)據(jù)來源,以及它們是如何與我們分析的目的相結(jié)合的。附錄A包含更多細(xì)節(jié)上的數(shù)據(jù)。

      3.1 國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易的定義

      在這篇論文中,服務(wù)貿(mào)易的定義是根據(jù)國際貨幣基金組織(IMF)的國際收支平衡手冊的基本定義(第5版),在英國收支平衡統(tǒng)計(jì)的平衡的基礎(chǔ)上被編譯(見國際貨幣基金組織,1993)。因此,國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易是指一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)體系的居民和非居民之間的服務(wù)交易。

      3.2 數(shù)據(jù)來源

      3.2.1 年度受訪者資料庫

      我們的第一個(gè)主數(shù)據(jù)源是年度受訪者資料庫(ARD),這是基于英國國家統(tǒng)計(jì)局的一項(xiàng)年度強(qiáng)制性對(duì)英國企業(yè)進(jìn)行的調(diào)查,并且英國的年度受訪者資料庫也是相當(dāng)于美國的縱向受訪者數(shù)據(jù)庫的。ARD是基于英國每年超過40,000私營部門的公司的一個(gè)分層抽樣,小型企業(yè)和大型企業(yè)的全面隨機(jī)抽樣(根據(jù)今年的那些員工超過100或250)。ARD的包含了其他變量,比如:就業(yè)信息,投資,中間投入,增加值,總產(chǎn)出,行業(yè)隸屬關(guān)系,企業(yè)位置和外國所有權(quán).本文還包括對(duì)跨國公司的地位從年度外商直接投資的注冊信息,(見克里斯庫勒和馬丁,2009)。

      3.2.2 國際貿(mào)易的咨詢服務(wù)

      第二大信息的主要來源是國際貿(mào)易查詢服務(wù)(ITIS),ITIS也是由國家統(tǒng)計(jì)局進(jìn)行的。它收集的國際交易數(shù)據(jù)是來自于英國本土的私營部門公司的服務(wù)和服務(wù)帳戶(統(tǒng)計(jì)局,2007),同樣也是英國國際收支的平衡貿(mào)易的主要投入。ITIS調(diào)查的公司一般都擁有10個(gè)或更多的員工。此項(xiàng)調(diào)查是法定的,是在上季度和上年度的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行。我們充分結(jié)合了這兩種查詢方式。自2001年以來,我們每年已經(jīng)采樣了已超過20,000公司(2001年之前為10,000)。

      3.2.3 第三代客戶綜合系統(tǒng)創(chuàng)新調(diào)查

      我們運(yùn)用了第三代客戶綜合系統(tǒng)創(chuàng)新調(diào)查(CIS3),其中包括1998-2000年期間所得到企業(yè)的出口貨物,高技能,并被當(dāng)做衡量畢業(yè)生在勞動(dòng)力中所占的比例信息的數(shù)據(jù)。這是唯一可用的統(tǒng)計(jì)局的數(shù)據(jù)集,其中包含對(duì)這些變量的直接信息。類似于ARD的服務(wù)貿(mào)易,CIS3提供了一個(gè)企業(yè)的出口狀態(tài)的和出口貨物的總價(jià)值的信息,但不是具體的產(chǎn)品出口或出口目的地。CIS3是基于分層隨機(jī)抽樣,來調(diào)查約20000個(gè)左右的制造業(yè)和服務(wù)業(yè)的英國企業(yè)。這項(xiàng)調(diào)查包含貨物在1998年和2000年出口的信息,以及2000年的技能信息。

      3.3 樣本組合和描述性統(tǒng)計(jì)

      在本文的其它部分,我們將使用這三種調(diào)查的不同組合。所有這三個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)集包含常見的公司標(biāo)識(shí),因而很容易合并。我們首先使用ARD的數(shù)據(jù)對(duì)服務(wù)貿(mào)易商的特點(diǎn)和非貿(mào)易商進(jìn)行比較(4.1節(jié))。在4.1節(jié)中,貿(mào)易商技能服務(wù)以及讀物和商品出口商的比較結(jié)果是基于合并后的ARD數(shù)據(jù)以及2000年的CIS3數(shù)據(jù)。通過結(jié)合該年度的ARD和CIS3數(shù)據(jù),我們獲得了出口服務(wù)商樣本所包含的信息(來源于ARD),貨物出口和企業(yè)技能強(qiáng)度(來源于CIS3),以及其他企業(yè)級(jí)的變量,比如就業(yè)和生產(chǎn)力的(來源于ARD)。

      4、服務(wù)貿(mào)易商的特殊事例

      接下來,本文將提出服務(wù)的出口商和進(jìn)口商的特殊事例。我們首先關(guān)注的服務(wù)貿(mào)易商和非服務(wù)貿(mào)易商的比較(4.1節(jié))。然后,我們描述了現(xiàn)有的服務(wù)商的貿(mào)易模式并提出了解釋在企業(yè)級(jí)和總服務(wù)貿(mào)易的變化和密集廣泛的利率的重要性(4.2節(jié))。最后,我們在每一個(gè)部分都做了小結(jié),以便未來研究可能的討論和經(jīng)濟(jì)政策影響。

      因此,貨物貿(mào)易的異構(gòu)的企業(yè)模型似乎也成為了提供了解釋服務(wù)貿(mào)易的微觀模式的一個(gè)很好的開始點(diǎn)。這也許是不奇怪,因?yàn)槲覀兊难芯拷Y(jié)果和上述討論在貨物貿(mào)易文獻(xiàn)相比較的事實(shí)之間的存在相似性。然而,我們還注意到一個(gè)服務(wù)貿(mào)易模式的一些有趣的特殊性,比如服務(wù)商似乎主要是沿著較高的利潤率擴(kuò)大出口和進(jìn)口的事實(shí)。再次,我們認(rèn)為,這些分歧不要求對(duì)貨物貿(mào)易的現(xiàn)有模式的重大

      修改,雖然他們可能意味在關(guān)鍵的參數(shù)值中重要的定量差異,比如市場準(zhǔn)入或變量的貿(mào)易成本。

      5、結(jié)論

      在本文中,本文使用了英國的出口和進(jìn)口在2000-2005年期間獨(dú)特的企業(yè)級(jí)數(shù)據(jù),為從事國際服務(wù)貿(mào)易的企業(yè)提供了一套的特殊事例。從這些事例中出現(xiàn)的兩個(gè)主要結(jié)果一個(gè)是在企業(yè)級(jí)的服務(wù)貿(mào)易中的異質(zhì)性很強(qiáng),有時(shí)與貨物貿(mào)易文獻(xiàn)中找到的數(shù)據(jù)模式有驚人的相似。另一個(gè)就是使企業(yè)異質(zhì)性納入現(xiàn)有模式的服務(wù)。這對(duì)于獲取服務(wù)出口和進(jìn)口的關(guān)鍵方面是十分有必要的。貨物貿(mào)易的現(xiàn)有模式應(yīng)該是這樣做的一個(gè)極好的出發(fā)點(diǎn),即使有可能使用一些必要的修改來解釋在整篇論文所強(qiáng)調(diào)貨物和服務(wù)貿(mào)易之間的差異。

      第二篇:畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

      經(jīng)濟(jì)增速放緩對(duì)中國銀行業(yè)的影響顯現(xiàn) Lagging Indicators: China's Banks and the Slowdown

      摘要: Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?Not nec...Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?

      Not necessarily.The banks have a tendency to be lagging indicators.Only after a certain amount of time has passed will China's macro situation show up on the bottom line.Take, for example, bad loans.They're finally growing, incrementally, after years of declining.Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd., the nation's largest bank by assets, saw its

      nonperforming loans rise by 3.82 billion yuan(about $606 million)in the fourth quarter;China Construction Bank Corp., the No.2 bank on the mainland, reported a 6.27 billion yuan rise in such loans.Bank of China Ltd.'s bad loans in the fourth quarter rose 1.39 billion yuan.(In China, nonperforming loans are those that have at least a 30% chance of turning sour.)

      Smaller banks also saw some increases in bad loans.China Minsheng Banking Corp., the

      country's largest non-state-owned bank, posted a rise of 200 million yuan in nonperforming loans in 2011.Such loans at Industrial Bank Co.grew by 99 million yuan last year.More tellingly, data from the Chinese banking regulator showed that the nonperforming loan ratio in the nation's banking sector edged up 0.1 percentage point in the fourth quarter from the third quarter, the first rise in the past six years.The regulator didn't give a reason, but the earnings reports from Chinese banks this week offered some cues: The property market might be the culprit.China Construction Bank said among the total, its nonperforming loans related to the real estate sector surged 20% over the same period.Minsheng Bank said the nonperforming ratio of its real estate financing businesses was 1.72%, well above its overall bad loan ratio of 0.63%.Home prices have been under pressure for about two years, but it's only now do we see a sign of it in banks' statements.The question is whether investors see a few more problem numbers down the road.In three years starting 2009, banks in China issued a total of 25 trillion yuan of

      renminbi-denominated loans, with roughly 40% of the lending going to government-initiated infrastructure projects and the property sector.'The second quarter of this year will be one of the peak seasons for the repayment of property loans and local government borrowings.With a slowing economy, we can expect that higher nonperforming loans are on the cards,' GF Securities analyst Mu Hua said in a recent note.According to Noah Wealth Management, a Chinese financial service company, a total of 117.25 billion yuan of property trust products will be due this year, well above the 47.05 billion yuan last year, putting huge pressure on property developers' cash flows.Besides property, analysts say local government borrowings will present a bigger challenge to banks.Banking executives have estimated that a third of China's 10.7 trillion yuan government debt will be due this year and the next.Standard & Poor's analyst Liao Qiang said he believes Beijing will likely give some regulatory forbearance to local government debt to prevent a surge in banks' bad loans.'Nevertheless, property developers and manufacturers in industries with a supply glut will continue to face policy-induced refinancing uncertainties from time to time,' he said.Monday in Hong Kong, China Construction Bank Chairman Wang Hongzhang said he's optimistic about the bank's asset quality, given China's economic growth is likely to remain solid.'Nonperforming loan levels are controllable.Even though they are higher than before, the amount is small and [the rise] is likely to be temporary,' he said.Agence France-Presse/Getty Images

      中資銀行凈利潤去年創(chuàng)下新高,似乎并沒有受到中國這一世界第二大經(jīng)濟(jì)體經(jīng)濟(jì)增速放緩的影響。這是否意味著,銀行業(yè)可以免受經(jīng)濟(jì)下行的影響呢?

      未必。

      銀行業(yè)的反應(yīng)往往有一定的滯后性。只有在一段時(shí)期后,中國宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)形勢的影響才會(huì)在銀行的營收中有所體現(xiàn)。

      以不良貸款為例。在下降趨勢持續(xù)了幾年之后,不良貸款的比例終于開始上升,雖然漲幅不大。按資產(chǎn)總量計(jì)算,中國最大的銀行中國工商銀行(Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd.)的不良貸款去年第四季度增加了人民幣38.2億元(約合6.06億美元),中國第二大銀行中國建設(shè)銀行(China Construction Bank Corp.)的不良貸款增加了人民幣62.7億元。中國銀行(Bank of China Ltd.)的不良貸款在第四季度增加了13.9億元。(在中國,不良貸款指的是變成壞賬的幾率在30%以上的貸款。)

      規(guī)模較小銀行的不良貸款水平也在增長。中國最大的非國有銀行中國民生銀行(China

      Minsheng Banking Corp.)2011年不良貸款增加了人民幣2億元。興業(yè)銀行(Industrial Bank Co.)的不良貸款去年增加了人民幣9,900萬元。

      更能說明這一問題的是,中國銀監(jiān)會(huì)的數(shù)據(jù)顯示,中國銀行業(yè)的不良貸款比例在第四季度較第三季度上升了0.1個(gè)百分點(diǎn),這是該比例過去六年來首次上升。

      銀監(jiān)會(huì)沒有給出原因,但是中資銀行本周發(fā)布的年報(bào)提供了一些線索:房地產(chǎn)市場可能是罪魁禍?zhǔn)住?/p>

      中國建設(shè)銀行表示,在該銀行的所有不良貸款中,與房地產(chǎn)業(yè)有關(guān)的不良貸款同比上漲了20%。民生銀行說,其房地產(chǎn)融資業(yè)務(wù)的不良貸款比例為1.72%,大大超過了其0.63%的總體不良貸款比例。

      兩年來住房價(jià)格一直在承受壓力,但直到現(xiàn)在我們才在銀行的年報(bào)中看到了相關(guān)跡象。問題是,投資者是否看到了更多問題數(shù)據(jù)出現(xiàn)的可能性。

      從2009年到2011年這三年里,中資銀行共發(fā)放了25萬億元以人民幣計(jì)價(jià)的貸款,其中約有40%的貸款流向了政府主導(dǎo)的基建項(xiàng)目和樓市。

      今年的第二季度將是房地產(chǎn)貸款和地方政府借貸的還款高峰期。廣發(fā)證券(GF Securities Co.)分析師沐華在最近的一份報(bào)告中說,由于經(jīng)濟(jì)減速,我們預(yù)計(jì)可能出現(xiàn)更多的不良貸款。

      中國的金融服務(wù)公司諾亞財(cái)富投資管理有限公司(Noah Private Wealth Management, 簡稱:諾亞財(cái)富)說,共有1,172.5億元的房地產(chǎn)信托產(chǎn)品將會(huì)在今年到期,高于去年的470.5億元,這給房地產(chǎn)開發(fā)商的現(xiàn)金流造成了巨大壓力。

      分析人士說,除了房地產(chǎn),地方政府借的貸款將為銀行帶來更大的挑戰(zhàn)。據(jù)一些銀行高管估計(jì),中國10.7萬億元的政府貸款中,有三分之一將在今明兩年到期。

      標(biāo)準(zhǔn)普爾(Standard & Poor)的分析師廖強(qiáng)說,中國中央政府可能會(huì)給予地方政府債務(wù)一定的寬限,以防不良貸款激增。他說,盡管如此,房地產(chǎn)開發(fā)商以及供應(yīng)過剩行業(yè)的制造企業(yè)仍會(huì)不時(shí)地面臨由政策引發(fā)的再融資不確定性。

      中國建設(shè)銀行董事長王洪章周一在香港說,考慮到中國經(jīng)濟(jì)很可能繼續(xù)保持穩(wěn)定增長,他對(duì)該銀行的資產(chǎn)質(zhì)量持樂觀態(tài)度。他說,不良貸款的水平是可控的。即使是比以往有所增加,總量還是很小,而且增長很可能也是暫時(shí)的。

      第三篇:畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

      譯文

      組織為留住員工的激勵(lì)理論以及它們的應(yīng)用的研

      為什么必須要留住關(guān)鍵性的雇員?

      Fitz-enz(1997年)提出,公司每失去10個(gè)管理上和專業(yè)上的員工就會(huì)損失100美元。算上直接成本和間接成本,避免雇員流失的總成本,是其一年工資和福利的最小量,或兩年的薪酬和福利的最大值。對(duì)于一個(gè)組織來說,失去任何一個(gè)關(guān)鍵的雇員都會(huì)產(chǎn)生嚴(yán)重的經(jīng)濟(jì)影響,特別是考慮到隨雇員離去而喪失的知識(shí)。這些知識(shí)是可以用來滿足顧客的需要和期望的。知識(shí)的管理是創(chuàng)造、捕捉的過程以及知識(shí)來提高組織績效的進(jìn)程。

      此外,Toracco(2000年)指出,雖然現(xiàn)在知識(shí)已經(jīng)被認(rèn)為是一個(gè)組織最寶貴的資產(chǎn),但是,大多數(shù)組織缺乏必要的保留和利用知識(shí)價(jià)值的配套制度。組織不能只站在消極的立場上去希望人們在這個(gè)組織內(nèi)能夠得到和利用那些已知的、可以接近的知識(shí)。相反,組織應(yīng)該以尋求維持競爭優(yōu)勢為目的,迅速發(fā)展能充分利用知識(shí)價(jià)值的系統(tǒng)(Robinson & Stern, 1997;Stewart, 1997).。因此,這很容易看到失去了寶貴的員工的知識(shí)的巨大影響。

      人力資本和知識(shí)管理的概念是,人們擁有的技能,經(jīng)驗(yàn)和知識(shí),因此對(duì)組織具有經(jīng)濟(jì)價(jià)值。這些技能,知識(shí)和經(jīng)驗(yàn)代表了資本,因?yàn)樗鼈兲岣吡松a(chǎn)率(Snell and Dean, 1992)。人力資本理論假定某些勞動(dòng)力更有生產(chǎn)力僅僅是因?yàn)樵絹碓蕉嗟馁Y源投資在勞動(dòng)力培訓(xùn)上,相當(dāng)于一臺(tái)機(jī)器投入了更多的資源來提高生產(chǎn)率ller, 1982)。人力資本理論的一條基本原則是,如同任何商

      業(yè)投資,“投資技能建設(shè)將更加有利可圖,更有可能將要持續(xù)較長的時(shí)期,從而獲得投資回報(bào)”(Mueller, 1982, p.94)。此外,留住對(duì)于實(shí)現(xiàn)充分的投資回報(bào)是非常重要的。人力資本理論還認(rèn)為員工在一個(gè)組織的服務(wù)長度可以作為與職業(yè)相關(guān)的知識(shí)或能力的代表。一個(gè)人對(duì)與工作有關(guān)的知識(shí)或能力的了解,影響該人的工資,推銷自己和工作的類型(Becker,1975; Hulin & Smith,1967; Katz,1978)。在一個(gè)組織里,關(guān)于工齡的理解可以與烏爾里希(1998)定義的智力資本承諾的組成部分聯(lián)系起來。他的定義很簡單“技能通過承諾而增加”(p.125),智力資本的重要性等于知識(shí),技能和每一個(gè)人在組織中的屬性乘以他們愿意努力工作。在未來幾年,個(gè)人對(duì)組織的承諾將得到更重要的承認(rèn),以及該組織需要?jiǎng)?chuàng)建一個(gè)有人會(huì)愿意留下來的環(huán)境(Harris, 2000)。組織將需要或創(chuàng)建一個(gè)智力資本環(huán)境下,知識(shí)的傳播的發(fā)生將遍及整個(gè)組織,或繼續(xù)通過工齡發(fā)展失去重要的個(gè)人知識(shí)。許多人認(rèn)為這些深?yuàn)W的知識(shí)將有助于滿足客戶的需求和期望,并在全球經(jīng)濟(jì)組織相互競爭的今天,創(chuàng)建和維持競爭優(yōu)勢。

      作者:蘇尼爾

      國籍:美國

      出處:《美國商業(yè)學(xué)術(shù)期刊》,2004年9月,第52-59頁

      原文

      A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and their

      Implications

      for Employee Retention within Organizations

      Why is it Necessary to Retain Critical Employees?

      Fitz-enz(1997)stated that the average company loses approximately $1 million with every 10 managerial and professional employees who leave the organization.Combined with direct and indirect costs, the total cost of anexempt employee turnover is a minimum of one year’s pay and benefits, or a maximum of two years’ pay andbenefits.There is significant economic impact with an organization losing any of its critical employees, especially given the knowledge that is lost with the employee’s departure.This is the knowledge that is used to meet the needs knowledge to enhance organizational performance(Bassi, 1997).Furthermore, Toracco(2000)stated that although knowledge is now recognized as one of an organization’s most valuable assets most organizations lack the supportive systems required to retain and leverage the value of knowledge.Organizations cannot afford to take a passive stance toward knowledge management in the hopes that people are acquiring and using knowledge, and that sources of knowledge are known and accessed throughout the organization.Instead, organizations seeking to sustain competitive advantage have moved quickly to develop systems to leverage the value of knowledge for this purpose(Robinson & Stern, 1997;Stewart, 1997).Thus, it is easy to see the dramatic effect of losing employees who have

      valuable knowledge.The concept of human capital and knowledge management is that people possess skills, experience and knowledge, and therefore have economic value to organizations.These skills, knowledge and experience represent capital because they enhance productivity(Snell and Dean, 1992).Human capital theory postulates that some labor is more productive than other labor simply because more resources have been invested into the training of that labor, in the same manner that a machine that has had more resources invested into it is apt to be more productive(Mueller, 1982).One of the basic tenets of human capital theory is that, like any business investment, an “investment in skill-building would be more profitable and more likely to be undertaken the longer the period over which returns from the investment can accrue”(Mueller, 1982, p.94).Again, employee retention is important in realizing a full return on investment.Human capital theory includes the length of service in the organization as a

      proxy for job relevant knowledge or ability.A person’s job relevant knowledge or ability influences that person’s wage, promotional opportunity and/or type of job(Becker, 1975;Hulin & Smith, 1967;Katz, 1978).The understanding of length of service in an organization relates back to Ulrich’s(1998)component of commitment in his definition of intellectual capital.His definition was simply“competencemultiplied by commitment”(p.125), meaning intellectual capital equals the knowledge, skills, and attributes of each individual within an organization multiplied by their willingness to work hard.It will become significantly more important in the years ahead to recognize the commitment of individuals to an organization, as well as the organization’s need to create an environment in which one would be willing to stay(Harris,2000).Organizations will need to either create an intellectual capital environment where the transmission of knowledge takes place throughout the structure, or continue to lose important individual knowledge that has been developed through the length of service.This deep knowledge is what many believe will help to meet the needs and expectations of the customers and to create and sustain a competitive advantage within the global economy in which organizations are competing in today.Author: Sunil Ramlall

      Nationnality:America

      Originate from:The Journal of American Academy of Business,September 2004,P52-59

      第四篇:畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

      齒輪和軸的介紹

      摘 要:在傳統(tǒng)機(jī)械和現(xiàn)代機(jī)械中齒輪和軸的重要地位是不可動(dòng)搖的。齒輪和軸主要 安裝在主軸箱來傳遞力的方向。通過加工制造它們可以分為許多的型號(hào),分別用于許 多的場合。所以我們對(duì)齒輪和軸的了解和認(rèn)識(shí)必須是多層次多方位的。關(guān)鍵詞:齒輪;軸 關(guān)鍵詞 在直齒圓柱齒輪的受力分析中,是假定各力作用在單一平面的。我們將研究作用 力具有三維坐標(biāo)的齒輪。因此,在斜齒輪的情況下,其齒向是不平行于回轉(zhuǎn)軸線的。而在錐齒輪的情況中各回轉(zhuǎn)軸線互相不平行。像我們要討論的那樣,尚有其他道理需 要學(xué)習(xí),掌握。斜齒輪用于傳遞平行軸之間的運(yùn)動(dòng)。傾斜角度每個(gè)齒輪都一樣,但一個(gè)必須右旋 斜齒,而另一個(gè)必須是左旋斜齒。齒的形狀是一濺開線螺旋面。如果一張被剪成平行 四邊形(矩形)的紙張包圍在齒輪圓柱體上,紙上印出齒的角刃邊就變成斜線。如果 我展開這張紙,在血角刃邊上的每一個(gè)點(diǎn)就發(fā)生一漸開線曲線。直齒圓柱齒輪輪齒的初始接觸處是跨過整個(gè)齒面而伸展開來的線。斜齒輪輪齒的 初始接觸是一點(diǎn),當(dāng)齒進(jìn)入更多的嚙合時(shí),它就變成線。在直齒圓柱齒輪中,接觸是平行于回轉(zhuǎn)軸線的。在斜齒輪中,該先是跨過齒面的對(duì)角線。它是齒輪逐漸進(jìn)行嚙合 并平穩(wěn)的從一個(gè)齒到另一個(gè)齒傳遞運(yùn)動(dòng),那樣就使斜齒輪具有高速重載下平穩(wěn)傳遞運(yùn) 動(dòng)的能力。斜齒輪使軸的軸承承受徑向和軸向力。當(dāng)軸向推力變的大了或由于別的原 因而產(chǎn)生某些影響時(shí),那就可以使用人字齒輪。雙斜齒輪(人字齒輪)是與反向的并 排地裝在同一軸上的兩個(gè)斜齒輪等效。他們產(chǎn)生相反的軸向推力作用,這樣就消除了 軸向推力。當(dāng)兩個(gè)或更多個(gè)單向齒斜齒輪被在同一軸上時(shí),齒輪的齒向應(yīng)作選擇,以 便產(chǎn)生最小的軸向推力。交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪或螺旋齒輪,他們是軸中心線既不相交也不平行。交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪的 齒彼此之間發(fā)生點(diǎn)接觸,它隨著齒輪的磨合而變成線接觸。因此他們只能傳遞小的載 荷和主要用于儀器設(shè)備中,而且肯定不能推薦在動(dòng)力傳動(dòng)中使用。交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪與斜 齒輪之間在被安裝后互相捏合之前是沒有任何區(qū)別的。它們是以同樣的方法進(jìn)行制 造。一對(duì)相嚙合的交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪通常具有同樣的齒向,即左旋主動(dòng)齒輪跟右旋從動(dòng)齒 輪相嚙合。在交錯(cuò)軸斜齒設(shè)計(jì)中,當(dāng)該齒的斜角相等時(shí)所產(chǎn)生滑移速度最小。然而當(dāng)

      該齒的斜角不相等時(shí),如果兩個(gè)齒輪具有相同齒向的話,大斜角齒輪應(yīng)用作主動(dòng)齒輪。蝸輪與交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪相似。小齒輪即蝸桿具有較小的齒數(shù),通常是一到四齒,由 于它們完全纏繞在節(jié)圓柱上,因此它們被稱為螺紋齒。與其相配的齒輪叫做蝸輪,蝸 輪不是真正的斜齒輪。蝸桿和蝸輪通常是用于向垂直相交軸之間的傳動(dòng)提供大的角速 度減速比。蝸輪不是斜齒輪,因?yàn)槠潺X頂面做成中凹形狀以適配蝸桿曲率,目的是要 形成線接觸而不是點(diǎn)接觸。然而蝸桿蝸輪傳動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)中存在齒間有較大滑移速度的缺 點(diǎn),正像交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪那樣。蝸桿蝸輪機(jī)構(gòu)有單包圍和雙包圍機(jī)構(gòu)。單包圍機(jī)構(gòu)就是蝸輪包裹著蝸桿的一種機(jī) 構(gòu)。當(dāng)然,如果每個(gè)構(gòu)件各自局部地包圍著對(duì)方的蝸輪機(jī)構(gòu)就是雙包圍蝸輪蝸桿機(jī)構(gòu)。著兩者之間的重要區(qū)別是,在雙包圍蝸輪組的輪齒間有面接觸,而在單包圍的蝸輪組 的輪齒間有線接觸。一個(gè)裝置中的蝸桿和蝸輪正像交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪那樣具有相同的齒 向,但是其斜齒齒角的角度是極不相同的。蝸桿上的齒斜角度通常很大,而蝸輪上的 則極小,因此習(xí)慣常規(guī)定蝸桿的導(dǎo)角,那就是蝸桿齒斜角的余角;也規(guī)定了蝸輪上的 齒斜角,該兩角之和就等于 90 度的軸線交角。當(dāng)齒輪要用來傳遞相交軸之間的運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí),就需要某種形式的錐齒輪。雖然錐齒輪 通常制造成能構(gòu)成 90 度軸交角,但它們也可產(chǎn)生任何角度的軸交角。輪齒可以鑄出,銑制或滾切加工。僅就滾齒而言就可達(dá)一級(jí)精度。在典型的錐齒輪安裝中,其中一個(gè) 錐齒輪常常裝于支承的外側(cè)。這意味著軸的撓曲情況更加明顯而使在輪齒接觸上具有 更大的影響。另外一個(gè)難題,發(fā)生在難于預(yù)示錐齒輪輪齒上的應(yīng)力,實(shí)際上是由于齒輪被加工 成錐狀造成的。直齒錐齒輪易于設(shè)計(jì)且制造簡單,如果他們安裝的精密而確定,在運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)中會(huì)產(chǎn)生 良好效果。然而在直齒圓柱齒輪情況下,在節(jié)線速度較高時(shí),他們將發(fā)出噪音。在這 些

      情況下,螺旋錐齒輪比直齒輪能產(chǎn)生平穩(wěn)的多的嚙合作用,因此碰到高速運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)的場 合那是很有用的。當(dāng)在汽車的各種不同用途中,有一個(gè)帶偏心軸的類似錐齒輪的機(jī)構(gòu),那是常常所希望的。這樣的齒輪機(jī)構(gòu)叫做準(zhǔn)雙曲面齒輪機(jī)構(gòu),因?yàn)樗鼈兊墓?jié)面是雙曲 回轉(zhuǎn)面。這種齒輪之間的輪齒作用是沿著一根直線上產(chǎn)生滾動(dòng)與滑動(dòng)相結(jié)合的運(yùn)動(dòng)并 和蝸輪蝸桿的輪齒作用有著更多的共同之處。軸是一種轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)或靜止的桿件。通常有圓形橫截面。在軸上安裝像齒輪,皮帶輪,飛輪,曲柄,鏈輪和其他動(dòng)力傳遞零件。軸能夠承受彎曲,拉伸,壓縮或扭轉(zhuǎn)載荷,這些力相結(jié)合時(shí),人們期望找到靜強(qiáng)度和疲勞強(qiáng)度作為設(shè)計(jì)的重要依據(jù)。因?yàn)閱胃S 可以承受靜壓力,變應(yīng)力和交變應(yīng)力,所有的應(yīng)力作用都是同時(shí)發(fā)生的?!拜S”這個(gè)詞包含著多種含義,例如心軸和主軸。心軸也是軸,既可以旋轉(zhuǎn)也可 以靜止的軸,但不承受扭轉(zhuǎn)載荷。短的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)軸常常被稱為主軸。當(dāng)軸的彎曲或扭轉(zhuǎn)變形必需被限制于很小的范圍內(nèi)時(shí),其尺寸應(yīng)根據(jù)變形來確 定,然后進(jìn)行應(yīng)力分析。因此,如若軸要做得有足夠的剛度以致?lián)锨惶?,那么?應(yīng)力符合安全要求那是完全可能的。但決不意味著設(shè)計(jì)者要保證;它們是安全的,軸 幾乎總是要進(jìn)行計(jì)算的,知道它們是處在可以接受的允許的極限以內(nèi)。因之,設(shè)計(jì)者 無論何時(shí),動(dòng)力傳遞零件,如齒輪或皮帶輪都應(yīng)該設(shè)置在靠近支持軸承附近。這就減 低了彎矩,因而減小變形和彎曲應(yīng)力。雖然來自 M.H.G 方法在設(shè)計(jì)軸中難于應(yīng)用,但它可能用來準(zhǔn)確預(yù)示實(shí)際失效。這 樣,它是一個(gè)檢驗(yàn)已經(jīng)設(shè)計(jì)好了的軸的或者發(fā)現(xiàn)具體軸在運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)中發(fā)生損壞原因的好方 法。進(jìn)而有著大量的關(guān)于設(shè)計(jì)的問題,其中由于別的考慮例如剛度考慮,尺寸已得到 較好的限制。設(shè)計(jì)者去查找關(guān)于圓角尺寸、熱處理、表面光潔度和是否要進(jìn)行噴丸處理等資料,那真正的唯一的需要是實(shí)現(xiàn)所要求的壽命和可靠性。由于他們的功能相似,將離合器和制動(dòng)器一起處理。簡化摩擦離合器或制動(dòng)器的 動(dòng)力學(xué)表達(dá)式中,各自以角速度 w1 和 w2 運(yùn)動(dòng)的兩個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)慣量 I1 和 I2,在制動(dòng)器情 況下其中之一可能是零,由于接上離合器或制動(dòng)器而最終要導(dǎo)致同樣的速度。因?yàn)閮?個(gè)構(gòu)件開始以不同速度運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)而使打滑發(fā)生了,并且在作用過程中能量散失,結(jié)果導(dǎo)致 溫升。在分析這些裝置的性能時(shí),我們應(yīng)注意到作用力,傳遞的扭矩,散失的能量和 溫升。所傳遞的扭矩關(guān)系到作用力,摩擦系數(shù)和離合器或制動(dòng)器的幾何狀況。這是一 個(gè)靜力學(xué)問題。這個(gè)問題將必須對(duì)每個(gè)幾何機(jī)構(gòu)形狀分別進(jìn)行研究。然而溫升與能量 損失有關(guān),研究溫升可能與制動(dòng)器或離合器的類型無關(guān)。因?yàn)閹缀涡螤畹闹匾允巧?熱表面。各種各樣的離合器和制動(dòng)器可作如下分類: 1.輪緣式內(nèi)膨脹制凍塊; 2.輪緣式外接觸制動(dòng)塊; 3.條帶式; 4.盤型或軸向式; 5.圓錐型;

      6.混合式。分析摩擦離合器和制動(dòng)器的各種形式都應(yīng)用一般的同樣的程序,下面的步驟是必 需的: 1.假定或確定摩擦表面上壓力分布; 2.找出最大壓力和任一點(diǎn)處壓力之間的關(guān)系; 3.應(yīng)用靜平衡條件去找尋(a)作用力;(b)扭矩;(c)支反力?;旌鲜诫x合器包括幾個(gè)類型,例如強(qiáng)制接觸離合器、超載釋放保護(hù)離合器、超越 離合器、磁液離合器等等。強(qiáng)制接觸離合器由一個(gè)變位桿和兩個(gè)夾爪組成。各種強(qiáng)制接觸離合器之間最大的 區(qū)別與夾爪的設(shè)計(jì)有關(guān)。為了在結(jié)合過程中給變換作用予較長時(shí)間周期,夾爪可以是 棘輪式的,螺旋型或齒型的。有時(shí)使用許多齒或夾爪。他們可能在圓周面上加工齒,以便他們以圓柱周向配合來結(jié)合或者在配合元件的端面上加工齒來結(jié)合。雖然強(qiáng)制離合器不像摩擦接觸離合器用的那么廣泛,但它們確實(shí)有很重要的運(yùn) 用。離合器需要同步操作。有些裝置例如線性驅(qū)動(dòng)裝置或電機(jī)操作螺桿驅(qū)動(dòng)器必須運(yùn)行到一定的限度然后 停頓下來。為著這些用途就需要超載釋放保護(hù)離合器。這些離合器通常用彈簧加載,以使得在達(dá)到預(yù)定的力矩時(shí)釋放。當(dāng)?shù)竭_(dá)超載點(diǎn)時(shí)聽到的“喀嚓”聲就被認(rèn)定為是所 希望的信號(hào)聲。超越離合器

      或連軸器允許機(jī)器的被動(dòng)構(gòu)件“空轉(zhuǎn)”或“超越”,因?yàn)橹鲃?dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)件 停頓了或者因?yàn)榱硪粋€(gè)動(dòng)力源使被動(dòng)構(gòu)件增加了速度。這種離合器通常使用裝在外套 筒和內(nèi)軸件之間的滾子或滾珠。該內(nèi)軸件,在它的周邊加工了數(shù)個(gè)平面。驅(qū)動(dòng)作用是 靠在套筒和平面之間契入的滾子來獲得。因此該離合器與具有一定數(shù)量齒的棘輪棘爪 機(jī)構(gòu)等效。磁液離合器或制動(dòng)器相對(duì)來說是一個(gè)新的發(fā)展,它們具有兩平行的磁極板。這些 磁極板之間有磁粉混合物潤滑。電磁線圈被裝入磁路中的某處。借助激勵(lì)該線圈,磁 液混合物的剪切強(qiáng)度可被精確的控制。這樣從充分滑移到完全鎖住的任何狀態(tài)都可以 獲得。

      GEAR AND SHAFT INTRODUCTION

      Abstract: The important position of the wheel gear and shaft can't falter in

      traditional machine and modern machines.The wheel gear and shafts mainly install the direction that delivers the dint at the principal axis box.The passing to process to make them can is divided into many model numbers, useding for many situations respectively.So we must be the multilayers to the understanding of the wheel gear and shaft in many ways.Key words: Wheel gear;Shaft

      In the force analysis of spur gears, the forces are assumed to act in a single plane.We shall study gears in which the forces have three dimensions.The reason for this, in the case of helical gears, is that the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation.And in the case of bevel gears, the rotational axes are not parallel to each other.There are also other reasons, as we shall learn.Helical gears are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts.The helix angle is the same on each gear, but one gear must have a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand helix.The shape of the tooth is an involute helicoid.If a piece of paper cut in the shape of a parallelogram is wrapped around a cylinder, the angular edge of the paper becomes a helix.If we unwind this paper, each point on the angular edge generates an involute curve.The surface obtained when every point on the edge generates an involute is called an involute helicoid.The initial contact of spur-gear teeth is a line extending all the way across the face of the tooth.The initial contact of helical gear teeth is a point, which changes into a line as the teeth come into more engagement.In spur gears the line of contact is parallel to the axis of the rotation;in helical gears, the line is diagonal across the face of the tooth.It is this gradual of the teeth and the smooth transfer of load from one tooth to another, which give helical gears the ability to transmit heavy loads at high

      speeds.Helical gears subject the shaft bearings to both radial and thrust loads.When the thrust loads become high or are objectionable for other reasons, it may be desirable to use double helical gears.A double helical gear(herringbone)is equivalent to two helical gears of opposite hand, mounted side by side on the same shaft.They develop opposite thrust reactions and thus cancel out the thrust load.When two or more single helical gears are mounted on the same shaft, the hand of the gears should be selected so as to produce the minimum thrust load.Crossed-helical, or spiral, gears are those in which the shaft centerlines are neither parallel nor intersecting.The teeth of crossed-helical fears have point contact with each other, which changes to line contact as the gears wear in.For this reason they will carry out very small loads and are mainly for instrumental applications, and are definitely not recommended for use in the transmission of power.There is on difference between a crossed helical gear and a helical gear until they are mounted in mesh with each other.They are manufactured in the same way.A pair of meshed crossed helical gears usually have the same hand;that is ,a right-hand driver goes with a

      right-hand driven.In the design of crossed-helical gears, the minimum sliding velocity is obtained when the helix angle are equal.However, when the helix angle are not equal, the gear with the larger helix angle should be used as the driver if both gears have the same hand.Worm gears are similar to crossed helical gears.The pinion or worm has a small number of teeth, usually one to four, and since they completely wrap around the pitch cylinder they are called threads.Its mating gear is called a worm gear, which is not a true helical gear.A worm and worm gear are used to provide a high angular-velocity reduction between nonintersecting shafts which are usually at right angle.The worm gear is not a helical gear because its face is made concave to fit the curvature of the worm in order to provide line contact instead of point contact.However, a disadvantage of worm gearing is the high sliding velocities across the teeth, the same as with crossed

      helical gears.Worm gearing are either single or double enveloping.A single-enveloping gearing is one in which the gear wraps around or partially encloses the worm..A gearing in which each element partially encloses the other is, of course, a double-enveloping worm gearing.The important difference between the two is that area contact exists between the teeth of double-enveloping gears while only line contact between those of single-enveloping gears.The worm and worm gear of a set have the same hand of helix as for crossed helical gears, but the helix angles are usually quite different.The helix angle on the worm is generally quite large, and that on the gear very small.Because of this, it is usual to specify the lead angle on the worm, which is the complement of the worm helix angle, and the helix angle on the gear;the two angles are equal for a 90-deg.Shaft angle.When gears are to be used to transmit motion between intersecting shaft, some of bevel gear is required.Although bevel gear are usually made for a shaft angle of 90 deg.They may be produced for almost any shaft angle.The teeth may be cast, milled, or generated.Only the generated teeth may be classed as accurate.In a typical bevel gear mounting, one of the gear is often mounted outboard of the bearing.This means that shaft deflection can be more pronounced and have a greater effect on the contact of teeth.Another difficulty, which occurs in predicting the stress in bevel-gear teeth, is the fact the teeth are tapered.Straight bevel gears are easy to design and simple to manufacture and give very good results in service if they are mounted accurately and positively.As in the case of squr gears, however, they become noisy at higher values of the pitch-line velocity.In these cases it is often good design practice to go to the spiral bevel gear, which is the bevel counterpart of the helical gear.As in the case of helical gears, spiral bevel gears give a much smoother tooth action than straight bevel gears, and hence are useful where high speed are encountered.7

      It is frequently desirable, as in the case of automotive differential applications, to have gearing similar to bevel gears but with the shaft offset.Such gears are called hypoid gears because their pitch surfaces are hyperboloids of revolution.The tooth action between such gears is a combination of rolling and sliding along a straight line and has much in common with that of worm gears.A shaft is a rotating or stationary member, usually of circular cross section, having mounted upon it such elementsas gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets, and other power-transmission elements.Shaft may be subjected to bending, tension, compression, or torsional loads, acting singly or in combination with one another.When they are combined, one may expect to find both static and fatigue strength to be important design considerations, since a

      single shaft may be subjected to static stresses, completely reversed, and repeated stresses, all acting at the same time.The word “shaft” covers numerous variations, such as axles and spindles.Anaxle is a shaft, wither stationary or rotating, nor subjected to torsion load.A shirt rotating shaft is often called a spindle.When either the lateral or the torsional deflection of a shaft must be held to close limits, the shaft must be sized on the basis of deflection before analyzing the stresses.The reason for this is that, if the shaft is made stiff enough so that the deflection is not too large, it is probable that the resulting stresses will be safe.But by no means should the designer assume that they are safe;it is almost always necessary to calculate them so that he knows they are within acceptable limits.Whenever possible, the power-transmission elements, such as gears or pullets, should be located close to the supporting bearings, This reduces the bending moment, and hence the deflection and bending stress.Although the von Mises-Hencky-Goodman method is difficult to use in design of shaft, it probably comes closest to predicting actual failure.Thus it is a good way of checking a shaft that has already been designed or of discovering

      why a particular shaft has failed in service.Furthermore, there are a considerable number of shaft-design problems in which the dimension are pretty well limited by other considerations, such as rigidity, and it is only necessary for the designer to discover something about the fillet sizes, heat-treatment, and surface finish and whether or not shot peening is necessary in order to achieve the required life and reliability.Because of the similarity of their functions, clutches and brakes are treated together.In a simplified dynamic representation of a friction clutch, or brake, two inertias I1 and I2 traveling at the respective angular velocities W1 and W2, one of which may be zero in the case of brake, are to be brought to the same speed by engaging the clutch or brake.Slippage occurs because the two elements are running at different speeds and energy is dissipated during actuation, resulting in a temperature rise.In analyzing the performance of these devices we shall be interested in the actuating force, the torque transmitted, the energy loss and the temperature rise.The torque transmitted is related to the actuating force, the coefficient of friction, and the geometry of the clutch or brake.This is problem in static, which will have to be studied separately for eath geometric configuration.However, temperature rise is related to energy loss and can be studied without regard to the type of brake or clutch because the geometry of interest is the heat-dissipating surfaces.The various types of clutches and brakes may be classified as fllows:

      1.Rim type with internally expanding shoes 2.Rim type with externally contracting shoes 3.Band type 4.Disk or axial type 5.Cone type 6.Miscellaneous type The analysis of all type of friction clutches and brakes use the same general procedure.The following step are necessary:

      1.Assume or determine the distribution of pressure on the frictional surfaces.2.Find a relation between the maximum pressure and the pressure at any point 3.Apply the condition of statical equilibrium to find(a)the actuating force,(b)the torque, and(c)the support reactions.Miscellaneous clutches include several types, such as the

      positive-contact clutches, overload-release clutches, overrunning clutches, magnetic fluid clutches, and others.A positive-contact clutch consists of a shift lever and two jaws.The greatest differences between the various types of positive clutches are concerned with the design of the jaws.To provide a longer period of time for shift action during engagement, the jaws may be ratchet-shaped, or gear-tooth-shaped.Sometimes a great many teeth or jaws are used, and they may be cut either circumferentially, so that they engage by cylindrical mating, or on the faces of

      the mating elements.Although positive clutches are not used to the extent of the frictional-contact type, they do have important applications where

      synchronous operation is required.Devices such as linear drives or motor-operated screw drivers must run to definite limit and then come to a stop.An overload-release type of clutch is required for these applications.These clutches are usually spring-loaded so as to release at a predetermined toque.The clicking sound which is heard when the overload point is reached is considered to be a desirable signal.An overrunning clutch or coupling permits the driven member of a machine to “freewheel” or “overrun” because the driver is stopped or because another source of power increase the speed of the driven.This type of clutch usually uses rollers or balls mounted between an outer sleeve and an inner member having flats machined around the periphery.Driving action is obtained by wedging the rollers between the sleeve and the flats.The clutch is

      therefore equivalent to a pawl and ratchet with an infinite number of teeth.Magnetic fluid clutch or brake is a relatively new development which has two parallel magnetic plates.Between these plates is a lubricated magnetic powder mixture.An electromagnetic coil is inserted somewhere in the magnetic circuit.By varying the excitation to this coil, the shearing strength of the magnetic fluid mixture may be accurately controlled.Thus any condition from a full slip to a frozen lockup may be obtained.11

      第五篇:畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

      外文翻譯:

      安全評(píng)估和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方法建設(shè)

      張軍,張明元,袁勇波,周靜

      (中國土木與水利工程大學(xué),大連理工,大連116085)

      摘要: 改進(jìn)后的LEC法是用于處理與期貨大廈項(xiàng)目的安全評(píng)估的。經(jīng)修訂的評(píng)估項(xiàng)目L的危險(xiǎn)方法隱藏的工作條件,存在由實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果確定了不同價(jià)值體系之間的能源和人工能源,表明該方法的科學(xué)性和實(shí)用性,并能提高安全成本的經(jīng)濟(jì)效率。

      關(guān)鍵詞:建設(shè)危害,安全評(píng)價(jià),安全管理

      1建筑的危害和安全評(píng)估

      建筑存在的危險(xiǎn)性都和周圍的建設(shè)用地有關(guān)系。這些條件不合理造成的勘查施工前和施工期間的經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)不合理并會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)移到危險(xiǎn)性上。首先,它是認(rèn)識(shí)到科學(xué)和危害之后而確定安全管理的必要,進(jìn)行任何監(jiān)測都有可能發(fā)生意外。

      評(píng)估的目的是尋找出安全分析和預(yù)測危險(xiǎn)的方法,而且其結(jié)果與現(xiàn)有工程或一個(gè)系統(tǒng),都需要合理并可行。因此我們提出了從監(jiān)督監(jiān)測和抵御風(fēng)險(xiǎn)中得到的情況,以求意外事故有最低發(fā)生率,這是不同的方法之間的安全評(píng)估和正常的安全管理和監(jiān)控。這樣做的安全評(píng)估、分析、論證和可能的損失建筑工程有關(guān)的傷害和影響范圍都最小。

      安全文化是伴隨人類的生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)而產(chǎn)生的。但是,人類有意識(shí)地發(fā)展安全文化,還是近1 0余年的事,國際原子能機(jī)構(gòu)在對(duì)1 9 8 6年發(fā)生的切爾諾貝利核泄漏事故調(diào)查分析的基礎(chǔ)上,于1 9 9 1年編寫的“7 5一工N 8 A G-4 "評(píng)。報(bào)告首次提出了“安全文化”的概念,并建立了一套核安全文化建設(shè)的思想和策略。

      安全文化從核安全文化、航空航天安全文化等企業(yè)安全文化,拓寬到全民安全文化,由此發(fā)展到了由安全觀念文化、安全行為文化、安全物質(zhì)文化組成的全民安全文化的新時(shí)代。在該階段,安全教育體系正在形成,兒童和,},小學(xué)生的安全教育已經(jīng)起步。大學(xué)和成人的專業(yè)化安全教育已初具規(guī)模,在有關(guān)政府機(jī)

      構(gòu)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下的安全文化普及教育正蓬勃發(fā)展;安全科學(xué)作為獨(dú)立的學(xué)科體系已經(jīng)建立,安全科學(xué)形成了由安全科學(xué)技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)學(xué)科、安全學(xué)、安全工程等構(gòu)成的多學(xué)科體系;安全管理機(jī)構(gòu)進(jìn)一步健全,建立健全了一大批國際的、國家的、行業(yè)的、社會(huì)的、企業(yè)的安全管理機(jī)構(gòu);在法規(guī)、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、安全制度方而,體現(xiàn)在而向全民的安全建設(shè)開始起步,而向行業(yè)的、企業(yè)的安全法規(guī)、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、制度、操作規(guī)程等具有更強(qiáng)的針對(duì)性,在安全宣傳方而,一個(gè)社會(huì)化的安全宣傳網(wǎng)正在形成,出現(xiàn)了一些而向大眾、宣傳安全光榮、安全就是效益的作品,“安全第一,頂防為主”的安全哲學(xué)思想更加深入人心。

      “安全文化是人類文化的部分,它涉及人類活動(dòng)的各個(gè)領(lǐng)域,存在于社會(huì)生活的各個(gè)方而;它涉及自然科學(xué)和社會(huì)科學(xué)的諸學(xué)科,它為安全的世界觀和方法論的形成提供乳育的胚胎,它既具有歷史的繼承性,又具有鮮明的時(shí)代感”。安全文化是燦爛的,華民族文化的組成部分,華民族在生存和繁衍,},與世界其他民族一起創(chuàng)造并傳播了安全文化。安全文化在我國的發(fā)展也經(jīng)歷了人類對(duì)安分與健康的臺(tái)目追求、核安全文化出現(xiàn)、全民安全文化的興起等二個(gè)階段。2危險(xiǎn)方法評(píng)估工作

      考慮到人的危險(xiǎn)在工作條件,格雷厄姆和吉爾伯特。樓金尼建議的頻率和嚴(yán)重程度,以該評(píng)估環(huán)境和一些揭露應(yīng)指環(huán)境變量作為獨(dú)立設(shè)置的函數(shù)公式。根據(jù)他們的實(shí)際經(jīng)驗(yàn),根據(jù)不同情況獨(dú)立變量的值,給出了三被標(biāo)記的對(duì)象,然后在危害水平也分為公式后的危險(xiǎn)值來計(jì)算。這種方法容易識(shí)別。

      D=LEC

      其中,D指該商標(biāo),L是指事故的發(fā)生概率,E和C是指人類正暴露的頻率和在環(huán)境意味著損失。

      3管理建設(shè)的危害

      建造業(yè)是高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行業(yè),需要管理并改善其意外總數(shù)的發(fā)生。政府提出安全建設(shè)模式位“統(tǒng)一的模式,法律監(jiān)督機(jī)構(gòu)負(fù)責(zé)企業(yè)所有安全監(jiān)管,部分群眾以及整個(gè)社會(huì)參與監(jiān)督”。作者假設(shè)如下:

      (1)加強(qiáng)安全監(jiān)察,建設(shè),以確保施工安全的措施費(fèi)組成競爭費(fèi)和特殊項(xiàng)目費(fèi)用;建設(shè)行政主管部門應(yīng)加強(qiáng)項(xiàng)目前的審計(jì)。

      (2)加強(qiáng)并完善組織建設(shè)施工安全監(jiān)管,成立一個(gè)監(jiān)管組織,其的特點(diǎn)是依法執(zhí)行監(jiān)管任務(wù)。

      (3)編制依據(jù)不同專業(yè)的職業(yè)經(jīng)理人的安全的安全生產(chǎn)監(jiān)管部根據(jù)建筑由大小的地盤遵守《組織對(duì)構(gòu)建企業(yè)安全生產(chǎn)和職業(yè)經(jīng)理人準(zhǔn)備》。

      (4)發(fā)展項(xiàng)目和危害安全風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估,登記項(xiàng)目,消除構(gòu)建社會(huì)安全危害的可能影響。

      (5)建立和落實(shí),檢查系統(tǒng)的支架固定和拆卸起重機(jī)械,成型板,建立和落實(shí)制度,消除危害的技術(shù),設(shè)備和材料,建立和實(shí)施項(xiàng)目系統(tǒng)研究項(xiàng)目的施工安全。

      (6)監(jiān)測信息系統(tǒng)的致命危害工地使用是高級(jí)電力監(jiān)控。

      (7)開展風(fēng)險(xiǎn)規(guī)避。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)規(guī)避是一個(gè)有用的和共同的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理策略。當(dāng)認(rèn)識(shí)到嚴(yán)重后果的隱患和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素,但沒有可用的措施之前,建設(shè),施工計(jì)劃可能改變或放棄為避免風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。

      (8)建筑企業(yè)要建立和完善安全體系建設(shè)的長期性,管理和設(shè)備應(yīng)達(dá)到 降低風(fēng)險(xiǎn)損失之和(參考標(biāo)準(zhǔn):標(biāo)準(zhǔn)JGJ59 一 1999年)。

      (9)發(fā)揮媒體的咨詢作用,進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)的安全性評(píng)估、設(shè)計(jì)、安全監(jiān)測、認(rèn)證和考試,以及意外傷害保險(xiǎn)賠償。

      (10)建立工會(huì)公關(guān),處理緊急項(xiàng)目。

      4結(jié)論

      本文主要內(nèi)容是考察了管理層在判斷建筑危害中應(yīng)用的安全性評(píng)估方法。以及建設(shè)項(xiàng)目危險(xiǎn)評(píng)價(jià)工作的執(zhí)行情況,我們已確保了致命的危險(xiǎn)事故發(fā)生率為最低。根據(jù)經(jīng)驗(yàn),可納入危險(xiǎn)管理系統(tǒng)的危險(xiǎn)值為:低于160時(shí)的危險(xiǎn),否則,它會(huì)被認(rèn)為是不可承受的危險(xiǎn)事故。應(yīng)該充分應(yīng)用現(xiàn)代化的信息技術(shù)來建立和完善

      一道預(yù)防和控制系統(tǒng)來檢測意外事故。以期待應(yīng)用技術(shù)來預(yù)防更多的意外事故發(fā)生。

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