第一篇：機(jī)器人化多功能護(hù)理床研究與探討外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯@中英文翻譯@外文翻譯要點(diǎn)

機(jī)器人化多功能護(hù)理床研究與探討

翻譯* 摘要：人性化設(shè)計(jì)是現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)的一個(gè)重要理念,它強(qiáng)調(diào)在設(shè)計(jì)產(chǎn)品時(shí)從人體工學(xué)、生態(tài)學(xué)、美學(xué)等角度達(dá)到完美,體現(xiàn)了科技以人為本的思想。該護(hù)理床的設(shè)計(jì)正是基于這種理念,它不僅能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)抬背、抬大腿,曲小腿和調(diào)整坐姿的功能,并將設(shè)計(jì)通過(guò)Pro/E三維實(shí)體建模軟件進(jìn)行模擬和仿真分析,進(jìn)一步指導(dǎo)和驗(yàn)證設(shè)計(jì)的合理性。為滿足目前日益提高的家庭護(hù)理要求，將機(jī)器人的多軸協(xié)調(diào)控制技術(shù)應(yīng)用于護(hù)理床的控制，研制了一種機(jī)器人化的多功能護(hù)理床．該護(hù)理床通過(guò)各個(gè)床面板之間的協(xié)調(diào)運(yùn)動(dòng)，采用單動(dòng)或聯(lián)動(dòng)方式來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)各種位姿，并通過(guò)語(yǔ)音或鍵盤來(lái)控制進(jìn)行多位姿的運(yùn)動(dòng)．護(hù)理床的控制系統(tǒng)由主控制模塊和輔助控制模塊兩部分構(gòu)成．其中主控制模塊采用單片機(jī)進(jìn)行控制，這樣既可降低成本，又可保證護(hù)理床操作的靈活性和可靠性；輔助控制模塊包括語(yǔ)音識(shí)別和語(yǔ)音回放兩部分的功能．實(shí)際使用效果證明了所研制的護(hù)理床的實(shí)用性和有效性．本文由醫(yī)學(xué)論文網(wǎng)與您分享！

關(guān)鍵詞：機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床；控制系統(tǒng)；語(yǔ)音識(shí)剮；單片機(jī)

概述：目前，無(wú)論是發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家還是發(fā)展中國(guó)家，均面臨著越來(lái)越嚴(yán)重的人口老齡化問(wèn)題。老年人由于各項(xiàng)生理機(jī)能退化，健康狀況普遍不佳，消耗大量醫(yī)療資源，增加了醫(yī)院的負(fù)擔(dān)。世界各國(guó)均在積極探求一種新的健康服務(wù)模式，提供更高質(zhì)量、更可靠、更容易被接受且成本低廉的健康服務(wù)。因此現(xiàn)代遠(yuǎn)程監(jiān)護(hù)系統(tǒng)的構(gòu)建，具有很好的發(fā)展前景。本文研究了一種面向社區(qū)的基于機(jī)器人化多功能式智能健康監(jiān)護(hù)系統(tǒng)，用來(lái)對(duì)病人的生理參數(shù)進(jìn)行連續(xù)、長(zhǎng)時(shí)間、自動(dòng)、實(shí)時(shí)檢測(cè)，并經(jīng)分析、處理后實(shí)現(xiàn)多類別自動(dòng)報(bào)警、自動(dòng)記錄，而且可以通過(guò)網(wǎng)絡(luò)遠(yuǎn)程監(jiān)護(hù)便于醫(yī)護(hù)人員及時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)病人的病情變化，隨時(shí)采取必要的護(hù)理與急救措施。隨著社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)的迅速發(fā)展，人民生活水平不斷提高，人口壽命不斷延長(zhǎng)，城市人口正逐步進(jìn)入老齡化．人口的老齡化對(duì)社會(huì)醫(yī)療服務(wù)體系提出了更高的要求，建立以社區(qū)為核心的健康監(jiān)控和疾病預(yù)控信息化系統(tǒng)具有很大的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義”．老年人由于年齡偏大，肌體的活性逐漸降低，對(duì)疾病的抵抗力日益減弱，且疾病多以慢性病為主．對(duì)于慢性病人和癱瘓病人而言，除了配合藥物和針劑的治療外，物理方式的護(hù)理也必不可少．正確、適當(dāng)?shù)淖o(hù)理可以大大增強(qiáng)患者肌體的活性，減少并發(fā)癥的產(chǎn)生．對(duì)于許多慢性病患者而言，通過(guò)定期服藥、適當(dāng)監(jiān)護(hù)和正確護(hù)理，可以不必長(zhǎng)期住院．特別是對(duì)那些因種種原因不可能長(zhǎng)期住院治療的患者、老年人和殘疾人士而言，配置必要的護(hù)理設(shè)備和用具尤為重要“。．相比于普通人，慢性病人、癱瘓病人和殘疾人士的臥床時(shí)間更長(zhǎng)、更久，因此開(kāi)發(fā)一種舒適、護(hù)理功能齊全、性價(jià)比高的護(hù)理床，將具有廣闊的市場(chǎng)前景”?．目前，我國(guó)正著力于建設(shè)社區(qū)公共衛(wèi)生服務(wù)體系，如果將所開(kāi)發(fā)的護(hù)理床與社區(qū)、醫(yī)院醫(yī)療體系連接，實(shí)現(xiàn)醫(yī)療、護(hù)理、健康監(jiān)護(hù)、醫(yī)療救治、疾病預(yù)控等的一體化，可大大減輕醫(yī)院的壓力，更為合理、有效地利用現(xiàn)有的醫(yī)院資源”4’．同時(shí)，通過(guò)醫(yī)院、社區(qū)兩種信息化系統(tǒng)的建立和連接，可大大提升應(yīng)對(duì)突發(fā)性公共衛(wèi)生事件的響應(yīng)速度和處理能力．有鑒于此，筆者針對(duì)社會(huì)醫(yī)療服務(wù)的發(fā)展現(xiàn)狀及現(xiàn)實(shí)需求，提出了一種基于機(jī)器人多軸協(xié)調(diào)控制技術(shù)和語(yǔ)音識(shí)別技術(shù)的多功能護(hù)理床的概念，成功研制了一種機(jī)器人化的多功能護(hù)理床，并在此基礎(chǔ)上研制了一套基于該護(hù)理床的社醫(yī)監(jiān)護(hù)系統(tǒng)．本文主要對(duì)該機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的結(jié)構(gòu)及控制系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行探討．

機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的結(jié)構(gòu)

在進(jìn)行機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)，主要考慮了以下兒點(diǎn)：(1)護(hù)理床應(yīng)能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)護(hù)理所需的各種體位的位姿要求；(2)各個(gè)活動(dòng)床面板的擺動(dòng)角度應(yīng)符合醫(yī)療護(hù)理要求并兼顧人體的舒適性；(3)護(hù)理床床體的可靠性、穩(wěn)定性和安全性要符合醫(yī)療護(hù)理要求；(4)床體的尺寸有一定的空間范圍限制；(5)要考慮護(hù)理床在房間內(nèi)移動(dòng)的簡(jiǎn)易性以及醫(yī)護(hù)輔助裝置(如吊液架和書(shū)飯桌)在護(hù)理床f：的可安裝性．所研制的機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的床面結(jié)構(gòu)如圖1所示，它實(shí)現(xiàn)J，對(duì)護(hù)理床的7個(gè)基本體位的位姿的要求，即平躺、抬背、屈／伸腿、抬腿、左／右翻身、坐起以及解便，7個(gè)面板是相互獨(dú)立的．通過(guò)各個(gè)床面板之間的協(xié)調(diào)運(yùn)動(dòng)，采用單動(dòng)或聯(lián)動(dòng)方式來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)護(hù)理床所需的各種體位的位姿．護(hù)理床的位姿與相應(yīng)的床面板動(dòng)作如表l所示．各床面板的擺動(dòng)角度如下：背板(坐姿)，o。一十750；背板(左／右翻身)，o?！?65。；左／右臀部板，O?！?75。；大腿板，o。一+35。；小腿板，一55 o～+35。；解便蓋板，O。一+90。．2機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的控制系統(tǒng)為了便于對(duì)護(hù)理床進(jìn)行智能控制，及時(shí)r解護(hù)理床的當(dāng)前工作狀態(tài)，律護(hù)理床的脒身上需安置必要數(shù)目的傳感器”?．通過(guò)分析傳感器傳輸來(lái)的數(shù)據(jù)，控制系統(tǒng)可以實(shí)時(shí)了解、控制床面板的運(yùn)動(dòng)狀態(tài)，防止不同機(jī)構(gòu)問(wèn)的相互干涉或是驅(qū)動(dòng)電機(jī)超調(diào)對(duì)床體、人員造成的不必要傷害．在床體位姿的控制方式方面，除了采用通行的鍵盤按鈕輸入方式外，為了方便體弱病殘者，還增加了語(yǔ)音輸人方式+操作者可以通過(guò)語(yǔ)音命令來(lái)操縱護(hù)理床．由于普通類型的控制芯片難以完成語(yǔ)音命令的識(shí)別，岡此將整個(gè)護(hù)理床的控制系統(tǒng)分為兩大模塊．第一部分為主控制模塊，它由一個(gè)單片機(jī)控制系統(tǒng)構(gòu)成，用于實(shí)現(xiàn)護(hù)理床系統(tǒng)的主體控制，包括接受鍵盤／語(yǔ)音控制命令和傳感器位置信號(hào)的輸入，以及輸出電機(jī)控制信號(hào)等，第二部分為輔助控制模塊，主要進(jìn)行語(yǔ)音的識(shí)別和回放，它將來(lái)自操作者的語(yǔ)音控制命令轉(zhuǎn)化為電信號(hào)，然后經(jīng)過(guò)編碼轉(zhuǎn)換，輸送至主控制模塊，同時(shí)接受來(lái)自主控制模塊的電信號(hào)，將這些控制指令轉(zhuǎn)換為操作者可以理解的聲音信號(hào)．2．1 機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的主控制模塊主控制模塊在運(yùn)行時(shí)接收來(lái)自鍵盤／語(yǔ)音識(shí)別電路的電信號(hào)，經(jīng)過(guò)分析處理，將控制信號(hào)通過(guò)外部接口輸送到語(yǔ)音回放電路，由語(yǔ)音回放電路將電信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)化為聲音信號(hào)，提供語(yǔ)音反饋信號(hào)，使操作者隨時(shí)了解護(hù)理床的實(shí)時(shí)動(dòng)態(tài)；另一方面，主控制模塊根據(jù)各種信號(hào)命令，控制不同的電機(jī)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)，從而實(shí)現(xiàn)用戶所期掣的護(hù)理床的功能?．主控制模塊主要包括以下各子功能：

(1)鍵盤輸入．鍵盤輸入是護(hù)理床輸入控制命令的途徑之一，由鍵盤輸人的命令通過(guò)編碼由串口發(fā)送到主控制板．(2)直流電機(jī)的動(dòng)作控制．護(hù)理床在接受鍵盤或是語(yǔ)音輸入信號(hào)后，便開(kāi)始進(jìn)行相應(yīng)的動(dòng)作以達(dá)到護(hù)理床的預(yù)期功能．這要求主控制板能對(duì)安裝在護(hù)理床上的8個(gè)直流電機(jī)進(jìn)行正反兩方向的動(dòng)作控制．(3)傳感器信號(hào)輸入．位置傳感器將電機(jī)的運(yùn)動(dòng)位置信息反饋給控制系統(tǒng)，控制系統(tǒng)根據(jù)反饋回的信號(hào)判斷電機(jī)的當(dāng)前運(yùn)動(dòng)位置和狀態(tài)，然后調(diào)用對(duì)應(yīng)的程序進(jìn)行運(yùn)動(dòng)控制2．1．1鍵盤控制電路鍵盤控制板上除r配備供使用者操作的按鍵外，還配置了顯示護(hù)理床工作狀態(tài)的指示燈．考慮到鍵盤與主控制板的通信以及主控制板cPu的L／0口資源有限，因此鍵盤由一塊獨(dú)立的單片機(jī)來(lái)處理各種任務(wù)．由于鍵盤(2×6)和指示燈(8個(gè))需要占用不少的I／0口資源，而所選用的89c2051單片機(jī)只有15個(gè)L／0口，L／o u資源非常有限，因此在單片機(jī)的L／0口資源分配上，鍵盤控制板的單片機(jī)與主控制板之間采用串口通信；同時(shí)，考慮到控制電纜有一定的長(zhǎng)度，為增加通信的可靠性，采用了232電平通信，因此在硬件電路上加了一塊MAx232芯片進(jìn)行電平轉(zhuǎn)換．2．1．2直流電機(jī)的控制護(hù)理床的護(hù)理功能是通過(guò)直流電機(jī)來(lái)執(zhí)行的，電機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)護(hù)理床來(lái)完成各項(xiàng)動(dòng)作，以實(shí)現(xiàn)各種護(hù)理位姿，包括：(1)背板上抬／下降；(2)左／右翻身板上升／下降；(3)大腿板上升／下降；(4)小腿板上升／下降；(5)便盆蓋板開(kāi)／合；(6)平躺體位實(shí)現(xiàn)／復(fù)位；(7)坐姿體位實(shí)現(xiàn)／復(fù)位；(8)抬腿體位實(shí)現(xiàn)／復(fù)位；(9)屈腿體位實(shí)現(xiàn)／復(fù)位．以上各位姿之間的轉(zhuǎn)換與完成均通過(guò)8個(gè)直流電機(jī)的正反轉(zhuǎn)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)，因此主控制板必須能夠在接收命令后對(duì)8個(gè)直流電機(jī)進(jìn)行上E反轉(zhuǎn)控制，即能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)電機(jī)的正反向通電控制在護(hù)理床的硬件電路設(shè)計(jì)中，對(duì)每一個(gè)電機(jī)都采用了兩個(gè)雙刀雙擲的繼電器進(jìn)行通斷電控制．2．2機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的輔助控制模塊2．2．1語(yǔ)音識(shí)別語(yǔ)音控制技術(shù)是現(xiàn)有各種控制方式中的一種高級(jí)控制方式，它具有控制方式自然、方便，親和力好，適用范圍廣的特點(diǎn)．將語(yǔ)音控制技術(shù)引入到護(hù)理床的控制之中，將極大地方便使用者，尤其對(duì)于那些喪失或部分喪失活動(dòng)、自理能力的患者而占，語(yǔ)音控制可以幫助他們?cè)鰪?qiáng)自信心，減輕對(duì)他人的依賴，增添生活的勇氣和信心．針對(duì)護(hù)理床使用者的語(yǔ)音輸入命令的特點(diǎn)，研究中使用了美閏sENsORY公司的RSc364語(yǔ)音芯片作為識(shí)別核心芯片。Rsc364芯片通過(guò)訓(xùn)練而實(shí)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)音識(shí)別功能，系統(tǒng)的L／o電平是TrL電平，可以方便地與其他系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行數(shù)據(jù)傳輸．Rsc364芯片內(nèi)部集成了語(yǔ)音識(shí)別所需的多種功能，它能夠完成語(yǔ)音識(shí)別過(guò)程中的反混疊低通濾波、采樣／保持、A／D轉(zhuǎn)換以及語(yǔ)音記錄等功能Rsc364芯片在完成語(yǔ)音識(shí)別任務(wù)后，將語(yǔ)音控制信號(hào)通過(guò)芯片輸出到單片機(jī)的Po和P1口．根據(jù)PSc364的輸出狀態(tài)，在主控制板與語(yǔ)音識(shí)別芯片之間采用一片74Lsl48 j籪片來(lái)擴(kuò)展中斷口，語(yǔ)音命令輸入74Lsl48芯片的8個(gè)輸入腳，連接Pl口；Rsc364的擴(kuò)展[J Gs接單片機(jī)的中斷口P3．2；單片機(jī)的P1．o～P1．3口與語(yǔ)音識(shí)別芯片的Po．4～Po．7口相連接．當(dāng)有語(yǔ)音命令輸入時(shí)，P1口巾的一個(gè)輸出低電平，Gs u輸“i的低電平啟動(dòng)單片機(jī)外部中斷，在進(jìn)行單片機(jī)的中斷處理時(shí)從P1．0～P1．3口中讀人數(shù)據(jù)．2．2．2語(yǔ)音回放主控制電路收到命令后，在控制電機(jī)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)的同時(shí)，也向語(yǔ)音回放子模塊輸j【j語(yǔ)音控制信號(hào)．由輔助控制模塊向當(dāng)前使用者提供語(yǔ)音反饋．語(yǔ)音同放子模塊的主要作用是：護(hù)理床接收到用戶命令后，在護(hù)理床實(shí)現(xiàn)功能動(dòng)作以前播放相應(yīng)動(dòng)作的語(yǔ)音信息，提醒用戶做好身體準(zhǔn)備，這種人性化設(shè)計(jì)進(jìn)一步提高了護(hù)理床的親和力．語(yǔ)音回放采用IsD4003_08芯片作為主芯片．IsI)4003系列的工作屯壓為3 V，單片錄放時(shí)間為4—8min”?．芯片采用cMOs技術(shù)，內(nèi)含振蕩器、防混淆濾波器、平滑濾波器、音頻放大器、自動(dòng)靜噪及高密度多電平閃爍存貯陣列，操作命令町通過(guò)串行通信接口輸人．3機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的控制程序機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的控制方式是一種簡(jiǎn)化的機(jī)器人控制方式．系統(tǒng)啟動(dòng)后首先檢測(cè)護(hù)理床的位姿，然后檢測(cè)各個(gè)開(kāi)關(guān)的狀態(tài)，再檢測(cè)各個(gè)按鍵的狀態(tài)，如果其中一個(gè)按鍵按下，則護(hù)理床作相應(yīng)的動(dòng)作，并啟動(dòng)語(yǔ)音回放程序告知操作者，通過(guò)語(yǔ)音識(shí)別進(jìn)行的控制也是一樣，如果語(yǔ)音識(shí)別模塊識(shí)別了，操作者的一個(gè)指令，同樣地，護(hù)理床完成相應(yīng)的動(dòng)作．4結(jié)束語(yǔ)將機(jī)器人的多軸協(xié)調(diào)控制技術(shù)應(yīng)用于護(hù)理床，可對(duì)機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床進(jìn)行有效控制．所研制的機(jī)器人化護(hù)理床的如圖4所示，它可以實(shí)現(xiàn)多個(gè)位姿的調(diào)整，并采用語(yǔ)音命令和鍵盤輸入兩種方式進(jìn)行控制，簡(jiǎn)便靈活．另外，由于主控制模塊采用r單片機(jī)，使得系統(tǒng)操作靈活可靠，成本低廉．目前所研制的護(hù)理床已在一些醫(yī)院試用，反映良好．今后的研究將集巾在如何進(jìn)一步提高系統(tǒng)的協(xié)調(diào)性和靈活性，拓展系統(tǒng)的人性化功能等方面． Robotic nanomanipulation multi-function nursing bed research and discussion

Translators XingKai Abstract: the humanized design is an important concept of modern design, it emphasizes ergonomics design products, ecology, from the Angle of aesthetics, which reflects the perfect technological people-oriented thoughts.The nursing bed was based on the idea of design, it can not only realize carried back, lift the thigh, curved crus and adjust sitting position, and the function of Pro/E design through 3d entity modeling software is simulated and simulation analysis, further guidance and the rationality of design are verified.To meet the increasing family care requirements, the robot multiaxial coordinated control technique is applied in nursing bed control, developed a multi-function nursing bed robotic nanomanipulation.This nursing bed through each bed panel coordination between the movement, the single move or linkage ways various pose, and through the voice or keyboard to control the movement than appearance.Nursing bed control system consists of master control module and auxiliary control module two parts.One master control module adopts single-chip microcomputer control, such already can reduce costs, and can ensure the nursing bed operation flexibility and reliability;Auxiliary control modules including speech recognition and voice playback two parts function.The actual usage proved was developed nursing bed.This paper the practicability and effectiveness of medical paper nets to share with you!

Keywords: robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed;Control system;General cut;speech microcontroller

Summary: now, both developed and developing countries are facing more and more serious, the problem of aging population.Old people, the physiological function of degradation due to poor health, generally consumed a lot of medical resources, increase the burden of the hospital.In every country in the world in active seek out new health service mode, providing higher quality, more reliable and more accepting and cheap health services.So the construction of modern distance monitoring system, has the very good prospects for development.This paper studies a community-oriented robotic nanomanipulation based health intelligent monitoring system of multi-function type, of the patient's physiological parameters for continuous, long time, automatic, real-time detection, and the analysis and processing after realizing automatic alarm, automatic recording category, but also through the network for remote monitoring medical personnel the timely discovery of the patient's progress, at any time to take necessary care and emergency measures.With the rapid development of social economy, the people's standard of living rises ceaselessly, life expectancy rising longevity, the city's population is gradually entered the aging.the aging of the population of social medical service system put forward higher request, and establish a community as the core of the health monitoring and disease precontrol information system has great practical significance“ o.elderly because the older, the body gradually reduce active, resistant to disease has decreased, and the disease in chronic diseases primarily.For chronic disease and paralytic character, besides the treatment with drugs and injection, physical way outside the nursing also indispensable.Correct and appropriate care can greatly enhance the patient's body activity, reduce the complications of chronic disease.For many produced by regular medication, concerned, proper monitoring and correct nursing, need not hospitalizations.Especially for those who long for a variety of reasons impossible patients treated in hospital, the elderly and disabled people speaking, equipped with necessary nursing equipment and utensils particularly important ”compared to ordinary people.,chronic patients, people with disabilities and bed time longer and more long, thus developing a kind of comfortable, nursing complete function, cost-effective nursing bed, will has a broad market prospect“?.At present, China is building community on public health service system, if will development of the nursing bed and community, hospital medical system connection, realize medical and nursing, health care, medical treatment, disease precontrol etc integration, can reduce the pressure, more reasonable hospital, effectively use existing resources for hospital ”4“.Meanwhile, through the hospitals, communities two information system establishment and connections, can greatly improve our public health event to deal with emergency response speed and processing power.In view of this, according to our social medical service development present situation and the practical demand, put forward a kind of multiaxial coordination based robot control techniques and speech recognition technology is muti_function nursing bed concept, successfully developed the robotic nanomanipulation multi-function nursing bed, and on this basis developed based on the nursing bed medical monitoring system of the club.This article mainly discusses the structure of robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed and control system are discussed.robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed structure In the structure of robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed design, the main consideration the following son points:(1)the nursing bed should be able to realize all kinds of the nursing posture pose requirements;(2)all activities of bed panel swing Angle should comply with the medical care for both human comfort;and(3)nursing bed body reliability, stability and safety requirements, should accord with medical care(4)bed body size have certain space limits;(5)to consider nursing bed in the room moving simplicity and medical auxiliary devices(such as hanging liquid frame and book table)in nursing bed f: can be installed sex.The developed machine humanizing nursing bed bed surface structure as shown in figure 1 shows, to realize J, seven basic nursing bed of posture pose demands that a flat, carry back, flexor/leg, SLR, left/right turn, sitting up and solution then, seven panel is independent of each other.Through the coordination between each bed panel, using single movement or movement way to realize nursing bed linkage of all kinds of pose of posture pose.Nursing bed with corresponding bed panel action such as table l.3.Each bed panel swing Angle is as follows: the backplane(posture), o.10 750;Backplane(left/right emancipated), o.~ + 65.;The left/right hip board, O.~ + 75.;Thigh board, o.A + 35.;Crus board, a 55 o ~ + 35.;Solution will cover and O.A + 90.．2 Robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed of the control system in order to facilitate nursing bed of intelligent control, timely r solution of the current working state nursing bed nursing bed, upon the law to set necessary processes the number of sensors ”?.By analyzing the data, sensor transmission control system can real-time understand, control panel of motion, bed of different agencies to prevent the mutual interference or ask to overshoot driven motor bed body, unnecessary casualties caused damage.Control system overall structure as figure2shows.In bed in the control mode pose posture, besides using popular keyboard buttons input methods outside, in order to facilitate the weak and sick, but also increased the speech input mode + operators through the voice commands to manipulate nursing bed.Due to the common types of control chip difficult to complete the voice commands, because the recognition of the nursing bed the control system is divided into two major modules.The first part primarily control module, it consists of a single-chip microcomputer control system structure, used to implement the nursing bed system, including the main control keyboard/voice control commands to accept the position signal and sensor input, and the output motor control signal etc, the second part as auxiliary control module, mainly for voice recognition and playback, it will come from the operator's voice control command into electrical signals, then through code conversion, transported to the master control module, and accept the electrical signals to independent control module, will these control instruction convert audio signals of operator can understand.2.1 robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed master control module master control module at runtime receive signals from the keyboard/speech recognition circuit analysis and processing signal, through, will control signal through external interface conveying to speech playback circuit, signal by voice playback circuit will be transformed into voice signal, provide voice feedback signal, make handlers understand nursing bed real-time dynamic;On the other hand, master control module according to various signal command, control different motor running, so as to realize the lot that users period nursing bed functions?.Master control module mainly include the following each subroutine:

(1)keyboard input.The keyboard is nursing bed input control commands by one of the ways the keyboard input, by encoding commands sent to the primary panel by serial.(2)dc motor of the motor control.Nursing bed in accepting the keyboard or speech input signal after, started for the corresponding action to achieve nursing bed.This requires the expected function for installation in the main control panel can the nursing bed eight dc motor both the positive and negative direction of motor control.(3)sensor signal input.Position sensor motor sports location information feedback to control system, control system according to the feedback is returned to the current signal judgment motor sports location and condition, and then calling the corresponding procedure motion control 2.1.1 keyboard control circuit keyboard on the control board for user operation except r equipped with the keys outside, still configuration display the nursing bed the working state of indicator.Considering the keyboard and the communication and the main panel control cPu L / 0 mouths limited resources, so by a separate microcontroller keyboard to treat various task.Because the keyboard(2 x 6)and indicator light(8)required many I / 0 mouths resources, and chooses 89c2051 microcontroller only 15 L / 0 mouths, L/o u resources are limited, therefore in the SCM L / 0 mouths resource allocation, the single-chip computer keyboard panel serial communication between the main control board;Meanwhile, considering control cable is a certain length to increase the reliability of communication, communication, adopt the 232 level, so the hardware circuit MAx232 chips for added a convert.2.1.2 dc motor level control of the nursing function is nursing bed by dc motor to execute, motor drive nursing bed to complete the various movements, in order to achieve various nursing pose, include:(1)the backplane elevate/drop;(2)left/right turn physique increase/decrease;(3)thigh board increase/decrease;(4)crus board increase/decrease;(5)flat open/close;bedpan(6)lie low postures realize/reset;(7)sitting postures realize/reset;(8)SLR postures realize/reset;(9)bended leg postures realize/reset.Above all appearance conversion between and finish all through eight dc motor to realize, so is the main control board must be able to receive commands to eight dc motor after on E reversal, namely can realize motor control negative in nursing bed to electrify control the hardware circuit design, for each motor has adopted two blades double throws on power control.The relay to 2.2 robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed auxiliary control module 2.2.1 speech recognition voice control technology is one of the existing control mode of advanced control mode, it is natural and convenient control mode, good affinity, the characteristics of applicability.Will voice control technology is introduced into the nursing bed under control, will greatly convenient users, particularly in those loss or partly losing activity, ability of self-dependence of patients, voice control and can help them enhance self-confidence, reduce dependence on others, add life courage and confidence in nursing bed users.The characteristics of the speech input commands, used in the study of the beauty of sENsORY company RSc364 little voice chip as recognition core chip.By training and realize Rsc364 chip speech recognition function, system L/o level is TrL level, which can be conveniently and other system for data transmission.Rsc364 chip inside integrated A speech recognition needs A variety of functions, it can complete speech recognition process of anti aliasing low-pass filter, sampling/keep, A/D conversion and voice recording Rsc364 chip in complete functions such as speech recognition task, will voice control signal output to SCM by chip Po and mouth.According to the PSc364 P1, the output state in the Lord with voice recognition chips control by A 74Lsl48 between expanding in tablet 74Lsl48 fracture, voice command input eight feet of the chip, connect Pl input mouth;Rsc364 Expansion of single chip [J Gs meet in P3.2;SCM fracture P1.3 P1.O ~ mouth and speech recognition chips J J 4 ~ Po Po seven connections.When a voice command input, a mouth wipes the P1 output low level, Gs u lose “I low-level startup microcontroller external interruption of single chip, the interrupt handlers from P1.0 ~ P1.3 mouth when read people data.Laws 2.2.2 voice playback master control circuit, after receiving orders in control motor running, but also to voice playback son module lose J 【 J voice control signal by auxiliary control module.To the current users provide voice feedback.Speech with the main function modules put the son is: nursing bed receive user commands, in nursing bed function action before the speech information broadcast corresponding action, remind users do physical preparation, this kind of humanized design further improved nursing bed by the affinity of IsD4003_08 chip.Speech playback as the principal chip.IsI)4003 series work pressure is 3 V, tuen mun recording a single chip 8min” for 4-time?.Chip adopt cMOs technology, containing oscillator, prevent confusion filter，Smoothing filter, audio amplifiers, since the action pixels and high-density multilevel flashing storage arrays, operation orders at through serial communication interface input.3 robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed nursing bed robotic nanomanipulation control program control mode is a simplified robot control system startup way.After the first test nursing bed, then test each pose, switch state of each key-press test again, if one of the keys pressed nursing bed, then makes the corresponding action and start speech playback program told the operator, through the control speech recognition is like that, if speech recognition module identification, operator a directive, likewise, nursing bed complete corresponding action.4 closing the robot multiaxial coordinated control technique is applied in nursing bed, may to the robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed.The developed under effective control of the robotic nanomanipulation nursing bed as shown in figure 4 shows, it can achieve more bits of adjustment, and USES the posture voice commands and keyboard input two modes for control, easy and flexible.Moreover, the master control module USES a microcontroller, making the system operation r.flexible reliable, low cost.Currently developed nursing bed has in some hospitals trial, reflect good.Future research will set wipes on how to further improve the flexibility, coordination and system function of human development system, etc.

第二篇：中英文對(duì)照資料外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)

中英文對(duì)照資料外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)

平設(shè)計(jì)任何時(shí)期平面設(shè)計(jì)可以參照一些藝術(shù)和專業(yè)學(xué)科側(cè)重于視覺(jué)傳達(dá)和介紹。采用多種方式相結(jié)合，創(chuàng)造和符號(hào)，圖像和語(yǔ)句創(chuàng)建一個(gè)代表性的想法和信息。平面設(shè)計(jì)師可以使用印刷，視覺(jué)藝術(shù)和排版技術(shù)產(chǎn)生的最終結(jié)果。平面設(shè)計(jì)常常提到的進(jìn)程，其中溝通是創(chuàng)造和產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)。共同使用的平面設(shè)計(jì)包括雜志，廣告，產(chǎn)品包裝和網(wǎng)頁(yè)設(shè)計(jì)。例如，可能包括產(chǎn)品包裝的標(biāo)志或其他藝術(shù)作品，舉辦文字和純粹的設(shè)計(jì)元素，如形狀和顏色統(tǒng)一件。組成的一個(gè)最重要的特點(diǎn)，尤其是平面設(shè)計(jì)在使用前現(xiàn)有材料或不同的元素。平面設(shè)計(jì)涵蓋了人類歷史上諸多領(lǐng)域，在此漫長(zhǎng)的歷史和在相對(duì)最近爆炸視覺(jué)傳達(dá)中的第20和21世紀(jì)，人們有時(shí)是模糊的區(qū)別和重疊的廣告藝術(shù)，平面設(shè)計(jì)和美術(shù)。畢竟，他們有著許多相同的內(nèi)容，理論，原則，做法和語(yǔ)言，有時(shí)同樣的客人或客戶。廣告藝術(shù)的最終目標(biāo)是出售的商品和服務(wù)。在平面設(shè)計(jì)，“其實(shí)質(zhì)是使以信息，形成以思想，言論和感覺(jué)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)”。在唐朝（618-906）之間的第4和第7世紀(jì)的木塊被切斷打印紡織品和后重現(xiàn)佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷書(shū)籍。在19世紀(jì)后期歐洲，尤其是在英國(guó)，平面設(shè)計(jì)開(kāi)始以獨(dú)立的運(yùn)動(dòng)從美術(shù)中分離出來(lái)。蒙德里安稱為父親的圖形設(shè)計(jì)。他是一個(gè)很好的藝術(shù)家，但是他在現(xiàn)代廣告中利用現(xiàn)代電網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)在廣告、印刷和網(wǎng)絡(luò)布局網(wǎng)格。于1849年，在大不列顛亨利科爾成為的主要力量之一在設(shè)計(jì)教育界，該國(guó)政府通告設(shè)計(jì)在雜志設(shè)計(jì)和制造的重要性。他組織了大型的展覽作為慶祝現(xiàn)代工業(yè)技術(shù)和維多利亞式的設(shè)計(jì)。從1892年至1896年威廉?莫里斯凱爾姆斯科特出版社出版的書(shū)籍的一些最重要的平面設(shè)計(jì)產(chǎn)品和工藝美術(shù)運(yùn)動(dòng)，并提出了一個(gè)非常賺錢的商機(jī)就是出版?zhèn)ゴ笪谋菊摰膱D書(shū)并以高價(jià)出售給富人。莫里斯證明了市場(chǎng)的存在使平面設(shè)計(jì)在他們自己擁有的權(quán)利，并幫助開(kāi)拓者從生產(chǎn)和美術(shù)分離設(shè)計(jì)。這歷史相對(duì)論是，然而，重要的，因?yàn)樗鼮榈谝淮沃卮蟮姆磻?yīng)對(duì)于十九世紀(jì)的陳舊的平面設(shè)計(jì)。莫里斯的工作，以及與其他私營(yíng)新聞運(yùn)動(dòng)，直接影響新藝術(shù)風(fēng)格和間接負(fù)責(zé)20世紀(jì)初非專業(yè)性平面設(shè)計(jì)的事態(tài)發(fā)展。誰(shuí)創(chuàng)造了最初的“平面設(shè)計(jì)”似乎存在爭(zhēng)議。這被歸因于英國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)師和大學(xué)教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息來(lái)源于20世紀(jì)初美國(guó)圖書(shū)設(shè)計(jì)師William Addison Dwiggins。倫敦地鐵的標(biāo)志設(shè)計(jì)是愛(ài)德華約翰斯頓于1916年設(shè)計(jì)的一個(gè)經(jīng)典的現(xiàn)代而且使用了系統(tǒng)字體設(shè)計(jì)。在20世紀(jì)20年代，蘇聯(lián)的建構(gòu)主義應(yīng)用于“智能生產(chǎn)”在不同領(lǐng)域的生產(chǎn)。個(gè)性化的運(yùn)動(dòng)藝術(shù)在 2 俄羅斯大革命是沒(méi)有價(jià)值的，從而走向以創(chuàng)造物體的功利為目的。他們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)的建筑、劇院集、海報(bào)、面料、服裝、家具、徽標(biāo)、菜單等。Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年書(shū)中編纂了新的現(xiàn)代印刷原則，他后來(lái)否認(rèn)他在這本書(shū)的法西斯主義哲學(xué)主張，但它仍然是非常有影響力。Tschichold，包豪斯印刷專家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一納吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面設(shè)計(jì)之父都被我們今天所知。他們首創(chuàng)的生產(chǎn)技術(shù)和文體設(shè)備，主要用于整個(gè)二十世紀(jì)。隨后的幾年看到平面設(shè)計(jì)在現(xiàn)代風(fēng)格獲得廣泛的接受和應(yīng)用。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)結(jié)束后，美國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)的建立更需要平面設(shè)計(jì)，主要是廣告和包裝等。移居國(guó)外的德國(guó)包豪斯設(shè)計(jì)學(xué)院于1937年到芝加哥帶來(lái)了“大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)”極簡(jiǎn)到美國(guó);引發(fā)野火的“現(xiàn)代”建筑和設(shè)計(jì)。值得注意的名稱世紀(jì)中葉現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)包括阿德里安Frutiger，設(shè)計(jì)師和Frutiger字體大學(xué);保蘭德，從20世紀(jì)30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原則和適用包豪斯他們受歡迎的廣告和標(biāo)志設(shè)計(jì)，幫助創(chuàng)造一個(gè)獨(dú)特的辦法，美國(guó)的歐洲簡(jiǎn)約而成為一個(gè)主要的先驅(qū)。平面設(shè)計(jì)稱為企業(yè)形象;約瑟夫米勒，羅克曼，設(shè)計(jì)的海報(bào)嚴(yán)重尚未獲取1950年代和1960年代時(shí)代典型。從道路標(biāo)志到技術(shù)圖表，從備忘錄到參考手冊(cè)，增強(qiáng)了平面設(shè)計(jì)的知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)讓?？勺x性增強(qiáng)了文字的視覺(jué)效果。設(shè)計(jì)還可以通過(guò)理念或有效的視覺(jué)傳播幫助銷售產(chǎn)品。將它應(yīng)用到產(chǎn)品和公司識(shí)別系統(tǒng)的要素像標(biāo)志、顏色和文字。連同這些被定義為品牌。品牌已日益成為重要的提供的服務(wù)范圍，許多平面設(shè)計(jì)師，企業(yè)形象和條件往往是同時(shí)交替使用。教科書(shū)的目的是本科目，如地理、科學(xué)和數(shù)學(xué)。這些出版物已布局理論設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明和圖表。一個(gè)常見(jiàn)的例子，在使用圖形，教育是圖表人體解剖學(xué)。平面設(shè)計(jì)也適用于布局和格式的教育材料，使信息更容易和更容易理解的。平面設(shè)計(jì)是應(yīng)用在娛樂(lè)行業(yè)的裝飾，景觀和視覺(jué)故事。其他的例子娛樂(lè)設(shè)計(jì)用途包括小說(shuō)，漫畫，電影中的開(kāi)幕和閉幕，在舞臺(tái)上節(jié)目的和道具的安排。這也包括藝術(shù)品在T恤衫的應(yīng)用和其他物品的出售。從科學(xué)雜志報(bào)道，提出意見(jiàn)和事實(shí)往往是提高圖形和深思熟慮的組成視覺(jué)信息-被稱為信息的設(shè)計(jì)。報(bào)紙，雜志，博客，電視和電影紀(jì)錄片，可以使用平面設(shè)計(jì)通知及娛樂(lè)。隨著網(wǎng)絡(luò)，信息與經(jīng)驗(yàn)的交互設(shè)計(jì)的工具，Adobe和Flash正越來(lái)越多地被用來(lái)說(shuō)明的背景新聞。一個(gè)平面設(shè)計(jì)項(xiàng)目可能涉及程式化和介紹現(xiàn)有的文字，或者事先存在的意向或圖像開(kāi)發(fā)的平面設(shè)計(jì)師。例如，一家報(bào)紙的故事始于記者和攝影記者，然后成為平面設(shè)計(jì)師的工作安排到一個(gè)合理的頁(yè)面布局，并確定是否有任何其他圖形元素應(yīng)當(dāng)要求。在一本雜志的文章或廣告，往往是平面設(shè)計(jì)師或藝術(shù)總監(jiān)將委員會(huì)攝影師或插圖創(chuàng)建原始文件只是被納入設(shè)計(jì)規(guī)劃?，F(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)的做法已經(jīng)擴(kuò)展到了現(xiàn)代的計(jì)算機(jī)，例如在使用所見(jiàn)的用戶界面，通常被稱為交互式設(shè)計(jì)，或多媒體設(shè)計(jì)。任何圖形元素用于設(shè)計(jì)之前，圖形元素必須是源于通過(guò)視覺(jué)藝術(shù)技能。這些圖形通常（但并不總是）被設(shè)計(jì)師開(kāi)發(fā)。視覺(jué)藝術(shù)的作品主要是視覺(jué)性的東西從使用傳統(tǒng)的傳播媒介、攝影或電腦產(chǎn)生的藝術(shù)。平面設(shè)計(jì)原則可以適用于每一個(gè)人的版畫藝術(shù)元素，并最終組成。3 印刷術(shù)是藝術(shù)，工藝和技術(shù)型，修改類型字形，并安排類型的設(shè)計(jì)。類型字形（字符）的創(chuàng)建和修改使用各種說(shuō)明方法。這項(xiàng)安排的類型是選擇字體、大小、線長(zhǎng)、主要的（行距）和文字的間距。刷術(shù)是由排字工機(jī)，排字，印刷工人，圖形藝術(shù)家，藝術(shù)總監(jiān)，工作者和辦事員。直到數(shù)字時(shí)代，印刷成為一個(gè)專業(yè)的領(lǐng)域。數(shù)字化開(kāi)辟了新的視覺(jué)設(shè)計(jì)師和用戶。排版設(shè)計(jì)師平面設(shè)計(jì)的一部分，是在網(wǎng)頁(yè)設(shè)計(jì)中是圖形設(shè)計(jì)，處理安排風(fēng)格（內(nèi)容）的要素。從早期的照明網(wǎng)頁(yè)手工復(fù)制書(shū)籍的中世紀(jì)和程序，以錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜的現(xiàn)代雜志和目錄布局，適當(dāng)?shù)木W(wǎng)頁(yè)設(shè)計(jì)公司長(zhǎng)期以來(lái)一直是考慮的印刷材料，與印刷媒體，內(nèi)容通常包括類型（文字，圖片（照片）偶爾發(fā)生持有者圖形的內(nèi)容，沒(méi)有印刷油墨，如模具/激光切割，燙金壓印或盲目壓花。平面設(shè)計(jì)師常常專心研究于界面設(shè)計(jì)，如網(wǎng)頁(yè)設(shè)計(jì)和軟件設(shè)計(jì)，最終用戶的交互性是一個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)考慮的布局或接口。視覺(jué)溝通技巧、互動(dòng)溝通技巧與用戶互動(dòng)得相結(jié)合和在線品牌推廣，平面設(shè)計(jì)師往往與軟件開(kāi)發(fā)和網(wǎng)絡(luò)開(kāi)發(fā)人員創(chuàng)建的外觀和風(fēng)格的網(wǎng)站或軟件應(yīng)用程序，來(lái)加強(qiáng)用戶或網(wǎng)絡(luò)網(wǎng)站的訪問(wèn)者互動(dòng)體驗(yàn)。版畫是在紙上，其他有機(jī)材料或者表面上印刷藝術(shù)品的過(guò)程。每一張不會(huì)被復(fù)制，但時(shí)最初的因?yàn)樗皇且粋€(gè)復(fù)制的另一藝術(shù)作品，并在技術(shù)上稱為留下深刻的印象。繪畫或素描，另一方面，創(chuàng)造了獨(dú)特的原始藝術(shù)品。版畫是由一個(gè)單一的原始表面創(chuàng)造的，在技術(shù)上已經(jīng)作為基質(zhì)而被已知。常見(jiàn)的矩陣包括：金屬板，通常是銅或鋅的雕刻或蝕刻石料，用于光刻;塊木刻的木材，油氈和織物板的絲網(wǎng)印刷。但也有許多其他種類，討論如下：作品從一個(gè)單一的印刷板創(chuàng)造一個(gè)版本，在現(xiàn)代通常每個(gè)簽署和編號(hào)，形成限量。打印也可編制成冊(cè)，作為藝術(shù)家的書(shū)籍。一個(gè)單一的打印可能是產(chǎn)品的一種或多種技術(shù)。色彩學(xué)領(lǐng)域是如何在打印機(jī)上和顯示器上用眼睛識(shí)別顏色和如何解釋和組織這些色彩。眼睛的視網(wǎng)膜被兩個(gè)被命名為視桿和視錐的感光體涵蓋。視桿對(duì)光很敏感但是對(duì)顏色不是很敏感。視錐卻與視桿恰恰相反。他們對(duì)光不太敏感，但是顏色可以被感知。隨著科技的發(fā)展，人們?cè)絹?lái)越認(rèn)識(shí)到環(huán)境問(wèn)題日益嚴(yán)重，大氣污染、森林破壞、水土流失、土地沙漠

化、水資源污染、大量物種滅絕、石油、天然氣、煤等資源枯竭。作為工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師，應(yīng)該有強(qiáng)烈的環(huán)境 保護(hù)意識(shí)，使得自己的設(shè)計(jì)建立在不破壞環(huán)境及節(jié)約自然資源的基礎(chǔ)上。

其中，溫室效應(yīng)、臭氧層破壞和酸雨是當(dāng)今全球性的三大環(huán)境問(wèn)題。

溫室效應(yīng)就是大氣變暖的效應(yīng)其形成原因是太陽(yáng)短波輻射可以透過(guò)大氣射入地面，而地面增暖后放

出的長(zhǎng)波輻射卻被大氣中的二氧化碳就像一層厚厚的玻璃，把地球變成了一個(gè)大暖房。甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟烴以及水汽等也對(duì)溫室效應(yīng)有所貢獻(xiàn)。隨著人口的急劇增加和工業(yè)的迅速發(fā)展，越來(lái)越多的二氧化碳 排入大氣中；

又由于森林被大量砍伐，大氣中原本應(yīng)被森林吸收的二氧化碳沒(méi)有被吸收，致使二氧化碳 逐漸增加，溫室效應(yīng)也不斷增強(qiáng)。溫室效應(yīng)的后果十分嚴(yán)重，自然生態(tài)將隨之發(fā)生重大變化，荒漠將擴(kuò)

大，土地侵蝕加重，森林退向極地，旱澇災(zāi)害嚴(yán)重，雨量增加；溫帶冬天更濕、夏天更旱；熱帶也將變 得更濕，干熱的亞熱帶變得更干旱，迫使原有水利工程重新調(diào)整。沿海將受到嚴(yán)重威脅。由于氣溫升高，兩極冰塊將融化，使海平面上升，將會(huì)淹沒(méi)許多城市和港口。

臭氧層破壞現(xiàn)象引起科學(xué)界及整個(gè)國(guó)際社會(huì)的震動(dòng)。美國(guó)的兩位科學(xué)家 Monila 和 Rowland 指出，正是人為的活動(dòng)造成了今天的臭氧洞。元兇就是現(xiàn)在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龍。

酸雨目前已成為一種范圍廣泛、跨越國(guó)界的大氣污染現(xiàn)象。酸雨破壞土壤，使湖泊酸化，危害動(dòng)植

物生長(zhǎng)；刺激人的皮膚，誘發(fā)皮膚病，引起肺水腫、肺硬化；會(huì)腐蝕金屬制品、油漆、皮革、紡織品和 含碳酸鹽的建筑。

總而言之，人類生活的環(huán)境已經(jīng)日益惡化。

而惡化的原因大部分屬于人類本身的不良生活方式和不 尊重客觀規(guī)律，急功近利，對(duì)于地球資源的使用沒(méi)有科學(xué)的計(jì)劃性，而且在設(shè)計(jì)、制造產(chǎn)品以及日常生

活中缺乏保護(hù)環(huán)境的意識(shí)，以至于自毀家園，其危害不僅于當(dāng)代，而且嚴(yán)重影響了子孫后代的生存。

環(huán)境問(wèn)題在很大程度上是由于人們的不良設(shè)計(jì)、生活方式造成的后果。于是給設(shè)計(jì)師們提出了一個(gè)

嚴(yán)肅的問(wèn)題：作為設(shè)計(jì)師，應(yīng)肩負(fù)起保護(hù)環(huán)境的歷史重任！

工業(yè)在為人類創(chuàng)造大量物質(zhì)財(cái)富的同時(shí)，也給世界帶來(lái)了災(zāi)難。工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)在為人類創(chuàng)造了現(xiàn)代生活

方式的同時(shí)，也加速了資源、能源的消耗，并對(duì)地球的生態(tài)平衡造成了巨大的破壞。

所以，作為工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師，建立環(huán)境意識(shí)體現(xiàn)了其道德和社會(huì)責(zé)任心。設(shè)計(jì)師必須對(duì)自己的設(shè)計(jì)負(fù)責(zé)，必須把人類的健康幸福，自然與人類的和諧共存作為設(shè)計(jì)中心遵循的原則。

設(shè)計(jì)師還必須掌握必要的材料、工藝、化工、制造等方面的知識(shí)，使得其設(shè)計(jì)不對(duì)環(huán)境造成危害而 成為可能。

“可持續(xù)發(fā)展設(shè)計(jì)” 這一概念的提出，對(duì)于人性的回歸及世界真正意義上的發(fā)展具有劃時(shí)代的意義。他體現(xiàn)了設(shè)計(jì)師的道德與責(zé)任，已成為 21 世紀(jì)設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)展的總趨勢(shì)。從此，人類傳統(tǒng)工業(yè)文明發(fā)展模式

轉(zhuǎn)向現(xiàn)代生態(tài)文明發(fā)展模式。它是社會(huì)進(jìn)步，經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)，環(huán)境保護(hù)三者之間的協(xié)同。

可持續(xù)發(fā)展是人們應(yīng)遵循的一種全新的倫理、道德和價(jià)值觀念。其本質(zhì)在于：充分利用現(xiàn)代科技，大力開(kāi)發(fā)綠色資源，發(fā)展清潔生產(chǎn)，不斷改善和優(yōu)化生態(tài)環(huán)境，促使人與自然的和諧發(fā)展，人口、資源 和環(huán)境相互協(xié)調(diào)。

解決可持續(xù)反展問(wèn)題是一個(gè)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新和行為模式轉(zhuǎn)變的問(wèn)題。

可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略是解決在不危害未來(lái)幾代人的需求前提下，盡量滿足當(dāng)代人的需求的問(wèn)題。實(shí)現(xiàn)目

前利益與長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)利益的統(tǒng)一，為子孫后代留下發(fā)展空間。

目前可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略考慮的問(wèn)題有：循環(huán)性、綠色能源、生態(tài)效率。

綠色設(shè)計(jì)源于人們對(duì)于現(xiàn)代技術(shù)文化所引起的環(huán)境及生態(tài)破壞的反思。綠色設(shè)計(jì)著眼于人與自然的

生態(tài)平衡關(guān)系，在設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)程的每一個(gè)決策中都充分考慮到環(huán)境效益，盡量減少對(duì)環(huán)境的破壞。

對(duì)工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師而言，綠色設(shè)計(jì)的核心是“ 3R ”，即“減少”（Reduce）、“再循環(huán)”(Recycle)和“再 利用”（Reuse)。不僅要盡量減少物質(zhì)和能源的消耗、減少有害物質(zhì)的排放，而且要使產(chǎn)品及零件能夠 5 方便的分類回收，并再生循環(huán)或重新利用。

綠色設(shè)計(jì)不僅是一種技術(shù)層面的考慮，更重要的是一種觀念 上的變革。

要求設(shè)計(jì)師放棄那種過(guò)分強(qiáng)調(diào)產(chǎn)品在外觀上標(biāo)新立異的做法，而將重點(diǎn)放在真正意義上的創(chuàng) 新上面，已一種更為負(fù)責(zé)的方法去創(chuàng)造產(chǎn)品的形態(tài)，用更簡(jiǎn)潔、長(zhǎng)久的造型使產(chǎn)品盡可能地延長(zhǎng)其使用 壽命。

從材料方面要考慮： 原材料的存量和可再生性，獲取材料時(shí)的環(huán)境能源的消耗與污染，后續(xù)加工時(shí)

環(huán)境材料的易加工性，低能耗性、低污染性，報(bào)廢時(shí)的可回收性。

從加工制造方面要考慮：加工制造階段需要將污染減至最少，或?qū)⑽廴鞠麥缭谏a(chǎn)過(guò)程初始階段。

從包裝、運(yùn)輸、銷售等方面要考慮：包裝的環(huán)境性能、綠色包裝，良好的可運(yùn)輸性、降低自重、減 少能耗，當(dāng)?shù)鼗a(chǎn)及減少物流過(guò)程消耗。

從產(chǎn)品的使用階段考慮： 使用中的能耗、資源消耗。

產(chǎn)品更新?lián)Q代時(shí)環(huán)境性能的模塊化、可重組性、產(chǎn)品的使用模式等因素。

從產(chǎn)品的報(bào)廢階段考慮：易拆卸性，便于分解和分類，材料可回收性和可再利用性，零部件可重組 性或移作它用等因素。

清潔的能源：如考慮太陽(yáng)能、水電、風(fēng)力的清潔燃料；清潔的材料，涉及低污染、無(wú)毒、易降解和 可回收性；清潔的制造過(guò)程，考慮低能耗、少排放的制造；清潔的產(chǎn)品，涉及使用中節(jié)能、環(huán)保、報(bào)廢 后的回收。

零部件的再生利用濕可持續(xù)戰(zhàn)略的有力措施。事實(shí)證明： 報(bào)廢的產(chǎn)品拆卸后，經(jīng)分析，其中材料在

改進(jìn)設(shè)計(jì)后可重用和經(jīng)翻新后可重用的比例可以提高。

比如：一輛報(bào)廢車中，金屬材料占 80 ％，其中，有色金屬占 3 ％～ 4.7 ％。世界鋼產(chǎn)量中的 45 ％是 由廢鋼鐵生產(chǎn)出的。中國(guó)鋼產(chǎn)量的 25 ％是由廢鋼鐵生產(chǎn)的。

產(chǎn)品全生命周期管理是指從人對(duì)產(chǎn)品的需求開(kāi)始，到產(chǎn)品淘汰報(bào)廢的全部生命歷程。其中包括產(chǎn)

品需求分析產(chǎn)品計(jì)劃、概念設(shè)計(jì)、產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)、數(shù)字化仿真、工藝準(zhǔn)備、工藝規(guī)劃、生產(chǎn)測(cè)試和質(zhì)量監(jiān)控、銷售與分銷、使用、維護(hù)與維修，以及報(bào)廢與回收等主要階段。將先進(jìn)的管理理念和一流的信息技術(shù)有

機(jī)融入到現(xiàn)代企業(yè)的工業(yè)和商業(yè)運(yùn)作中，從而使企業(yè)在數(shù)字經(jīng)濟(jì)時(shí)代能夠有效地調(diào)整經(jīng)營(yíng)手段和管理方式，以發(fā)揮企業(yè)前所未有的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。幫助企業(yè)進(jìn)行產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新，贏得市場(chǎng)，并獲得額外利潤(rùn)，以提高企業(yè)產(chǎn)品的價(jià)值。

GRAPHIC DESIGN The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation.Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.Graphic design often refers to both the process by which the communication is created and the products which are generated.Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design.For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza.In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art.After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.In graphic design, “the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience.” During the Tang dynasty(618–906)between the 4th and 7th century A.D.wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design.He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout.In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures.He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and 2 made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art.The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles.This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.Who originally coined the term “graphic design” appears to be in dispute.It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography.He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today.They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging.The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a “mass-produced”minimalism to America;sparking a wild fire of “modern”architecture and design.Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger;Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity；and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era.3 From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge.Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication.It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text.Together these are defined as branding(see also advertising).Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably.Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math.These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams.A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy.Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage.This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information-known as information design.Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain.With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer.For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required.In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout.Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills.These graphics are often(but not always)developed 4 by a graphic designer.Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art.Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.Type glyphs(characters)are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading(line spacing)and letter spacing.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements(content)on a page.Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material.With print media, elements usually consist of type(text), images(pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor.Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print.Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression.Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork.Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching;stone, used for lithography;blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing.But there are many other kinds, discussed below.Works printed from a single

第三篇：交通運(yùn)輸外文翻譯外文文獻(xiàn)

交通事故分析的可能性和局限性

S.Oppe 關(guān)鍵字：后果;目的;描述;限制;關(guān)注;事故分析;可能性

摘要：交通事故的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)字，尤其國(guó)家一級(jí)的數(shù)據(jù)對(duì)監(jiān)控和預(yù)測(cè)事故的發(fā)展，積極或消極檢測(cè)事故的發(fā)展，以及對(duì)定義安全目標(biāo)和評(píng)估工業(yè)安全特別有益。事故分析是應(yīng)用非常有限的分析，是前瞻性分析和回顧性分析，能夠?qū)π麻_(kāi)發(fā)的交通安全系統(tǒng)和特殊過(guò)程的安全措施進(jìn)行評(píng)價(jià)。目前迫切需要一個(gè)將實(shí)時(shí)事故分析與研究相結(jié)合的行為。將自動(dòng)檢測(cè)和視頻錄制相結(jié)合的研究交通事故的科研論文會(huì)比較容易接受。這種類型的研究最終會(huì)對(duì)交通理念有個(gè)完善的認(rèn)識(shí)。

1．簡(jiǎn)介

本文主要是基于個(gè)人的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，研究有關(guān)交通安全、安全分析以及事故分析等在研究中的作用。由這些經(jīng)驗(yàn)推導(dǎo)出的哲學(xué)思考就像通過(guò)研究和統(tǒng)計(jì)得出的實(shí)踐觀點(diǎn)。而這些調(diào)查數(shù)字已經(jīng)在其他地方發(fā)表了。

在缺少直接觀察的事故中，許多方法論問(wèn)題的產(chǎn)生，導(dǎo)致不能直接測(cè)試對(duì)結(jié)果持續(xù)討論。通過(guò)看事故視頻來(lái)討論是富有成效的。事實(shí)證明，用來(lái)解釋事故的大部分有關(guān)信息就是事故中缺少的記錄。深入研究還無(wú)法回憶起所有的必要的用來(lái)測(cè)試有關(guān)事故發(fā)生的假設(shè)數(shù)據(jù)。尤其是車-車相撞發(fā)生的車禍，這是在荷蘭城市道路交叉口錄制的視頻，一輛從岔路駛來(lái)的汽車與主干路的汽車相撞，下列問(wèn)題可以問(wèn)：為什么汽車來(lái)自次干路上，突然加速后又幾乎停止，撞上了在左側(cè)主路的一輛汽車呢？為什么沒(méi)有注意到正在駛來(lái)的車？是不是因?yàn)閮绍噺挠疫咇倎?lái)，司機(jī)因?yàn)榍懊娴慕徊鏋樗麄兲峁┝丝赡苄远锝镉?jì)較？難道他向左看過(guò)，但他認(rèn)為停在拐角處的綠色貨車能讓他停下來(lái)？當(dāng)然，交通狀況并不復(fù)雜。目前這個(gè)事故中沒(méi)有騎自行車或行人在擁擠路口分散他的注意。如果停著的綠色車能夠在五分鐘內(nèi)消失，這兩輛車可能就不會(huì)相撞。在事故發(fā)生的相關(guān)條件下，幾乎不可能觀察下一個(gè)交通行為，因?yàn)榻煌ㄊ鹿适遣豢深A(yù)見(jiàn)的。由于新的視頻設(shè)備和自動(dòng)檢測(cè)事故設(shè)備的不斷發(fā)展，如在收集數(shù)據(jù)方面不需要很高的成本就能變得越來(lái)越逼真。必要的增加數(shù)據(jù)類型也能更好的解釋交通中存在的危險(xiǎn)因素。關(guān)于事故分析的可能性和限制性的問(wèn)題是不容易回答的，我們不能確切的分析交通事故。因?yàn)槭鹿史治龊w了每一個(gè)活動(dòng)中的不同背景，并根據(jù)不同的信息來(lái)源范圍來(lái)補(bǔ)充資料，特別是收集事故的數(shù)據(jù)，背景資料等，我們首先要看看在交通安全領(lǐng)域的活動(dòng)周期然后再回答事故分析的可能性與限制。這些行為主要是與交通系統(tǒng)的安全管理有關(guān)，有些則是相關(guān)的研究活動(dòng)。

應(yīng)該用下面的步驟來(lái)加以區(qū)分： ——檢測(cè)交通安全問(wèn)題；

——描述問(wèn)題和它的主要特征； ——分析其原因分析和改進(jìn)建議； ——選擇和執(zhí)行安全措施； ——評(píng)價(jià)所采取的措施。

雖然這個(gè)周期可以由同一人或一群人做出來(lái)，而問(wèn)題在每個(gè)階段（政治/管理或科學(xué)）都有不同的背景。我們用事故分析來(lái)描述這一階段。做這個(gè)決定是重要的。很多關(guān)于分析結(jié)果的方法的討論由于忽視之間的區(qū)別而成為徒勞的。政治家或道路管理人員對(duì)道路的個(gè)別事故不是很留意。他們對(duì)事故的看法往往都是一視同仁，因?yàn)榭偟慕Y(jié)果比整個(gè)事故中的每個(gè)人的因素重要。因此，每次事故看做一個(gè)個(gè)體，之間相互協(xié)調(diào)就會(huì)達(dá)成安全的結(jié)果。

研究人員研究事故發(fā)生時(shí)一連串事件中每個(gè)人的興趣。希望從中得到關(guān)于每次事故的詳細(xì)信息并能發(fā)現(xiàn)其發(fā)生的原因和有關(guān)的條件。政治家們希望只是因?yàn)榧?xì)節(jié)決定行動(dòng)。在最高一級(jí)事故總數(shù)減少。信息的主要來(lái)源是國(guó)家數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)及其統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)處理系統(tǒng)。對(duì)他來(lái)說(shuō)，統(tǒng)計(jì)意外數(shù)字及其統(tǒng)計(jì)的波動(dòng)來(lái)進(jìn)行事故分析。這適用于事故分析中的交通安全領(lǐng)域。因此，我們將首先描述了事故的這些方面。2．事故的性質(zhì)和它們的統(tǒng)計(jì)特性

事故基本概念是意外，不管是其發(fā)生的原因還是引起事故出現(xiàn)的過(guò)程。兩個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的假設(shè)通常是來(lái)描述交通事故的形成過(guò)程：

-事故發(fā)生的概率與以往發(fā)生的事故之間是獨(dú)立；-事故發(fā)生在時(shí)間上是同性質(zhì)的

如果這兩個(gè)假設(shè)成立，那么事故是泊松分布。第一個(gè)假設(shè)與大多數(shù)的批判不符。事故是罕見(jiàn)的事件，因此不會(huì)受到以前事故的影響。在某些情況下，有一個(gè)直接的因果鏈（例如，大量的車開(kāi)到一起）這一系列的事故被認(rèn)為是一個(gè)個(gè)體事故但包含許多的車。這個(gè)假設(shè)并不適用于統(tǒng)計(jì)人員傷亡。傷亡人數(shù)往往與同一事故有關(guān)，因此，獨(dú)立性假設(shè)不成立。第二個(gè)假設(shè)乍一看似乎不太容易理解。穿越空間或在不同地點(diǎn)發(fā)生的的事故同樣具有可能性。然而，假設(shè)需要很長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間并且沒(méi)有緩繳期。其性質(zhì)是根據(jù)理論的假設(shè)。如果其短時(shí)間內(nèi)能成立，那么它也適用于長(zhǎng)時(shí)間，因?yàn)椴此煞植甲兞康目偤停词顾麄兊牟此陕适遣煌?，但也屬于泊松分布。?duì)于這些時(shí)期的總和泊松率則等于為這些地方的泊松率的總和。假設(shè)與一個(gè)真正的情況相比較計(jì)數(shù)，無(wú)論是從一兩個(gè)結(jié)果還是總情況來(lái)看都有一個(gè)基本情況比較符合。

例如，對(duì)比在一年中特定的一天例如下一天，下一個(gè)星期的一天發(fā)生的交通事故。如果條件是相同的（同一時(shí)間，交通情況相同，同樣的天氣條件等），那么由此產(chǎn)生的意外數(shù)字是相同的泊松過(guò)程的結(jié)果。這一假設(shè)可以通過(guò)估算進(jìn)行測(cè)試的兩個(gè)觀測(cè)值的基礎(chǔ)上（估計(jì)是兩個(gè)值的平均值）的速度參數(shù)。概率理論能夠

考慮到這兩個(gè)觀察值的平均，用于計(jì)算的平等假設(shè)的可能性。這是一個(gè)相當(dāng)強(qiáng)大的統(tǒng)計(jì)過(guò)程。泊松假設(shè)是研究了很多次，來(lái)獲得證據(jù)支持。它已經(jīng)應(yīng)用于許多情況，數(shù)的差異表明在安全性的差異然后確定是否發(fā)生意外。這一程序的主要目的是檢測(cè)在安全分歧。這可能是一個(gè)時(shí)間上的差異，或不同的地方或不同的條件。這種差異可以指導(dǎo)改進(jìn)的過(guò)程。由于主要關(guān)注的是，以減少意外的發(fā)生，這種分析可能導(dǎo)致對(duì)治療中最有前途的領(lǐng)域。為這樣一個(gè)測(cè)試應(yīng)用程序的必要條件是，那意外的數(shù)字進(jìn)行比較是大到足以證明存在的分歧。在許多地方情況下，一個(gè)應(yīng)用程序是不可能的。事故黑點(diǎn)分析往往阻礙了這一限制，例如，如果應(yīng)用這種測(cè)試，找出事故是否在特定的位置數(shù)是高于平均水平。該程序的描述，也可以使用，如果發(fā)生意外乃根據(jù)數(shù)的特點(diǎn)找到有前途的安全目標(biāo)。不僅聚集，而且還與分類泊松假設(shè)成立，而意外數(shù)字可以相互測(cè)試的泊松假設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)。這種測(cè)試是相當(dāng)麻煩的，因?yàn)槊總€(gè)特定的情況下，每一個(gè)不同的泊松參數(shù)，即，對(duì)所有可能結(jié)果的概率必須計(jì)算應(yīng)用測(cè)試。然后，泊松分布近似為正態(tài)分布，均值和方差等于泊松參數(shù)。一旦均值和方差的正態(tài)分布，給出了所有的測(cè)試可以改寫了標(biāo)準(zhǔn)零均值和

方差的正態(tài)分布條件。沒(méi)有任何更多的必要計(jì)算，但測(cè)試統(tǒng)計(jì)，需要利用表繪制。3.行車安全政策事故統(tǒng)計(jì)的應(yīng)用

分析那些假設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)上描述的測(cè)試程序的類型及其優(yōu)點(diǎn)。這種應(yīng)用最好的例子是為一個(gè)國(guó)家或地區(qū)進(jìn)行超過(guò)一年的安全監(jiān)測(cè)，用事故的總體數(shù)據(jù)（最終的特定類型，如死亡事故）與前幾年的數(shù)據(jù)相比較。根據(jù)數(shù)年的事故序列，能夠分析出它的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)，并大致預(yù)測(cè)以后幾年的事故數(shù)量。一旦建立了這樣一種趨勢(shì)，那么在誤差范圍內(nèi)未來(lái)一年或幾年都可以預(yù)見(jiàn)。從一個(gè)給定趨勢(shì)的偏差也可以進(jìn)行預(yù)測(cè)新的事件。最有名的是斯米德在1949年進(jìn)行的分析。我們將討論這個(gè)事故類型分析更詳細(xì)的內(nèi)容。

1、該測(cè)試應(yīng)用推廣到高階分類。Foldvary和Lane（1974），在衡量強(qiáng)制佩戴安全帶的效果，誰(shuí)是最早應(yīng)用于值的4路表高階相互作用的總卡方分配的。

2、測(cè)試不局限于總體影響，但卡方值就可以分解模型內(nèi)子假說(shuō)。另外，在雙向表，卡方總可以分解成零件表互動(dòng)的作用。對(duì)1的優(yōu)勢(shì)。和2。比以前的情況是，這對(duì)許多相互關(guān)聯(lián)的（子）表和相應(yīng)的智廣場(chǎng)卡方檢驗(yàn)是由大量分析，取而代之的是一個(gè)一卡方的確切劃分。

3、投入更多關(guān)注的是參數(shù)估計(jì)。例如，在卡方分割使人們有可能以測(cè)試有關(guān)行參數(shù)的線性或二次限制或趨勢(shì)的不連續(xù)性。

4、分析的單位是從數(shù)到廣義加權(quán)計(jì)數(shù)。這對(duì)于道路安全分析，那里一段時(shí)間，道路使用者的數(shù)量，地點(diǎn)或公里數(shù)的車輛往往是必要的修正有利。最后一個(gè)選項(xiàng)是沒(méi)有發(fā)現(xiàn)在許多統(tǒng)計(jì)軟件包。安徒生1977年給出了一個(gè)用于道路雙向安全分析表的例子。工資保障運(yùn)動(dòng)的一個(gè)計(jì)算機(jī)程序。這一級(jí)沒(méi)有說(shuō)明事故原因分

析。它會(huì)嘗試檢測(cè)安全問(wèn)題需要特別注意。所需的基本信息包括事故數(shù)字，來(lái)形容不安全總額，暴露的數(shù)據(jù)來(lái)計(jì)算風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，并找到一個(gè)高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的情況下或（團(tuán)體）道路使用者。

4.事故分析研究目的

交通安全的研究是有關(guān)的事故及其后果的發(fā)生。因此，人們可能會(huì)說(shuō)，研究對(duì)象是意外。然而研究人員的興趣較少集中在這個(gè)最后的結(jié)果本身，而是多在進(jìn)程更多的結(jié)果（或不結(jié)果）的事故。因此，最好是把作為他的研究對(duì)象，在流量的重要事件。一個(gè)在交通意外的過(guò)程，結(jié)果是，該實(shí)際發(fā)生是由研究者未落觀測(cè)研究的主要問(wèn)題。

調(diào)查一宗交通意外，他將努力重建了間接來(lái)源的事件，如涉及的道路使用者，所提供的資料或目擊者有關(guān)情況，車輛，道路和司機(jī)的特點(diǎn)。因此這不是科學(xué)獨(dú)特的，也有一個(gè)間接的研究對(duì)象的研究更多的例子。但是，第二個(gè)困難是，該研究的對(duì)象不能被誘發(fā)。有系統(tǒng)的控制實(shí)驗(yàn)手段研究只對(duì)問(wèn)題方面的可能，而不是問(wèn)題本身。

間接觀察和缺乏系統(tǒng)的控制組合使調(diào)查人員很難發(fā)現(xiàn)在什么情況下造成事故的因素。雖然研究人員主要是在事故處理領(lǐng)導(dǎo)有興趣，他幾乎完全信息的后果，它的產(chǎn)品，意外。此外，事故背景是復(fù)雜的。一般來(lái)說(shuō)，可分為以下幾個(gè)方面：

-考慮到交通系統(tǒng)，交通量和組成國(guó)家，道路使用者，他們的速度，天氣條件下，路面情況，車輛，道路使用者和他們的相互作用的演習(xí)，意外可以或無(wú)法預(yù)防。

-由于發(fā)生事故，也對(duì)這樣的速度和車輛質(zhì)量的因素，大量的不同，碰撞角度，對(duì)道路使用者和他們的脆弱性，影響等位置的保護(hù)，傷害是嚴(yán)重或或多或少物質(zhì)損失是多還是少可觀。雖然這些方面不能獨(dú)立研究從理論的角度看，它也從由此產(chǎn)生的結(jié)果的優(yōu)勢(shì)，區(qū)分交通情況有潛在危險(xiǎn)的數(shù)字，是由有一個(gè)意外的可能性，在這種潛在的危險(xiǎn)局勢(shì)，給定一個(gè)特定事故。

這個(gè)概念框架是對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的關(guān)于個(gè)別道路使用者，以及上級(jí)的決定控制器的決定制定的一般基礎(chǔ)。在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的數(shù)學(xué)公式，我們需要一個(gè)明確的概率空間的介紹，基本事件（的情況），可能導(dǎo)致事故組成，每個(gè)類型的事件的概率，最終收在一次事故中，最后的具體成果，損失，鑒于事故的類型。

另一種方法是看事故特征組合，然后找出關(guān)鍵因素。這種類型的事故分析是通過(guò)分析事故的共組或子群來(lái)開(kāi)展。事故本身是一個(gè)研究的單位，但也要研究道路因素：道路位置，道路設(shè)計(jì)（如一個(gè)彎道）等。

原文出處：SWOV institute for road safety research Leidschendam（會(huì)議記錄），記錄者，S.Oppe.POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF ACCIDENT

ANALYSIS

S.Oppe Keyword：Consequences;purposes;describe;Limitations;concerned;Accident Analysis;possibilities Abstraet：Accident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the(product)evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures.The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for(process)evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures.There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research.Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research.This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.1.Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research.These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis.A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly.For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video.It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record.In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident.For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked:Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him the possibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated.At the moment of the accident there were no 5

bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection.The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace.It is hardly possible to observe traffic behaviour under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips.Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs.Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behaviour as a reference base.The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered.We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis.Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, specially collected accident data, behavioural background data etc.To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety.Some of these activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system, some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:description of the problem and its main characteristics;selection and implementation of safety measures;the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed.The first assumption does not meet much criticism.Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents.In some cases where there is a direct causal chain(e.g., when a number of cars run into each other)the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties.Casualties are often related to the same accident and therefore the independency assumption does not hold.The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight.The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely.However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods.It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature.If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed.The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of(composite)situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations.E.g., the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day(the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.).If the conditions are assumed to be the same(same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.)then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process.This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values(the estimate being the average of the two values).Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful.The Poisson assumption is investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence.It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety.The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety.This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions.Such differences may guide the process of improvement.Because the main concern is to reduce the 7

number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment.A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences.In many local cases an application is not possible.Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average.The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets.Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions.Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e.for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test.In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large.Then the Poisson distribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter.Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one.No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3.The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned.The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents(eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before.If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years.Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds.Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned.The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949.We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.1.The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications.Foldvary and Lane(1974), in measuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.2.Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model.Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables.The advantage of 1.and 2.over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated(sub)tables and

corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.3.More attention is put to parameter estimation.E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.4.The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts.This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary.The last option is not found in many statistical packages.Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table.A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV(see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976).The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory.It tries to detect safety problems that need special attention.The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or(groups of)road users with a high level of risk.4.Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences.Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident.The researchers interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results(or does not result)in accidents.Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study.One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers.As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research.However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked.Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself.The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detect which factors, under what circumstances cause an accident.Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident.Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated.Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial.Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels.In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consisting of the elementary events(the situations)that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors.This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups.The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design(e.g.a roundabout)etc.

第四篇：1300外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯

Agricultural Land and Regulation in the Transition Economy of Russia Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2 Published online: 7 July 2015 # International Atlantic Economic Society 2015 JEL Classification C10.L33.O57.Q00 This research note explores the link between farmland conversion and existing land regulation in Russia.We conclude that land regulation is lagging the new market trends in the transition economy of Russia.As market forces continue to penetrate the economy, apparent managerial and statutory problems with regard to local land-use planning and regulation preclude more effective use of land.Responding to the need for attracting investment in agriculture, the Russian Ministry of Science and Education provided funds for our research project that involves primary data collection and econometric analysis of the interdependencies between governmental policies and farmland loss.Our unique dataset contains socioeconomic, demographic and spatial geographic 2010 data for 39 municipal districts in the Moscow metropolitan region.The econometric analysis of this data set is used to explore the relationship among farmland quantity, its assessed value, the share of privatized farmland, farmland tax,and land-use zoning in the simultaneous equations framework.While the Russian market for real estate has developed quickly, the market for agricultural land is still thin.Farmland deals are limited, partly because of the lingering uncertainty about farmland property rights.The state-owned farmland is still significant.Our Moscow regional data suggest a strong positive relationship between the fraction of privatized farmland and farmland acreage, although the fraction of individually and collectively privatized farmland is only 57 %.The direct sale of farmland to foreigners is prohibited decreasing potential foreign investment as well.As a result, the area occupied by agricultural lands has been steadily decreasing and deteriorating in quality.During the period 1990 to 2005, tillable lands in Russia have shrunk by 10.5 million hectares(7.9 % of tillable lands).Lacking experience and adequate knowledge, local governments are stuck with the land conservation policies available to the former USSR.In particular, in an attempt to contain the loss of prime farmland, the regulators retain old land-use zoning laws prohibiting the change of land status.However, strong development pressures and widespread corruption often annihilate the desirable effect of zoning.The results of our econometric analysis indicate that the proximity to Moscow city and population growth both have a significant negative effect on the amount of farmland, even in the strictlyzoned-for agriculture districts, suggesting strong urban pressure in the capital region of Moscow.The estimated elasticity of farmland acreage with respect to population growth is ?0.3.A corrupt practice of illegal changes in land status is reflected in the fact that the lands still classified as farmland in the Federal Register of Land are turned into residential or industrial areas.This signals a management problem which could be perhaps resolved by the introduction of more flexible zoning and an increase in the range of responsibilities of local governments and their property rights to land.The other economic instrument indispensable in land policy, land assessment, is also based on the former practices of the Communist period following a federally mandated general formula that takes into account soil productivity criteria, topographic features of the landscape, and the presence of irrigation, but still has little in common with the market price of farmland.When the agricultural land tax is calculated as the percentage of the assessed value of farmland, which is often below its real market value, local authorities are not interested in developing local agricultural infrastructure or increasing agricultural land base because they will not be able to reap any significant tax benefits from it.Coupled with the low federally mandated upper limits on tax rates(0.3 % of the assessed value of agricultural and residential lands)this leads to insufficient local tax revenues and overreliance on intergovernmental transfers.According to our data for the Moscow region, although localities tend to impose the maximum allowable tax rate, the average share of land tax revenues in local budgets is a mere 5 %.It is not surprising as the average assessed value of farmland across municipalities is 1000 times less than the ongoing average sales price, according to data we collected.The insignificant local land tax revenues caused by the underestimated land value lead to insufficient local infrastructure investment, which further suppresses the value of farmland and hastens its conversion.The results of the econometric analysis indicate lack of statistical significance between the assessed value of farmland and farmland quantity in the Moscow region, making the farmland tax rate an ineffective instrument in land policy.This missing link between the farmland quantity and existing land policies may render these policies not just ineffective but even wasteful.Innovative approaches such as the retention of development rights by the government might represent a temporary solution.The increasing reliance on local governance in solvinglocal problems would imply improved land-use and public finance planning and,perhaps, a slower farmland conversion trend.俄羅斯經(jīng)濟(jì)轉(zhuǎn)型中的農(nóng)業(yè)用地與監(jiān)管

Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2。在線出版:2015年7月7日。國(guó)際大西洋經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)會(huì)2015。凍膠分類C10。L33。O57。Q00 本研究報(bào)告探討了俄羅斯農(nóng)地轉(zhuǎn)換與現(xiàn)有土地規(guī)制之間的關(guān)系。我們的結(jié)論是，土地監(jiān)管滯后于俄羅斯轉(zhuǎn)型經(jīng)濟(jì)的新市場(chǎng)趨勢(shì)。由于市場(chǎng)力量繼續(xù)滲透經(jīng)濟(jì)，在地方土地利用規(guī)劃和管理方面顯然存在管理和法律問(wèn)題，妨礙了更有效地利用土地。為了應(yīng)對(duì)吸引農(nóng)業(yè)投資的需要，俄羅斯科學(xué)和教育部為我們的研究項(xiàng)目提供了資金，該項(xiàng)目涉及對(duì)政府政策和農(nóng)田損失之間相互依賴關(guān)系的主要數(shù)據(jù)收集和計(jì)量分析。我們獨(dú)特的數(shù)據(jù)集包含社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)、人口和空間。2010年莫斯科都市地區(qū)39個(gè)市轄區(qū)的地理數(shù)據(jù)。通過(guò)對(duì)該數(shù)據(jù)集的計(jì)量分析，探討了在聯(lián)立方程框架下，耕地?cái)?shù)量、其評(píng)估值、私有化耕地占比、農(nóng)地稅和土地利用區(qū)劃之間的關(guān)系。

雖然俄羅斯房地產(chǎn)市場(chǎng)發(fā)展迅速，但農(nóng)業(yè)用地市場(chǎng)仍很薄弱。農(nóng)田交易是有限的，部分原因是土地產(chǎn)權(quán)的不確定性揮之不去。國(guó)有農(nóng)田仍然很重要。我們的莫斯科地區(qū)數(shù)據(jù)顯示，私有化耕地和耕地面積的比例之間存在著強(qiáng)烈的正相關(guān)關(guān)系，盡管單獨(dú)和集體私有化耕地的比例僅為57%。禁止向外國(guó)人直接出售農(nóng)田，也禁止減少潛在的外國(guó)投資。因此，農(nóng)地占用的面積一直在穩(wěn)步下降，質(zhì)量也在不斷惡化。在1990年至2005年期間，俄羅斯的可耕種土地減少了1050萬(wàn)公頃(占耕地面積的7.9%)。

由于缺乏經(jīng)驗(yàn)和足夠的知識(shí)，地方政府只能依靠前蘇聯(lián)提供的土地保護(hù)政策。特別是，為了遏制主要農(nóng)田的流失，監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)保留了禁止改變土地狀況的舊土地用途分區(qū)法。然而，強(qiáng)大的發(fā)展壓力和廣泛的腐敗往往會(huì)消滅分區(qū)制的理想效果。我們的計(jì)量分析結(jié)果表明，靠近莫斯科城市和人口增長(zhǎng)對(duì)農(nóng)田的數(shù)量有顯著的負(fù)面影響，即使是在嚴(yán)格的農(nóng)業(yè)地區(qū)，這表明莫斯科的首都地區(qū)的城市壓力很大。在人口增長(zhǎng)方面，耕地面積的估計(jì)彈性為0.3。非法改變土地狀況的一種腐敗做法，反映在土地仍然被歸為聯(lián)邦土地登記冊(cè)上的土地的土地被轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)樽≌蚬I(yè)區(qū)的事實(shí)。這標(biāo)志著一個(gè)管理問(wèn)題，也許可以通過(guò)引進(jìn)更靈活的分區(qū)和增加地方政府的責(zé)任范圍和土地的財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)來(lái)解決。

其他經(jīng)濟(jì)工具不可或缺的土地政策、土地評(píng)估,也是基于前實(shí)踐后共產(chǎn)主義時(shí)期的聯(lián)邦法律規(guī)定的一般公式,考慮土壤生產(chǎn)力標(biāo)準(zhǔn),地貌景觀的灌溉的存在,但仍然沒(méi)有與市場(chǎng)價(jià)格的農(nóng)田。農(nóng)業(yè)土地稅計(jì)算時(shí)的評(píng)估價(jià)值的百分比農(nóng)田,這通常是低于其實(shí)際市場(chǎng)價(jià)值,當(dāng)?shù)卣l(fā)展當(dāng)?shù)氐霓r(nóng)業(yè)基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施不感興趣或增加農(nóng)業(yè)用地基地,因?yàn)樗麄儗o(wú)法獲得任何重大稅收優(yōu)惠。再加上聯(lián)邦政府規(guī)定的低稅率(占農(nóng)業(yè)和居住用地評(píng)估價(jià)值的0.3%)，這將導(dǎo)致當(dāng)?shù)囟愂帐杖氩蛔?，并過(guò)度依賴政府間轉(zhuǎn)移。根據(jù)我們對(duì)莫斯科地區(qū)的數(shù)據(jù)，雖然地方傾向于征收最高允許的稅率，但地方預(yù)算的土地稅收收入的平均份額僅為5%。據(jù)我們收集的數(shù)據(jù)顯示，由于各城市的農(nóng)田平均分?jǐn)們r(jià)值比目前的平均銷售價(jià)格低1000倍，這并不令人驚訝。

由于土地價(jià)值被低估而導(dǎo)致的地方土地稅收不顯著，導(dǎo)致地方基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施投資不足，進(jìn)一步抑制了農(nóng)田價(jià)值，加快了土地流轉(zhuǎn)。經(jīng)濟(jì)計(jì)量分析結(jié)果表明，在莫斯科地區(qū)，耕地和耕地?cái)?shù)量的評(píng)估價(jià)值缺乏統(tǒng)計(jì)意義，使得農(nóng)地稅率在土地政策中是無(wú)效的。耕地?cái)?shù)量和現(xiàn)有土地政策之間缺失的聯(lián)系可能使這些政策不僅無(wú)效，甚至是浪費(fèi)。政府保留發(fā)展權(quán)利等創(chuàng)新辦法可能是一種臨時(shí)解決辦法。在解決地方問(wèn)題上日益依賴地方治理，將意味著改善土地利用和公共財(cái)政規(guī)劃，也許還會(huì)減緩農(nóng)地轉(zhuǎn)換的趨勢(shì)。

第五篇：園林景觀外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯

景觀設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格和園林價(jià)值保護(hù)之間的關(guān)系：德國(guó)魏瑪歷史公園的案例研究

Martin Kümmerling, Norbert Müller 景觀管理與生態(tài)恢復(fù)部門以及URBIO總公司，德國(guó)埃爾福特應(yīng)用技術(shù)大學(xué)

關(guān)鍵詞：生物多樣性；歷史公園；園藝；城市公園；植被； 摘要：

城市公園可以通過(guò)被引入植物的種植成為入侵源。另一方面，城市公園作為生物多樣性的熱點(diǎn)地區(qū)，可以支持保護(hù)瀕危和罕見(jiàn)的分類單元。即使歷史城市公園首先被評(píng)估為遺產(chǎn)，但它們依然為生態(tài)系統(tǒng)和積極的審美以及社會(huì)價(jià)值服務(wù)。

雖然在歐洲有許多研究是關(guān)于設(shè)計(jì)的，公園的哲學(xué)和歷史背景就像生物多樣性的研究一樣，幾乎沒(méi)有研究提出景觀設(shè)計(jì)原則如何影響了公園的生物保護(hù)價(jià)值。因?yàn)樵跉W洲，公園的景觀風(fēng)格是一個(gè)最具影響力的歷史景觀設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格，我們將我們的研究集中在德國(guó)魏瑪?shù)摹耙翣柲泛优瞎珗@”。它創(chuàng)建于18世紀(jì)晚期，并且在1998年被聯(lián)合國(guó)教科文組織列為世界遺產(chǎn)的一部分。

我們的研究問(wèn)題是: 1.哪些設(shè)計(jì)原則、植物原料和技術(shù)實(shí)施被使用在創(chuàng)建和管理公園的過(guò)程中？

2.對(duì)于公園的生物保護(hù)尤其是瀕危植物物種和棲息地的保護(hù)來(lái)說(shuō)，當(dāng)前什么才是具有價(jià)值的？

3.設(shè)計(jì)原則和現(xiàn)代公園的價(jià)值之間是什么關(guān)系？

我們將我們的結(jié)果與類似的公園景觀做一對(duì)比，并對(duì)未來(lái)可持續(xù)的公園設(shè)計(jì)和公園恢復(fù)管理給出建議。

1.引言

園藝是植物物種入侵的一個(gè)主要來(lái)源（Dehnen-Schmutz, Touza,Perrings, & Williamson, 2007;Mack & Erneberg, 2002;Reichard & White, 2001）。城市公園可以被入侵源通過(guò)種植引入分類單元而入侵（Saumel Kowarik,& Butenschon,2010）。另一方面，在城市地區(qū)公園可以作為生物多樣性的熱點(diǎn)地區(qū)（Cornelis & Hermy,2004），可以支持保護(hù)瀕臨滅絕的稀有類群（Kowarik, 1998;Kunick, 1978;Li, Ouyang, Meng, & Wang, 2006;Reidl, 1989）。盡管歷史悠久的城市公園作為文物古跡是它最重要的價(jià)值，但它們?cè)谏鷳B(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)和積極的審美以及社會(huì)價(jià)值方面的作用也是被肯定的（e.g.Bolund & Hunhammar, 1999;Chiesura,2004）。

雖然在歐洲有許多關(guān)于設(shè)計(jì)的研究，公園的哲學(xué)和歷史背景（e.g.Gothein,1928;Turner, 2005）以及生物多樣性（e.g.Cornelis & Hermy, 2004;Ignatieva & Konechnaya, 2004;Nath, 1990）的研究幾乎沒(méi)有提出景觀設(shè)計(jì)原則的問(wèn)題如何影響了公園的生物保護(hù)價(jià)值。在18世紀(jì)末和19世紀(jì)初我們把研究的焦點(diǎn)放在了公園，因?yàn)樵跉W洲公園景觀風(fēng)格是最具影響力的歷史景觀設(shè)計(jì)潮流之一。位于德國(guó)蔚瑪?shù)摹耙翣柲泛优瞎珗@”創(chuàng)建于18世紀(jì)晚期，自1998年以來(lái)，被聯(lián)合國(guó)教科文組織列為世界遺產(chǎn)的一部分，它被稱作“經(jīng)典魏瑪”。我們選擇它來(lái)研究是因?yàn)椋?1.這是那個(gè)時(shí)期一個(gè)“典型”的公園； 2.擁有幾個(gè)世紀(jì)以來(lái)沒(méi)有更改的設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格；

3.在公園設(shè)計(jì)上有豐富的歷史資料并且使用了有質(zhì)疑的植物。在圖林根的公共檔案局初始搜索（自1567年以來(lái)都位于公園附近）證實(shí)了這種懷疑。我們的研究問(wèn)題是: 1.哪些設(shè)計(jì)原則、植物原料和技術(shù)實(shí)施被使用在創(chuàng)建和管理公園的過(guò)程中？ 2.對(duì)于公園的生物保護(hù)尤其是瀕危植物物種和棲息地的保護(hù)來(lái)說(shuō)，當(dāng)前什么才是具有價(jià)值的？

3.設(shè)計(jì)原則和現(xiàn)代公園的價(jià)值之間是什么關(guān)系？

我們將我們的結(jié)果與類似的公園景觀做一對(duì)比，并對(duì)未來(lái)可持續(xù)的公園設(shè)計(jì)和公園恢復(fù)管理給出建議。

2.研究地點(diǎn)

“伊爾姆河畔公園”坐落在德國(guó)中部的魏瑪（215m.a.s.l.），公園的起源可以追溯到1778年。對(duì)于許多歐洲的歷史公園來(lái)說(shuō)，“伊爾姆河畔公園”是建在以前的一個(gè)規(guī)整花園的位置上（幾何式的），它被設(shè)計(jì)在卡爾奧格斯特公爵的宮殿旁邊。當(dāng)時(shí)公園位于魏瑪?shù)慕紖^(qū)，1860年魏瑪城開(kāi)始擴(kuò)展，公園便開(kāi)始位于城市邊界內(nèi)。

在魏瑪公爵的城市宮殿、北部的城市中心、現(xiàn)在oberweimar的suburbanised村以及南方的高級(jí)住宅區(qū)之間，公園形成了伊爾姆河的泛濫平原的一部分（圖一為公園概況）。它周長(zhǎng)1.5公里，占地約0.48平方公里。泛濫平原的土壤是沖積土，山谷兩邊所包含的鈣質(zhì)材料就像Keuper和含有石灰物質(zhì)的貝殼。

圖1 “伊爾姆河畔公園”棲息地地圖

3.方法

3.1．設(shè)計(jì)的歷史、植物引種和公園管理

通過(guò)歷史文獻(xiàn)研究來(lái)獲得重要的設(shè)計(jì)原則信息，植物材料（包括引進(jìn)外來(lái)觀賞物種的起源和時(shí)間）和被用于“伊爾姆河畔公園”的創(chuàng)建和發(fā)展過(guò)程之中的管理技術(shù)。這些未發(fā)表的文件包括被保存在圖林根公共檔案館的申請(qǐng)報(bào)告、管理筆記和前任園丁和設(shè)計(jì)師的相關(guān)檔案，以及再版的歷史性的蝕刻畫和魏瑪經(jīng)典基金會(huì)收集的圖紙。

另外魏瑪經(jīng)典基金會(huì)（特別是Beyer & Seifert, 1995）中的地方文獻(xiàn)被用來(lái)將歷史性文件中的發(fā)現(xiàn)與它們所處的時(shí)代聯(lián)系起來(lái)。還非正式訪談了現(xiàn)任和前任園丁關(guān)于管理技術(shù)和植物使用的情況。

3.2．生物保護(hù)的評(píng)價(jià) 3.2.1 植物區(qū)系和植被的實(shí)地測(cè)繪

目前對(duì)植被和植物區(qū)系進(jìn)行的實(shí)地測(cè)繪是在2006年五月—十月，用來(lái)對(duì)公園的植物多樣性進(jìn)行評(píng)估。公園分為不同的生境類型：草坪、草地和草場(chǎng)、灌灌叢、林地、生態(tài)交錯(cuò)帶（草地邊緣）、墻壁/巖石、路徑和車道上的植物群落、河岸和水體，然后對(duì)每種生境類型進(jìn)行隨機(jī)采樣。樣品的數(shù)量基于每個(gè)棲息地的大小類型而不同(圖3)。樣本塊的大小是用最小面積方法決定的（Dierschke,1994），每個(gè)樣地植物種類的頻率記錄參照“Braun-Blanquet”方法（Dierschke,1994）。總共436個(gè)采樣點(diǎn)建立，此外，在2006年五月—十月和2007年三月—五月進(jìn)行了20次檢測(cè)，記錄了所有自發(fā)的維管植物類群。

436個(gè)樣本塊是用來(lái)確定最常見(jiàn)的種類，木本植物只有種子和樹(shù)苗被計(jì)算。魏瑪經(jīng)典基金會(huì)登記（1996 —2007年出版）的公園的樹(shù)被用來(lái)計(jì)算成年樹(shù)木的分布頻率。

植物的命名通常遵循Jager和Werner（2005）原則，但在公園里發(fā)現(xiàn)的分類群不列在這里，Erhardt、Gotz、Bodeker and Seybold（2002）被使用。3.2.2 在區(qū)域和歐洲級(jí)別上評(píng)價(jià)生物保護(hù)狀態(tài)

評(píng)估生物保護(hù)公園的貢獻(xiàn)方面，我們編制了在公園發(fā)現(xiàn)的瀕危植物和棲息地，用于當(dāng)?shù)氐膱D林根的紅色數(shù)據(jù)列表（Korsch & Westhus,2001;Westhus & van Hengel,2001）中。此外我們調(diào)查了被圖林根自然保護(hù)法（ThürNatG,2006）和歐洲棲息地的指令保護(hù)的植物物種和棲息地（歐盟委員會(huì)，2007年）。

評(píng)價(jià)公園作為植物入侵的潛在來(lái)源（生物入侵的定義遵循Richardson et al.,2000），我們將我們的數(shù)據(jù)與圖林根州環(huán)境雜草的地區(qū)列表（Müller, Westhus, & Armft,2005）做了比較。

4．結(jié)果

4.1．設(shè)計(jì)的歷史，引進(jìn)的植物和管理

4.1.1 有關(guān)生物多樣性的設(shè)計(jì)原則

隨著歐洲景觀設(shè)計(jì)的流行，Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach的Carl August公爵（1757 至1828）決定建設(shè)一個(gè)公園作為一個(gè)理想的田園景觀，包括不同類型的景觀：大小不同的開(kāi)放和密閉空間、視覺(jué)上和周圍的景觀連接的形狀和結(jié)構(gòu)。它是根據(jù)英國(guó)經(jīng)典景觀公園原則——隱藏公園與自然的界限而設(shè)計(jì)，這些觀點(diǎn)也應(yīng)該在步行或騎馬穿過(guò)公園時(shí)隨處可見(jiàn)。

因此公園的主要設(shè)計(jì)原則是使用現(xiàn)有的自然地形和文化景觀，它由在泛濫平原上暫時(shí)淹沒(méi)并且經(jīng)常收割和放牧的草原（草地和牧場(chǎng)）組成，還有在山坡上的果園和草地以及因山坡太陡而不能用于糧食生產(chǎn)的小樹(shù)林斑塊。公園規(guī)模增加時(shí)，新的景觀被加載到之前的耕地上，因此這些棲息地可以定義為人為創(chuàng)造出來(lái)的。公園內(nèi)森林棲息地的范圍擴(kuò)大到可以創(chuàng)造一個(gè)更好的氛圍以及更大的并且多種多樣的風(fēng)景。

典型的設(shè)計(jì)元素是遠(yuǎn)景，通常延長(zhǎng)這些切線來(lái)通過(guò)公園內(nèi)森林地帶，它有連接特殊節(jié)點(diǎn)（雕塑和展館）和從不同位置打開(kāi)新視野的特性。

公園里從來(lái)沒(méi)有封閉的圍欄或高墻，使得建立一個(gè)和周圍環(huán)境之間無(wú)縫過(guò)渡的公園?！耙翣柲泛优瞎珗@”、蒂爾福特公園和貝爾維迪宮，加上一些沿伊爾姆河殘存的森林形成的綠色走廊穿過(guò)魏瑪，這就是公爵自修建公園以來(lái)的意圖。4.1.2 引進(jìn)的植物

因?yàn)榇竺娣e的公園是由現(xiàn)有的泛濫平原森林發(fā)展而來(lái)，并且草地原生植物多樣性得到了保護(hù)。新的森林斑塊、喬灌木樹(shù)種原生林的出現(xiàn)是來(lái)自公園內(nèi)靠近魏瑪中部的公爵森林和種植在公爵苗圃的（圖林根的公共檔案館未發(fā)表）。

由于視覺(jué)捕捉（特別指設(shè)計(jì)）和對(duì)植物的好奇心在19世紀(jì)第二階段特別流行，非原生植物被引入與原生植物作比較。主要在有代表性的建筑和紀(jì)念碑附近種植了外來(lái)植物，也沿著公園開(kāi)放區(qū)域的邊緣種植。外來(lái)樹(shù)種包括許多所謂的“英國(guó)木材”，從北美進(jìn)口的樹(shù)種像紅花槭、赤櫟、北美喬松。薔薇屬的許多品種種植的數(shù)量不多僅僅用于裝飾目的，羅貝里草被種植在小池塘。

二戰(zhàn)后公園里的植物苗圃被關(guān)閉了，從那時(shí)就開(kāi)始大量的從歐洲以及海外引進(jìn)植物材料。

4.1.3 管理技術(shù)

在歷史時(shí)期，草地和樹(shù)林是由當(dāng)?shù)氐霓r(nóng)民和牧民管理的，他們放牧綿羊、山羊和牛以及生產(chǎn)干草，觀賞植物床周圍的建筑物是由園丁和短工管理。

目前，部分河灘上的草地和山谷東部的斜坡仍每年收割兩次，干草被賣給農(nóng)民或用于堆肥。河灘上的草地用來(lái)給綿羊和山羊放牧仍然是公園的一個(gè)管理方式，車道的植被用除草劑來(lái)控制，墻植被定期清除。如果有必要，樹(shù)的維護(hù)和復(fù)興樹(shù)林只是保障游客的安全和保護(hù)一些重要的優(yōu)美景觀，沒(méi)有被游客使用和沒(méi)有重要景觀的地區(qū)則沒(méi)有管理。

20世紀(jì)下半葉以來(lái)，增加娛樂(lè)用途和缺乏資金導(dǎo)致公園的集約化管理。例如在西部所有不同的草地一些經(jīng)常割草坪（每年收割兩次）和一些在泛濫平原的已經(jīng)轉(zhuǎn)化為頻繁的收割草地（每年收割二十次次）。這一直持續(xù)到今天，已經(jīng)導(dǎo)致草地豐富的植物多樣性產(chǎn)生了重大的損失。

4.2．植物和棲息地多樣性

公園植物區(qū)系的調(diào)查取得了479類維管植物。在這些里約59%（281分類群）都是本地圖林根州的；15%是非原生植物（74）和26%的非本地種植的類群（124）。與圖林根州的地區(qū)植物區(qū)系相比（Korsch et al.,2002）公園含有18%（355分類群）。

比較植物類群的起源及其在采樣點(diǎn)的分布頻率，（比較圖2）很明顯最常見(jiàn)的物種更多的還是本地的（主要是無(wú)處不在的類群和公園主要棲息地的類群特征）并不是非原生種群。車前子主要亞種主要是最常見(jiàn)的非原生類群，1500年前在德國(guó)被引入種植（Jager & Werner, 2005），是踐踏植物群落、草坪、牧場(chǎng)和河岸棲息地的特征種類。下一個(gè)出現(xiàn)最頻繁的非原生類群是小鳳仙花、紫鳳仙、雪果、歐洲七葉樹(shù)和紅瑞木。兩種鳳仙花在圖林根被認(rèn)為是雜草（Müller et al., 2005）。雪果、歐洲七葉樹(shù)和紅瑞木是觀賞種，迄今為止它們還沒(méi)有完全適應(yīng)圖林根。但它們已經(jīng)在公園內(nèi)種植，并通過(guò)管理控制使它們不再出現(xiàn)問(wèn)題。

圖2自然類群（N=306）的樣地內(nèi)記錄（N=436），按照出現(xiàn)頻率分組

在“伊爾姆河畔公園” 魏瑪經(jīng)典基金會(huì)記錄了94個(gè)類群的3192 種樹(shù)（最后更新到2006）。原生和非原生種群的數(shù)量比例是28%（26）和72%（68），但個(gè)體的比例和數(shù)量是原生的為73%（2344）非原生的為27%（848）。最常見(jiàn)的原生種是白蠟（409株）、歐洲小葉椴（305）、挪威槭（281）。白蠟和挪威槭在再生樹(shù)種中也是最常見(jiàn)的。也是最常見(jiàn)的樹(shù)種的再生。最常見(jiàn)的非原生種群是歐洲七葉樹(shù)（273株）、刺槐（78）和加拿大楊（70）。這三個(gè)類群在公園里繁殖，后者只能通過(guò)分株來(lái)繁殖。這三個(gè)物種占主導(dǎo)地位，其它非原生樹(shù)種種植只存在非常少的數(shù)量。

草地和森林棲息地作為公園的主導(dǎo)，覆蓋面積分別為近三分之二和三分之一（見(jiàn)圖1為棲息地分布概況）。這是棲息地中在物種總數(shù)和種數(shù)平均增幅方面擁有最高植物多樣性的物種（圖3）。由于被作為各種風(fēng)景景觀的組合而設(shè)計(jì)，所以公園里有許多交錯(cuò)的群落。它包含許多不同的植被類型，實(shí)際上物種總數(shù)是高的（圖3），雖然每個(gè)樣地里的平均物種數(shù)量很低。所有現(xiàn)存的其它棲息地，即水體、墻壁和巖石、踐踏植物群落（車道、路徑）和觀賞種植園占據(jù)的區(qū)域小得多。

圖3棲息地的植物物種豐富度

4.3．植物和棲息地的生物保護(hù)的價(jià)值

4.3.1 瀕危、珍稀物種

圖林根紅色名單中列出了公園里包含的三個(gè)本地物種（Korsch & Westhus,2001）：歐洲黑楊（極度瀕危）、Rosa jundzillii Besser和葡萄風(fēng)信子（都是脆弱的）。被歸為非本地的暗花老鸛草也列為瀕危物種。歐洲黑楊很少出現(xiàn)在伊爾姆山谷內(nèi)的沖積森林山谷，R.jundzillii和葡萄風(fēng)信子在森林公園以外也很少被發(fā)現(xiàn)。在歌德避暑別墅的花園中暗花老鸛草經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)在群落交錯(cuò)區(qū)和干草原，但公園的其他地方?jīng)]有發(fā)現(xiàn)。

公園里有一種典型的罕見(jiàn)種類是紫葉山毛櫸。根據(jù)這個(gè)公園的歷史文件，野生的各種歐洲山毛櫸是在圖林根北部的山區(qū)被發(fā)現(xiàn)的，在卡爾奧格斯特公爵執(zhí)政時(shí)期它被作為一個(gè)特色植物帶到公園。

四個(gè)受法律保護(hù)的植物物種（ThurNatG,2006）出現(xiàn)在歐洲中部公園里的山毛櫸森林和它們的郊區(qū)：大花頭蕊蘭、雪割草、卵葉對(duì)葉蘭和 凹鴿巢蘭。還常青樹(shù)紫杉是珍稀保護(hù)物種，可定期在山毛櫸森林中被發(fā)現(xiàn)。兩個(gè)報(bào)春花，歐洲報(bào)春和野生郁金香在幾個(gè)世紀(jì)前被引進(jìn)用作觀賞目的，現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)被歸為受法律保護(hù)的瀕危物種。

在“伊爾姆河畔公園”中并沒(méi)有發(fā)現(xiàn)棲息地法規(guī)附件II中的植物種類（歐盟委員會(huì),2007）。4.3.2 瀕危和罕見(jiàn)的棲息地

圖林根的介子草地和廣袤的干濕草原作為具有歷史文化性的瀕危物種棲息地景觀被列入紅色名錄（Westhus & van Hengel,2001），被圖林根的法律（ThurNatG,2006）和歐洲棲地法規(guī)的附件1所保護(hù)（歐盟委員會(huì),2007年）。

這些瀕危物種棲息地占據(jù)三分之一的“伊爾姆河畔公園”。最古老的和最不受區(qū)域干擾的公園之一是“蛇草甸”，歷史記錄顯示甚至在公園創(chuàng)建前草原也并沒(méi)有被破壞。它是介子草地和干草原的結(jié)合體并在兩者之間轉(zhuǎn)換，也是在整個(gè)公園中具有最高植物多樣性的地區(qū)（見(jiàn)圖3,草地和牧場(chǎng)的柱狀圖）。因此“蛇草甸”表明公園可能是當(dāng)代對(duì)具有歷史文化性的棲息景觀地重要的保護(hù)。這個(gè)草地是18世紀(jì)原始設(shè)計(jì)中一個(gè)非常重要的部分。這個(gè)公園的創(chuàng)造者的目的是讓草地看起來(lái)盡可能的自然。

公園最頻繁的交錯(cuò)群落類型之一是一種喜溫樹(shù)種，在圖林根的紅色名錄中被列為弱勢(shì)樹(shù)種（Westhus & van Hengel,2001）并且受到法律保護(hù)（ThurNatG,2006）。4.3.3 環(huán)境雜草

在圖林根州公園里有七個(gè)外來(lái)種，被認(rèn)為是環(huán)境雜草（Müller et al., 2005）。只有3種被種植在公園：歐洲黑松、刺槐和加拿大楊。前兩個(gè)被認(rèn)為是棲息地多樣性的威脅，而在圖林根州第三個(gè)被認(rèn)為是基因多樣性的嚴(yán)重威脅。在公園的建設(shè)中這三個(gè)物種僅僅因?yàn)楹闷嫘亩环N植的數(shù)量并不多，但后來(lái)種植的數(shù)量有所增加。例如常綠楊是在18世紀(jì)末被首次引入的，但更多的是在20世紀(jì)下半葉為取代傾倒的歐洲黑楊標(biāo)本而種植，因?yàn)樗麄儽阋硕胰菀撰@得。

另有四種偶然出現(xiàn)的環(huán)境雜草即瘤果匙薺、紫鳳仙、加拿大一枝黃花和虎杖，在公園創(chuàng)建的不同階段并沒(méi)有種植它們，但可能是在以后某個(gè)時(shí)間有意或無(wú)意的被引進(jìn)了。紫鳳仙在公園里是一個(gè)嚴(yán)重的問(wèn)題，因?yàn)樗芗厣L(zhǎng)在河岸，覆蓋了原生河岸植被。

圖林根州環(huán)境雜草的列表（Müller et al.,2005）還包括分類群，被分成了潛在的環(huán)境雜草和對(duì)生境多樣性的威脅。這個(gè)列表上有9個(gè)分類群在公園里出現(xiàn)，它們中的六個(gè)種植的數(shù)量已經(jīng)很少了：臭椿、灰榿木、美國(guó)黑櫻桃、復(fù)葉槭、亮葉十大功勞和歐丁香。最后的三種不被認(rèn)為是對(duì)棲息地有害的種而在公園里被再次種植。其它3個(gè)類群大狼杷草、大型一枝黃花、小鳳仙花是公園里最常見(jiàn)的非原生植物，但因?yàn)樗簧种脖幌拗撇⑶以谠脖缓笊L(zhǎng)（早花隱芽植物）所以不被認(rèn)為是一種公園生物多樣性的威脅。

4.4．從前的景觀設(shè)計(jì)和當(dāng)前在生物保護(hù)價(jià)值之間的關(guān)系

我們發(fā)現(xiàn)如下一些公園設(shè)計(jì)和現(xiàn)代生物多樣性保護(hù)價(jià)值之間的關(guān)系。歷史公園“伊爾姆河畔公園”的主要設(shè)計(jì)原則是基于歐洲歷史文化和自然景觀的一種理想景觀的發(fā)展，源自并根植于現(xiàn)代文化景觀和它的生境以及與之匹配的公園現(xiàn)有景觀。各種與遠(yuǎn)景相連的景觀的組合導(dǎo)致了各種不同尺寸的林地和草地生境成一種類似馬賽克狀的分布。這就會(huì)產(chǎn)生大量的邊緣效應(yīng)（過(guò)渡帶）從而創(chuàng)建各種各樣的生態(tài)位。

因此在超過(guò)兩個(gè)世紀(jì)保持連續(xù)性的管理制度是維持設(shè)計(jì)和公園里物種豐富的歷史文化景觀的一個(gè)重要因素。年齡以及干擾和園藝領(lǐng)域的物種豐富度之間的聯(lián)系已經(jīng)被其他作者指出（Li et al., 2006;Zerbe et al., 2003）。

前者泛濫平原森林地區(qū)及周邊草地的大部分已被納入景觀設(shè)計(jì)并且被整合在公園里。周圍的森林和草原上大部分用于種植的植物，在品種數(shù)量和特性上，都是本土物種。在大多數(shù)情況下非原生植物的每個(gè)種只種植了很少的數(shù)量。今天在圖林根州有七種被認(rèn)為是環(huán)境雜草的種植在公園里。在大多數(shù)情況下，它們對(duì)生物多樣性是沒(méi)有威脅的因?yàn)橥ㄟ^(guò)積極的管理可以預(yù)防它們?cè)偕?/p>

5.討論

除了大量的灰色文獻(xiàn)，現(xiàn)在很少有評(píng)價(jià)英國(guó)園林風(fēng)格的公園存在的價(jià)值。在柏林面積為0.67平方公里的“孔雀島”被Sukopp調(diào)查（1968），面積為0.27平方公里的奧格斯堡“西本蒂施公園” Müller 和 Waldert 調(diào)查（1998），波茨坦公園的無(wú)憂宮、巴貝爾斯堡和諾伊爾加滕的草原總規(guī)模為5.07平方公里（Peschel, 2000）。幾個(gè)在圣彼得堡的公園及其郊區(qū)被Ignatieva和Konechnaya調(diào)查（2004）。包括：帕夫洛夫斯基公園、在皇村的Ekaterininsky 和Alexandrovsky公園、奧拉寧鮑姆公園、在彼得夏宮的亞歷山大公園、加特契納公園和Shuvalovsky公園。上述所有文件（和我們自己的研究）顯示了這些歷史公園豐富的原生植物物種和棲息地的多樣性以及瀕危生物多樣性維持的能力。這些在中歐和東歐歷史公園植物區(qū)系的調(diào)查也證明傳統(tǒng)草原和一般草本植物的價(jià)值不如樹(shù)木和灌木。然而，我們的研究與其他歐洲研究結(jié)果證明，草原和珍稀物種和歷史悠久的設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格有直接的關(guān)系，也有植物方面和歷史方面的意義。

我們的研究和俄羅斯的景觀公園（Ignatieva & Konechnaya,2004）的比較也顯示出相似之處不僅在設(shè)計(jì)原則方面（設(shè)計(jì)與自然），而且在管理和維護(hù)制度（割草和放牧）方面也類似。在德國(guó)和俄羅斯公園存在的某些相似的物種表明這兩個(gè)國(guó)家之間種子可能通過(guò)經(jīng)常在德國(guó)圣彼得堡工作過(guò)的園丁而發(fā)生了混合和交換。

所有上述公園的各種棲息地對(duì)歷史文化的瀕危棲息地景觀都起到了保護(hù)作用，因?yàn)樗麄凅w現(xiàn)在在今天的農(nóng)村風(fēng)景。對(duì)“伊爾姆河畔公園”、“Siebentischpark”和“波茨坦的公園”的特殊保護(hù)價(jià)值是具有多種類型的瀕危草原。每個(gè)歷史公園都有自己的珍稀瀕危植物以及獨(dú)特的植物群落。例如，像濕地和原始森林的自然棲息地對(duì) “孔雀島”來(lái)說(shuō)尤為重要。唯一管理開(kāi)放草原的是帕夫洛夫斯基公園。有非常罕見(jiàn)的Poa chaixii 和 Luzula Luzuloides組成的地被在奧拉寧鮑姆公園應(yīng)該被保護(hù)，而在加特契納公園只有在公園范圍內(nèi)生長(zhǎng)，在周圍景觀中很少被發(fā)現(xiàn)。

對(duì)于歷史公園生物多樣性的一個(gè)普遍觀點(diǎn)（Kowarik,1998）強(qiáng)調(diào)現(xiàn)存的自然棲息地的重要性（例如水棲息地和露出的巖石）。

用和“伊爾姆河畔公園”一樣的方式，作為瀕危和珍?。ǘ彝芊杀Ｗo(hù)）植物物種避難所的重要性在上述公園中確定。在俄羅斯公園中所有的珍稀瀕危植物都有標(biāo)出，以確保在恢復(fù)項(xiàng)目中被保護(hù)和保存。

歐洲和世界其它地區(qū)的現(xiàn)代園林景觀經(jīng)常采用英國(guó)園林風(fēng)格設(shè)計(jì)原則的簡(jiǎn)化版本，全部使用相同的植物，并導(dǎo)致區(qū)域生物多樣性和身份的喪失（Ignatieva,2010），研究表明歷史的英國(guó)園林景觀風(fēng)格公園有助于維護(hù)該區(qū)域生物多樣性和特性。

我們研究的目標(biāo)之一也是提高參與歷史公園恢復(fù)的從業(yè)者的意識(shí)，以及公民和政客（使用公園者）對(duì)一個(gè)公園生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的所有組成部分的生物多樣性的重要性的認(rèn)識(shí)。人們應(yīng)該接受關(guān)于保護(hù)草原和稀有植物作為一個(gè)獨(dú)特的資產(chǎn)的重要性。我們的結(jié)論應(yīng)作為負(fù)責(zé)管理歷史公園的專家的指導(dǎo)。在全球化和致密化的城市環(huán)境下，歷史公園的價(jià)值應(yīng)該等同于花園和公園藝術(shù)的紀(jì)念碑以及區(qū)域生物多樣性的熱點(diǎn)地區(qū)。

6.結(jié)論

歷史悠久的英國(guó)風(fēng)景園林風(fēng)格公園是一個(gè)例子，告訴我們合理的可持續(xù)設(shè)計(jì)如何在城市工業(yè)區(qū)內(nèi)提供重要的生物保護(hù)區(qū)域。從我們的研究結(jié)果來(lái)看，對(duì)未來(lái)公園設(shè)計(jì)和歷史公園的恢復(fù)提出如下建議：

1.現(xiàn)有的地形和土壤條件以及現(xiàn)有棲息地（如中歐的森林和草地斑塊）必須集中在一個(gè)公園的設(shè)計(jì)或在公園修復(fù)項(xiàng)目中進(jìn)行，而不是從頭開(kāi)始。2.公園內(nèi)使用的絕大多數(shù)的種子和植物應(yīng)該（甚至土生土長(zhǎng)得更好）是原生的來(lái)支持本地生物多樣性以及區(qū)域特性。

3.相比之下非本土的觀賞植物應(yīng)只是少量運(yùn)用而不是公園的主要組成部分。4.使用已經(jīng)認(rèn)識(shí)或被懷疑的非本地植物時(shí)必須避免環(huán)境雜草的使用。5.低強(qiáng)度公園的管理，尤其是自然或半自然棲息地中，區(qū)域生物多樣性至關(guān)重要。

對(duì)于今后恢復(fù)或重建項(xiàng)目的規(guī)劃者應(yīng)該知道所有的珍稀瀕危植物物種的位置并且他們應(yīng)該在所有施工過(guò)程中采取措施盡量避免或減少對(duì)這些物種的損害。

致謝

本文的主題來(lái)自2010年5月在日本名古屋召開(kāi)的第二屆URBIO會(huì)議上關(guān)于“景觀設(shè)計(jì)對(duì)生物多樣性的影響”的介紹。我們感謝Maria Ignatieva（瑞典），Glenn Stewart（新西蘭）和兩個(gè)匿名評(píng)論者提出的寶貴意見(jiàn)。我們也要感謝魏瑪古典基金會(huì)在對(duì)“伊爾姆河畔公園”數(shù)據(jù)收集時(shí)的支持與合作。