欧美色欧美亚洲高清在线观看,国产特黄特色a级在线视频,国产一区视频一区欧美,亚洲成a 人在线观看中文

  1. <ul id="fwlom"></ul>

    <object id="fwlom"></object>

    <span id="fwlom"></span><dfn id="fwlom"></dfn>

      <object id="fwlom"></object>

      電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯(小編整理)

      時(shí)間:2019-05-15 09:28:34下載本文作者:會(huì)員上傳
      簡(jiǎn)介:寫(xiě)寫(xiě)幫文庫(kù)小編為你整理了多篇相關(guān)的《電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯》,但愿對(duì)你工作學(xué)習(xí)有幫助,當(dāng)然你在寫(xiě)寫(xiě)幫文庫(kù)還可以找到更多《電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯》。

      第一篇:電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

      本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)

      中英文對(duì)照翻譯

      院(系部)工程學(xué)院 專業(yè)名稱 電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化 年級(jí)班級(jí) 11級(jí)2班 學(xué)生姓名 蔡李良 指導(dǎo)老師 趙波

      Infrared Remote Control System

      Abstract Red outside data correspondence the technique be currently within the scope of world drive extensive usage of a kind of wireless conjunction technique, drive numerous hardware and software platform support.Red outside the transceiver product have cost low, small scaled turn, the baud rate be quick, point to point SSL, be free from electromagnetism thousand Raos etc.characteristics, can realization information at dissimilarity of the product fast, convenience, safely exchange and transmission, at short distance wireless deliver aspect to own very obvious of advantage.Along with red outside the data deliver a technique more and more mature, the cost descend, red outside the transceiver necessarily will get at the short distance communication realm more extensive of application.The purpose that design this system is transmit customer’s operation information with infrared rays for transmit media, then demodulate original signal with receive circuit.It use coding chip to modulate signal and use decoding chip to demodulate signal.The coding chip is PT2262 and decoding chip is PT2272.Both chips are made in Taiwan.Main work principle is that we provide to input the information for the PT2262 with coding keyboard.The input information was coded by PT2262 and loading to high frequent load wave whose frequent is 38 kHz, then modulate infrared transmit dioxide and radiate space outside when it attian enough power.The receive circuit receive the signal and demodulate original information.The original signal was decoded by PT2272, so as to drive some circuit to accomplish customer’s operation demand.Keywords: Infrared dray;Code;Decoding;LM386;Red outside transceiver Introduction 1.1 research the background and significance

      Infrared Data Communication Technology is the world wide use of a wireless connection technology, by the many hardware and software platforms supported.Is a data through electrical pulses and infrared optical pulse switch between the wireless data transceiver technology.Infrared transceiver products with low cost, small, fast transmission rate, the point-to-point transmission security, not subject to electromagnetic interference and other characteristics that can be achieved between the different products, rapid, convenient and safe exchange and transmission, In short distance wireless transmission have a very distinct advantage.Infrared transceiver products in the portable product of a great role.At present, the world's 150 million piece of equipment used infrared technology in electronic products and industrial equipment.medical equipment and other fields widely used.For example, 95% of the notebook computers on the installation of infrared transceiver interface the majority of the cell phone is also the allocation of infrared transceiver interface.With the exchange of quantitative data, infrared data communications will enable cell phone data transmission more convenient.With infrared data transmission technology matures, perfect, low costs, Infrared Transceiver in short distance communications will be more widely applied.This chapter first describes the infrared transceiver IC design issues to the background and significance.then briefed the infrared data communications technology features and applications, and infrared transceiver product characteristics, domestic and international situation and development trend of the last under infrared remote transceiver system in practical application to establish a task of design orientation.1.2 Infrared Remote Control Transceiver System Infrared remote control system is divided into single-channel and multi-channel remote control.Only a command signal transmission channel, called single-channel remote control system;with more than two instructions signal transmission channel known as a multi-channel remote control system.Relatively simple single-channel remote control, in general, only a launcher directive Key receivers and only one circuit implementation.While in the receiving circuit to add more stable memory circuits that can be activated commands to launch a number of key, so that the receiver circuit multi stable memory circuit repeatedly to change the state, to realize many of the functional control, But such a state of change is the order.If we are to achieve an arbitrary control, resort to the use of multi-channel remote control system.Multi-channel remote control can be realized by the object of arbitrary multi-function remote control.As for the choice of several routes and what control methods, according to the actual situation(such as object, operational requirements and cost accounting, etc.)to decide.General infrared remote transceiver system by infrared remote control transmitter signal coding, infrared remote control signal receivers and decoders(or decoder chip MCU)and the external circuit consisting of three parts.Signal transmitter remote control code used to generate pulses of infrared emission-driven output infrared remote control signal, receiver completion of the remote control signal amplification and detection, plastic and demodulation encoding pulse.Infrared remote control coded pulse is going to obtain a continuous serial binary code, and for most of the infrared transceiver system, This serial code as micro-controller of the remote control input signals from the internal CPU completion of the remote control instruction decoder, on the other infrared remote control transceivers, the designers of electronic products, The internal micro-controller of the remote control decoder directive is not accessible.Therefore, people are using infrared encoder / decoder chip and microcontroller developed various generic infrared remote transceiver system, In various equipment infrared signals between the transceiver.Remote transceiver system generally transmitters and receivers is composed of two parts.Launchers from the general direction keys, coded instructions circuit modulation circuit, driving circuit, firing circuit of several parts.When pressed a key, the directive coding circuit, in the corresponding instructions encoded signal, the encoder signal to the carrier modulation, Driven by the power amplifier circuit after circuit fired from the field after firing instructions coded modulation signals.General receiver by the receiving circuit, the amplifier circuit, demodulation circuits, instruction decoder circuit, driving circuit, circuit implementation of several parts.Receiving Circuit will launch vehicles have been coded modulation signal receiving instructions from, and to enlarge evacuation demodulation circuit.Demodulation circuit will have the coding modulation signal demodulation, namely, reduction of signal coding.The instruction decoder to the encoder signal decoding, Driven by the final circuit to drive the implementation of various instructions circuit to control the operation.1.3 infrared remote control transceiver product profiles 1.3.1 infrared remote control transceiver product structure and type

      Currently infrared transceiver in accordance with the mode of transmission rate and can be divided into four categories : Serial mode, the highest rate of 115.2 Kbps;medium-speed model : the highest rate of 0.567 Mbps and 1.152Mbps;High-speed mode : The maximum rate of 16 Mbps.Also according to the size chip power consumption can be divided into low-power consumption and standard two categories, low-power type normally used 3 V power supply, transmission distance closer to about 00.76μm so long little area, and adjacent to the visible light and infrared(including the far infrared, mid-infrared and near infrared foreign)accounts for the spectrum of 0.76 μm10mW).Chinese power(20mW100mW more)three categories.Use different power infrared LED, the allocation should be driven by the corresponding power control.Figure 2-2 by the reflected infrared light-emitting diodes to make produce optical modulation, Drivers only need to add the control of a certain frequency pulse voltage.Infrared transmitter and receiver in the way the two kinds of straight, and the second is reflective.Luminescence pointed straight pipe and tube receiver placed in a relatively controlled and fired on the two ends, a certain distance away from the middle;Reflective means luminescent tube and pipe parallel with the receiving peacetime, without always receiving tube light, luminescence only in possession of the infrared light reflected from encountered, the receiving tube received from the reflected infrared before work.2.2 infrared communication basic tenets

      2.2.1 infrared communication Principle

      Communication is the use of infrared wavelength of 900 nm-infrared waves from 1000 to serve as an information carrier, through infrared technology between the two close communication and confidentiality of information transmitted.Infrared communication system structure include : part launcher, channel, the receiver part.Launcher source letter issued after the binary signal from the high-frequency modulated infrared LED sent, receiving device regard the reception of high-frequency signals from the infrared receiver tube after receiving further demodulation photoelectric conversion of the original information of a mass communication lose way.Afterwards the former Information received after receiving part of the drive circuit connected to the expected completion of the various functions.To which the modulation coding style pulse width modulation(by changing the pulse width modulated signal PWM)and pulse modulation time(through change the pulse train interval time between the modulation signal PPM)two.2.2.2 infrared communication system elements(1)Launches : Currently there is a infrared wireless digital communications system sources of information including voice, data, images.Its methods of work for the launch of the receiver can be divided into different layout LOS way(Light-of-Sight , intracardiac way), diffuse(diffuse)mode.LOS way directional, it has good channel characteristics such advantages, but the existence of a “shadow” effect.difficult to achieve roaming function.Roaming means the main features of non-directional, and easy to implement roaming function, but its channel quality is better sometimes LOS way.Transmission of signals required for a few of(the sampling was quantified), the general need for baseband modulation, transmission, modulation, sometimes signal source coding, the above-driven signals from photoelectric converter complete optical signal transmission.Infrared wireless digital communications system and its scope of work-for-fired power distribution, the quality of the communication.While using various methods to improve optical transmitter power, the other using spatial diversity, holographic films and so on so diffuse light for the launch of space optical power evenly distributed.(2)Channel : infrared wireless digital communication channel refers to the transmitters and receivers in the space between.Due to natural light and artificial light sources such as light signals in the context of intervention, and the sourceand the digits represent narrow 0.Remote coding pulse signal(PPM code as an example)are usually guided by the code, the system code, the anti-code system, a feature code, functional anti-code signal components.Guide the code name for the initial code, by the width of 9 ms and the margin width of 4.5 ms to the low-level components(different remote control systems in the low-level high width of a certain distinction), remote coding used to mark the beginning of pulsed signals.System identification code is also called code, which used to indicate the type of remote control system, in order to distinguish other remote-control system, prevent the remote control system malfunction.Functional code is also called scripts, which represents the corresponding control functions, Receiver of the micro-controller functions under the numerical code to complete the various functions operating.Anti-code system and function codes are anti-system code and the functional code against code Anti-code can be joined to the receiver synchronization transmission process leads to errors.In order to improve performance and reduce interference power consumption, The remote control will be coded pulse frequency of 38 KHz(for the cycle of 26.3 ms)of the carrier signal pulse reshuffle system(PAM), and then sent to the buffer amplified infrared LED, the remote control signal transmitter away.Address code and data codes are composed of different pulse width expressed that the two narrow pulse “0”;2 pulse width “1”;a narrow pulse width and pulse expressed an “F” is the code addresses “vacant.” Is the first part of a group a group of code, each code synchronization between separated.The plan is to enlarge the second half of a group code : a code from 12 AD(the address code plus data code For example, eight address code plus four data code), each with two AD-Pulse's : Pulse said the two “0”;2 pulse width “1”;a narrow pulse width and pulse expressed an “F” is the code addresses “vacant.” Realize fired at each fired at least four groups code, PT2272 only twice in a row to detect the same address code plus data code data will be the code “1” is driven The data should be output to drive margin and VT terminal for synchronous serial.紅外遙控系統(tǒng)

      摘 要

      目前紅外數(shù)據(jù)通信技術(shù)是在世界范圍內(nèi)被廣泛應(yīng)用的一種無(wú)線連接技術(shù),它也可以被許多軟硬件平臺(tái)所支持。紅外收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品具有成本低,體積小,傳輸速率快,點(diǎn)對(duì)點(diǎn)傳輸安全性好,不受電磁干擾等特點(diǎn),可使得信息在幾個(gè)不同產(chǎn)品器件之間快速、便捷、安全地交換與傳輸。紅外數(shù)據(jù)通信技術(shù)在短距離無(wú)線傳輸領(lǐng)域內(nèi)有著十分顯著的優(yōu)勢(shì),紅外遙控收發(fā)系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)和存在具有非常高的運(yùn)用價(jià)值。目前,紅外收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品在便攜式產(chǎn)品中的應(yīng)用潛力很大。全世界約有1億5千萬(wàn)臺(tái)設(shè)備和儀器是采用紅外數(shù)據(jù)通信技術(shù)的,在電子產(chǎn)品、工業(yè)設(shè)備、醫(yī)療設(shè)備等領(lǐng)域內(nèi)使用范圍很廣。幾乎所有筆記本電腦、手機(jī)都配置紅外收發(fā)器接口。伴隨著紅外數(shù)據(jù)傳輸技術(shù)的愈發(fā)成熟、生產(chǎn)和使用成本下降,紅外收發(fā)器在短距離通訊領(lǐng)域內(nèi)將會(huì)得到更加廣泛的應(yīng)用。

      設(shè)計(jì)這個(gè)系統(tǒng)的目的是用紅外線作為傳輸媒介來(lái)傳輸操作者或用戶的操作信息和指令,然后由接收器電路翻譯出原信號(hào),主要是利用編碼芯片和解碼芯片對(duì)信號(hào)進(jìn)行調(diào)制解調(diào),這其中,編碼芯片用的是臺(tái)灣生產(chǎn)的PT2262,解碼芯片是PT2272。它們的主要工作原理是:通過(guò)編碼鍵盤(pán)可以為PT2262提供輸入信息,PT2262對(duì)輸入的信息進(jìn)行編碼并加載到38KHZ的載波上并調(diào)制紅外發(fā)射二極管,再將其輻射到空間,然后再由接收系統(tǒng)接收信號(hào)并解調(diào)出原始的信息內(nèi)容,由PT2272對(duì)原信號(hào)進(jìn)行解碼,從而驅(qū)動(dòng)相應(yīng)的電路完成用戶的操作指令和操作要求。

      關(guān)鍵字:紅外線;編碼;解碼;LM386;紅外收發(fā)器。緒論

      1.1 課題研究的背景及意義

      目前,在世界范圍內(nèi),紅外數(shù)據(jù)通信技術(shù)是被廣泛使用的一種無(wú)線連接技術(shù),被許多的硬件和軟件平臺(tái)所支持。是一種通過(guò)數(shù)據(jù)脈沖與紅外脈沖之間的相互轉(zhuǎn)換實(shí)現(xiàn)無(wú)線數(shù)據(jù)收發(fā)的技術(shù)。

      紅外收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品具有成本低,體積小,傳輸速率快,點(diǎn)對(duì)點(diǎn)傳輸安全性好,不受電磁干擾等特點(diǎn),可使得信息在幾個(gè)不同產(chǎn)品器件之間快速、便捷、安全地交換與傳輸。紅外數(shù)據(jù)通信技術(shù)在短距離無(wú)線傳輸領(lǐng)域內(nèi)有著十分顯著的優(yōu)勢(shì)。

      目前,紅外收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品在便攜式產(chǎn)品中的應(yīng)用潛力很大。全世界約有1億5千萬(wàn)臺(tái)設(shè)備和儀器是采用紅外數(shù)據(jù)通信技術(shù)的,在電子產(chǎn)品、工業(yè)設(shè)備、醫(yī)療設(shè)備等領(lǐng)域內(nèi)使用范圍很廣。幾乎所有筆記本電腦、手機(jī)都配置紅外收發(fā)器接口。而且隨著交換的數(shù)據(jù)量變大,紅外數(shù)據(jù)通訊將使手機(jī)的數(shù)據(jù)傳輸越來(lái)越方便。伴隨著紅外數(shù)據(jù)傳輸技術(shù)的愈發(fā)成熟、生產(chǎn)和使用成本下降,紅外收發(fā)器在短距離通訊領(lǐng)域內(nèi)將會(huì)得到更加廣泛的應(yīng)用。

      本章主要內(nèi)容是闡述了“紅外收發(fā)集成電路設(shè)計(jì)”這個(gè)課題的背景和意義,然后簡(jiǎn)要介紹了紅外數(shù)據(jù)通訊技術(shù)的應(yīng)用特點(diǎn)和領(lǐng)域,紅外收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品的特點(diǎn)、國(guó)內(nèi)外現(xiàn)狀和未來(lái)的發(fā)展趨勢(shì),最后根據(jù)紅外遙控收發(fā)系統(tǒng)在實(shí)際操作中應(yīng)用性確立了本課題的設(shè)計(jì)定位和方向。

      1.2 紅外遙控收發(fā)系統(tǒng)的簡(jiǎn)介

      紅外遙控系統(tǒng)主要分為單通道遙控和多通道遙控。只有一個(gè)指令信號(hào)傳輸通道的稱為單通道遙控系統(tǒng);具有兩個(gè)以上指令信號(hào)傳輸通道的稱為多通道遙控系統(tǒng)。單通道遙控相對(duì)較為簡(jiǎn)單 ,通常,發(fā)射器只有一個(gè)指令鍵 ,接收器也只有一個(gè)執(zhí)行電路。單通道遙控雖然在接收電路中加入多穩(wěn)態(tài)記憶電路 ,可以根據(jù)按動(dòng)發(fā)射器指令鍵的次數(shù) ,使接收電路中的多穩(wěn)態(tài)記憶電路的狀態(tài)發(fā)生相應(yīng)改變 ,實(shí)現(xiàn)多項(xiàng)功能控制 ,但是這種狀態(tài)的改變是按順序進(jìn)行的。若想要實(shí)現(xiàn)任意一項(xiàng)的指定選擇控制 ,就需要采用多通道遙控系統(tǒng)。多通道遙控可以對(duì)被控對(duì)象進(jìn)行任意的多功能遙控。至于具體選用幾個(gè)通道及哪種控制方式 ,要根據(jù)實(shí)際情況(被控對(duì)象、操作要求及成本核算等)而定。普通的紅外遙控收發(fā)系統(tǒng)是由:紅外遙控信號(hào)編碼發(fā)送器、紅外遙控信號(hào)接收器和解碼器(解碼芯片或單片機(jī))、外圍電路等三部分構(gòu)成。信號(hào)發(fā)送器可以用來(lái)產(chǎn)生遙控編碼脈沖,驅(qū)動(dòng)紅外發(fā)射管發(fā)出紅外遙控信號(hào)。接收器可以對(duì)遙控信號(hào)進(jìn)行放大、檢波、整形從而解調(diào)出編碼脈沖。紅外遙控編碼脈沖是一組組連續(xù)的串行二進(jìn)制碼,對(duì)于普通的紅外收發(fā)系統(tǒng),此串行二進(jìn)制碼作為控制器的遙控輸入信號(hào),由它內(nèi)部的CPU解碼遙控指令,對(duì)其他各種的紅外遙控收發(fā)類電子產(chǎn)品的設(shè)計(jì)者而言,上述的微控制器內(nèi)部解碼出的遙控指令是不能直接使用的。因此,人們利用紅外編碼/解碼芯片及單片機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)出多種通用的紅外遙控收發(fā)系統(tǒng),在各種設(shè)備之間進(jìn)行便捷快速的紅外信號(hào)的收發(fā)。

      遙控收發(fā)系統(tǒng)一般由發(fā)射器和接收器兩部分組成。發(fā)射器一般由指令按鍵、指令編碼電路、調(diào)制電路、驅(qū)動(dòng)電路、發(fā)射電路等組成。當(dāng)用戶按下相應(yīng)按鍵時(shí) ,指令編碼電路會(huì)產(chǎn)生相應(yīng)的編碼信號(hào) ,編碼信號(hào)對(duì)載波進(jìn)行調(diào)制 ,再由驅(qū)動(dòng)電路進(jìn)行功率放大后由發(fā)射電路向外發(fā)射調(diào)制完成后的編碼信號(hào)。接收器一般由接收電路、放大電路、解調(diào)電路、指令譯碼電路、驅(qū)動(dòng)電路、執(zhí)行電路等組成。接收電路將發(fā)射器發(fā)射的調(diào)制完成的編碼指令信號(hào)接收下來(lái) ,并進(jìn)行放大后輸入解調(diào)電路。解調(diào)電路將已調(diào)制的編碼信號(hào)進(jìn)行解調(diào) ,即還原為編碼信號(hào)。指令譯碼器將編碼指令信號(hào)進(jìn)行譯碼 ,最后由驅(qū)動(dòng)電路來(lái)驅(qū)動(dòng)執(zhí)行電路實(shí)現(xiàn)各種用戶指令的操作控制。

      1.3 紅外遙控收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品概況

      1.3.1紅外遙控收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品的結(jié)構(gòu)和類型

      現(xiàn)在,紅外收發(fā)器按照工作模式和傳輸速率的不同可分為四大類:串行模式,最高速率為115.2Kbps;中速模式:最高速率為0.567Mbps和1.152Mbps;高速模式:最高速率為16Mbps。

      而按芯片功耗大小區(qū)分的話又可以分為低功耗型和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)型兩類,低功耗型一般需要使用3V電源,傳輸距離比較近,約為0-30cm,標(biāo)準(zhǔn)型一般使用5V電源,傳輸距離比較遠(yuǎn),最少可達(dá)1m以上。

      1.3.2紅外遙控收發(fā)器在國(guó)內(nèi)外的現(xiàn)狀

      紅外通信技術(shù)發(fā)展早期的時(shí)候,存在著好幾個(gè)紅外通信的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),不同標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的紅外設(shè)備之間是不能進(jìn)行紅外通信的。為了使各種紅外設(shè)備能夠互通,在1993年,由20多個(gè)大廠商發(fā)起成立了紅外數(shù)據(jù)協(xié)會(huì)(IRDA),統(tǒng)一了紅外通信的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),即目前被廣泛使用的紅外數(shù)據(jù)通信協(xié)議及規(guī)范,也就是IRDA標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。自1993年IRDA設(shè)定至今,紅外數(shù)據(jù)協(xié)會(huì)的會(huì)員已發(fā)展到了150多個(gè),IRDA標(biāo)準(zhǔn)已經(jīng)獲得了業(yè)界的廣泛支持。已經(jīng)開(kāi)發(fā)出來(lái)的具備紅外通訊能力的設(shè)備已有一百多種,紅外模塊的年裝機(jī)量已達(dá)到了一億五千多萬(wàn)套。盡管現(xiàn)在市面上出現(xiàn)了同是近距離無(wú)線通訊的藍(lán)牙技術(shù),但紅外通訊技術(shù)以其成本低廉和兼容性廣的優(yōu)勢(shì),紅外數(shù)據(jù)通訊仍然會(huì)在將來(lái)的很長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間內(nèi),在短距離的無(wú)線數(shù)據(jù)通訊領(lǐng)域里扮演重要角色。

      由IRDA協(xié)會(huì)的資料表明,國(guó)外公司的紅外收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品起步比中國(guó)早,已形成了紅外收發(fā)器配套生產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈。由以下幾部分組成:Sharp等公司主要提供紅外發(fā)光二極管和光敏二極管;Agilent等公司主要設(shè)計(jì)制作紅外收發(fā)芯片;Infineon等公司主要從事紅外收發(fā)器封裝;IBM、Microsoft等公司則推出紅外數(shù)據(jù)收發(fā)器驅(qū)動(dòng)程序和紅外通信軟件。其中如Agilent等公司還具有生產(chǎn)紅外收發(fā)器系列產(chǎn)品的能力,而HP、IBM等大公司則專門為自己公司產(chǎn)品配備紅外收發(fā)器。

      另外,在中國(guó)臺(tái)灣地區(qū)也形成了一批能生產(chǎn)紅外收發(fā)產(chǎn)品的廠家和公司,但在大陸地區(qū)只有這些國(guó)際公司和臺(tái)灣公司的代理商公司在做一些器件的銷售,具有我們自己自主產(chǎn)權(quán)的該類產(chǎn)品極度缺乏。

      1.3.3紅外收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品未來(lái)的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)

      在各種不同的紅外收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品之間,雖然傳輸速率、傳輸距離等特性都有不同,但紅外收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品普遍都朝著提高傳輸速率,增大傳輸距離,降低功耗,擴(kuò)大發(fā)射接收角度等目標(biāo)發(fā)展。隨著技術(shù)的發(fā)展和成熟,傳輸方式正朝著點(diǎn)對(duì)多點(diǎn)的方向發(fā)展。因此紅外遙控收發(fā)器產(chǎn)品還有很寬廣的發(fā)展前景。紅外通信的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)

      2.1紅外線的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)

      2.1.1紅外線的概述

      紅外線實(shí)質(zhì)上是電磁波。通過(guò)分析自然界中各種電磁波的組成波可知,波譜是由 :射線,x射線、紫外線、可見(jiàn)光、紅外線、微波和無(wú)線波組成的。從形式上看,它們之間似乎沒(méi)有關(guān)系,但如果按照他們的波長(zhǎng)依次排列,就會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)和我們形影不離的可見(jiàn)光只占了整個(gè)波譜中0.38μm-0.76μm長(zhǎng)的這么一點(diǎn)兒范圍,而和可見(jiàn)光相鄰的紅外線(包括遠(yuǎn)紅外線、中紅外線和近紅外線外)卻占了波譜中0.76μm-1000μm的一大段。其中微米波長(zhǎng)范圍內(nèi)又包括了紫外光、可見(jiàn)光、近紅外、中紅外、遠(yuǎn)紅外、微波。

      從上述分析可知,紅外線是一種十分豐富的波譜資源,目前它己在生產(chǎn)、生活、軍事、醫(yī)療等多方面得到了廣泛的應(yīng)用,例如紅外線加熱、紅外線醫(yī)療期間、紅外線通信、紅外線攝像、紅外線遙控等。紅外線遙控只是紅外線 眾多應(yīng)用中的一部分,目前在家用電器中廣泛應(yīng)用的彩電遙控器、錄像機(jī)遙控器、VCD遙控器、高保真音響遙控器等,都采用了紅外線遙控,它使這些家用電器的控制變得十分簡(jiǎn)單方便。

      2.1.2紅外線的特性

      紅外線是介于可見(jiàn)光和微波之間的一種電磁波,因此它具有相臨波的某些特性。在近紅外區(qū),它和可見(jiàn)光相鄰,因此具有可見(jiàn)光的某些特性,如直線傳播、反射、折射、散射、衍射、可被某些物體吸收以及可以通過(guò)透鏡將其聚焦等。在遠(yuǎn)紅外區(qū),由于它鄰近微波區(qū),因此它具有微波的某些特性,如較強(qiáng)的穿透能力和能貫穿某些不透明物質(zhì)等。在自不論任何物體,然界中,也不論其本身是否發(fā)光(指可見(jiàn)光)只要其溫度高于絕對(duì)零度(-273℃),都會(huì)一刻不停地向周圍輻射紅外線。只不過(guò)是溫度較高的物體輻射的紅外線較強(qiáng),溫度低的物體輻射的紅外線較弱。因此紅外線的最大特點(diǎn)是普遍存在于自然界中,又叫做熱輻射線簡(jiǎn)稱熱輻射。紅外線攝像、紅外線夜市、熱釋電紅外探測(cè)以及某些導(dǎo)彈的瞄準(zhǔn)等就是利用紅外線的這一特性工作的。

      紅外線和可見(jiàn)光相比的另一個(gè)特點(diǎn)是,色彩豐富多樣。由于可見(jiàn)光的最長(zhǎng)波長(zhǎng)是最短波長(zhǎng)的1倍(780nm-380nm),所以也叫作一個(gè)倍頻程。而紅外線的最長(zhǎng)波長(zhǎng)是最短波長(zhǎng)的1倍,而紅外線的最長(zhǎng)波長(zhǎng)是最短波長(zhǎng)的10倍,即有10個(gè)倍頻程。因此如果可見(jiàn)光能表現(xiàn)為7種顏色,則紅外線便可能表現(xiàn)70種顏色,顯示了豐富的色彩。紅外線透過(guò)煙霧的性能好,這是它的又一個(gè)特點(diǎn)。

      由于紅外線為不可見(jiàn)光 ,因此對(duì)環(huán)境影響很小。再由紅外光波的波長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)小于無(wú)線電波的波長(zhǎng) ,所以紅外線遙控不會(huì)影響鄰近的無(wú)線電設(shè)備。另外波長(zhǎng)小于 1.5μm 的近紅外光 ,在透明大氣中的傳輸特性要比可見(jiàn)光好得多 ,而且由于它靠近可見(jiàn)光的紅光邊緣 ,其直線傳播、反射、折射和被物質(zhì)吸收等物理特性與可見(jiàn)光非常相似。因此 ,它可以使用與可見(jiàn)光類似的聚焦透鏡等光學(xué)裝置。由于紅外線遙控不具有像無(wú)線電遙控那樣穿過(guò)障礙物去控制被控制對(duì)象的能力 ,所以 ,在設(shè)計(jì)家用電器的紅外線遙控器時(shí) ,不必要像無(wú)線電遙控那樣 ,每一套(發(fā)射器和接收器)要有不同的遙控頻率或編碼(否則 ,就會(huì)隔墻控制或干擾鄰居的家用電器),所有同類產(chǎn)品的紅外線遙控器 ,可以有相同的遙控頻率或編碼 ,而不會(huì)出現(xiàn)遙控信號(hào)“串門”的情況。這對(duì)于普及紅外線遙控提供了極大的方便。紅外線為不可見(jiàn)光線 ,具有很強(qiáng)的隱蔽性和保密性 ,因此 ,在防盜、警戒等安全保衛(wèi)裝置中也得到了廣泛地應(yīng)用。紅外線遙控具有結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單、制作方便、成本低廉、抗干擾能力強(qiáng)、工作可靠性高等一系列優(yōu)點(diǎn) ,是近距離遙控、特別是室內(nèi)遙控的優(yōu)選遙控方式。

      2.1.3紅外發(fā)光二極管的特性

      紅外線是不可見(jiàn)光,人眼是覺(jué)察不到的。電子技術(shù)中是用紅外發(fā)光二極管(又稱紅外發(fā)射二極管)來(lái)產(chǎn)生紅外線。紅外遙控收發(fā)是利用近紅外光傳送遙控指令的波長(zhǎng)為 0.76μm~1.5μm。用近紅外光作為遙控光源 ,是因?yàn)槟壳凹t外發(fā)光二極管與紅外接收器件(光敏二極管、三極管及光電池)的發(fā)光與受光峰值波長(zhǎng)一般為 0.8μm~0.94μm ,在近紅外光波段內(nèi) ,二者的光譜正好重合 ,能夠很好地匹配 ,可獲得較高的傳輸效率及較高的可靠性。常用的紅外發(fā)光二極管,其外形和發(fā)光二極管LED相似,它的基本工作電路如圖2-2所示。圖中的三極管作開(kāi)關(guān),當(dāng)基極上加有驅(qū)動(dòng)信號(hào)時(shí),三極管飽和導(dǎo)通紅外發(fā)光管D也正向?qū)üぷ?,發(fā)出紅外光(近紅外線約0.93μm)。D的管壓降約1.4V,工作電流一般為10-20mA。為了適應(yīng)不同的工作電壓,D的回路中常串有電阻作為紅外發(fā)光二極管的限流電阻。

      發(fā)射電路發(fā)射紅外線去控制相應(yīng)的受控裝置時(shí),其控制的距離與D的發(fā)射功率成正比。為了增加紅外線的控制距離,紅外發(fā)光二極管 D應(yīng)工作于脈沖狀態(tài),即工作電流是脈動(dòng)的。因?yàn)槊}動(dòng)光(調(diào)制光)的有效傳送距離與脈沖的峰值電流成正比,只需盡量提高峰值電流Ip,就能增加紅外光的發(fā)射距離。提高Ip的方法,是減小脈沖占空比,即壓縮脈沖的寬度τ一些彩電紅外遙控器,其紅外發(fā)光管的工作脈沖占空比約為 1/4—1/3;一些電氣產(chǎn)品紅外遙控器,其占空比是1/10。減小脈沖占空比還可使小功率紅外發(fā)光二極管的發(fā)射距離大大增加。常見(jiàn)的紅外發(fā)光二極管,其功率分為小功率(1mW—10mW)、中功率(20mW-50mW)和大功率(50mW-100mW以上)三大類。使用不同功率的紅外發(fā)光二極管時(shí),應(yīng)配置相應(yīng)功率的驅(qū)動(dòng)管。由圖2-2可知,要使紅外發(fā)光二極管產(chǎn)生調(diào)制光,只需在驅(qū)動(dòng)管上加上一定頻率的脈沖電壓。

      圖2-2

      紅外線發(fā)射與接收的方式有兩種,其一是直射式,其二是反射式。直射式指發(fā)光管和接收管相對(duì)安放在發(fā)射與受控物的兩端,中間相距一定距離;反射式指發(fā)光管和接收管并列一起,平時(shí)接收管始終無(wú)光照,只在發(fā)光管發(fā)出的紅外光遇到反射物時(shí),接收管收到反射回來(lái)的紅外線才工作。2.2紅外通信的基本原理

      2.2.1紅外通信的工作原理

      紅外通信是利用波長(zhǎng)為900nm-1000nm的紅外波作為信息的載體,通過(guò)紅外技術(shù)實(shí)現(xiàn)兩點(diǎn)間的近距離保密通信和信息的轉(zhuǎn)發(fā)。紅外通信系統(tǒng)組成結(jié)構(gòu)包括:發(fā)射器部分,信道部分,接收器部分。

      發(fā)射裝置把信源發(fā)出的二進(jìn)制信號(hào)經(jīng)過(guò)高頻調(diào)制后由紅外發(fā)光二極管發(fā)送出去,接收裝置把接收的紅外高頻信號(hào)由接收管接收后經(jīng)光電轉(zhuǎn)換再解調(diào)為原來(lái)信息的一種通信傳輸方式。再接收到原信息后可在接收部分連接驅(qū)動(dòng)電路以完成預(yù)期的各種功能。其中對(duì)編碼的調(diào)制方式有脈寬調(diào)制(通過(guò)改變脈沖寬度調(diào)制信號(hào)PWM)和脈時(shí)調(diào)制(通過(guò)改變脈沖串之間時(shí)間間隔調(diào)制信號(hào)PPM)兩種。

      2.2.2紅外通信系統(tǒng)基本組成

      (1)發(fā)射器部分:目前己有紅外無(wú)線數(shù)字通信系統(tǒng)的信息源包括語(yǔ)音、數(shù)據(jù)、圖像等。其工作方式按發(fā)射 器 接 收器的布局不同可分為L(zhǎng)OS方式(Light-of-Sight,直視方式),漫射(diffuse)方式。LOS方式是方向性的,它具有信道特性好等優(yōu)點(diǎn),但存在“陰影”效應(yīng),難于實(shí)現(xiàn)漫游功能。漫游方式的主要特點(diǎn)是非方向性,易于實(shí)現(xiàn)漫游功能,但其信道質(zhì)量有時(shí)不如LOS方式。需傳輸?shù)男盘?hào)經(jīng)數(shù)化后(被采樣量化),一般需要進(jìn)行基帶調(diào)制、傳輸調(diào)制,有時(shí)還進(jìn)行信號(hào)源壓縮編碼,以上所得電信號(hào)驅(qū)動(dòng)光電變換電路完成光信號(hào)發(fā)射。紅外無(wú)線數(shù)字通信系統(tǒng)的工作范圍與其光發(fā)射器的光功率空間分布、通信質(zhì)量有關(guān)。一方面采用各種方法提高光發(fā)射功率,另一方面采用空間分集、全息漫射片等使其光發(fā)射器的光功率空間分布均勻。

      (2)信道部分:紅外無(wú)線數(shù)字通信的信道泛指發(fā)射器與接收器之間的空間。由于自然光及人工光源等背景光信號(hào)的介入,信源以及端設(shè)備中電學(xué)的、光學(xué)的噪聲與干擾的影響,紅外無(wú)線數(shù)字通信在有些場(chǎng)合質(zhì)量較差,此時(shí)還需加入信道編碼部分。在紅外無(wú)線通信系統(tǒng)中,由于光信號(hào)的反射、散射及背景光噪聲與干擾的影響等,紅外無(wú)線數(shù)字信道中存在多徑干擾及噪聲,這是提高信道質(zhì)量及進(jìn)行高速率應(yīng)用時(shí)應(yīng)解決的問(wèn)題。紅外無(wú)線數(shù)字通信信道中常使用的光學(xué)元件主要有光學(xué)濾光片、聚光鏡等,它們的作用是:整形、濾波、視場(chǎng)變換、頻段劃分等,如可用透鏡對(duì)發(fā)射光進(jìn)行聚焦,利用光學(xué)濾光片濾除雜散光,利用透鏡擴(kuò)大光接收機(jī)的視場(chǎng),還可利用光學(xué)元件進(jìn)行鏈路的頻分復(fù)用等。紅外無(wú)線通信信道中的光噪聲有:自然噪聲(太陽(yáng)光)及人為干擾(熒光燈燈光)等,可以由調(diào)制傳輸技術(shù)及加入濾光片等加以解決。

      (3)接收器部分:信道中的光信號(hào)由光接收部分實(shí)現(xiàn)光電變換,為了去除噪聲及碼間干擾等功能。紅外無(wú)線數(shù)字通信系統(tǒng)接收部分包括光接收機(jī)部分及后續(xù)的采樣、濾波、判決、量化、均衡和解碼等部分。紅外無(wú)線光接收機(jī)常采用放大器,并要求為帶寬大、增益高、噪聲低、干擾小、頻率響應(yīng)與信道脈沖響應(yīng)匹配。為了濾去低頻噪聲及人為干擾需采用帶通濾波器。為了獲得大的光接收機(jī)工作范圍及瞬時(shí)視場(chǎng),常采用球形光學(xué)透鏡。

      2.2.3紅外通信的特點(diǎn)

      無(wú)線通信的方式有很多種,利用紅外光進(jìn)行通信具有以下特點(diǎn): ·頻率高,波長(zhǎng)短,所發(fā)射的能量集中空間傳播時(shí)的衰減系數(shù)小,可保證信號(hào)的有效傳送;

      ·紅外線是人的肉眼看不見(jiàn)的光線,保密性強(qiáng),選用它作為信息載體,裝置工作時(shí)不存在視覺(jué)污染,對(duì)人體沒(méi)有傷害;

      ·傳播范圍不受局限,不存在頻率干擾問(wèn)題,與無(wú)線電波方式相比,不必就頻譜資源問(wèn)題向有關(guān)部門進(jìn)行申請(qǐng)和登記,易于實(shí)施;

      ·具有良好的指向性,當(dāng)傳送設(shè)備和紅外接收端口排成直線,左右偏差不超過(guò)15度的時(shí)候,紅外裝置運(yùn)行效果最好;

      ·紅外線不能穿過(guò)或繞過(guò)人和物體,在數(shù)據(jù)傳輸時(shí),不能阻斷光路; ·目前產(chǎn)生和接收紅外信號(hào)的技術(shù)已經(jīng)比較成熟,元件體積小,成本低制作簡(jiǎn)單、易于產(chǎn)生和調(diào)制等優(yōu)勢(shì)。

      2.3紅外通信編碼的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí) 通常,紅外遙控收發(fā)器將信號(hào)(二進(jìn)制脈沖碼)調(diào)制在38KHz的載波上,經(jīng)緩沖放大后送至紅外發(fā)光二極管,轉(zhuǎn)化為紅外信號(hào)發(fā)射出去。二進(jìn)制脈沖碼的形式有多種,其中最為常用的是PWM碼(脈沖寬度調(diào)制碼)和PPM碼(脈沖位置調(diào)制碼)。前者以寬脈沖表示1,窄脈沖表示0。后者脈沖寬度一樣,但是碼位的寬度不一樣,碼位寬的代表1,碼位窄的代表0。

      遙控編碼脈沖信號(hào)(以PPM碼為例)通常由引導(dǎo)碼、系統(tǒng)碼、系統(tǒng)反碼、功能碼、功能反碼等信號(hào)組成。引導(dǎo)碼也叫起始碼,由寬度為9ms的高電平和寬度為4.5ms的低電平組成(不同的遙控系統(tǒng)在高低電平的寬度上有一定區(qū)別),用來(lái)標(biāo)志遙控編碼脈沖信號(hào)的開(kāi)始。系統(tǒng)碼也叫識(shí)別碼,它用來(lái)指示遙控系統(tǒng)的種類,以區(qū)別其它遙控系統(tǒng),防止各遙控系統(tǒng)的誤動(dòng)作。功能碼也叫指令碼,它代表了相應(yīng)的控制功能,接收機(jī)中的微控制器可根據(jù)功能碼的數(shù)值完成各種功能操作。系統(tǒng)反碼與功能反碼分別是系統(tǒng)碼與功能碼的反碼,反碼的加入是為了能在接收端校對(duì)傳輸過(guò)程中是否產(chǎn)生差錯(cuò)。為了提高抗干擾性能和降低電源消耗,將上述的遙控編碼脈沖對(duì)頻率為38KHz(周期為26.3ms)的載波信號(hào)進(jìn)行脈幅調(diào)制(PAM),再經(jīng)緩沖放大后送到紅外發(fā)光管,將遙控信號(hào)發(fā)射出去。

      地址碼和數(shù)據(jù)碼都用寬度不同的脈沖來(lái)表示,兩個(gè)窄脈沖表示“0”;兩個(gè)寬脈沖表示“1”;一個(gè)窄脈沖和一個(gè)寬脈沖表示“F”也就是地址碼的“懸空”。

      紅外遙控發(fā)射器發(fā)出的紅外編碼波形,可以明顯看到,上半部分是一組一組的字碼,每組字碼之間有同步碼隔開(kāi)。下半部分是放大的一組字碼:一個(gè)字碼由12位AD碼(地址碼加數(shù)據(jù)碼,比如8位地址碼加4位數(shù)據(jù)碼)組成,每個(gè)AD位用兩個(gè)脈沖來(lái)代表:兩個(gè)窄脈沖表示“0”;兩個(gè)寬脈沖表示“1”;一個(gè)窄脈沖和一個(gè)寬脈沖表示“F”也就是地址碼的“懸空”。

      PT2262每次發(fā)射時(shí)至少發(fā)射4組字碼,PT2272只有在連續(xù)兩次檢測(cè)到相同的地址碼加數(shù)據(jù)碼才會(huì)把數(shù)據(jù)碼中的“1”驅(qū)動(dòng)相應(yīng)的數(shù)據(jù)輸出端為高電平和驅(qū)動(dòng)VT端同步為高電平。

      第二篇:電氣工程與自動(dòng)化專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文

      高壓交流變頻調(diào)速技術(shù)在火力發(fā)電廠的應(yīng)用

      長(zhǎng)春工程學(xué)院電氣工程與自動(dòng)化05級(jí)

      盧斌

      內(nèi)容摘要:介紹變頻調(diào)速的方法和節(jié)能原理,對(duì)高壓變頻調(diào)速同液力耦合器調(diào)速進(jìn)行經(jīng)濟(jì)比較,分析了風(fēng)機(jī)、水泵的節(jié)能情況,認(rèn)為變頻調(diào)速技術(shù)方案已經(jīng)成熟,節(jié)電效果顯著,一定會(huì)在各電廠得到廣泛應(yīng)用。

      關(guān)鍵詞:變頻; 調(diào)速; 液力耦合器; 節(jié)能; 降低廠用電

      高壓交流變頻調(diào)速是2O世紀(jì)9O年代迅速發(fā)展起來(lái)的一種新型調(diào)速技術(shù),其性能勝過(guò)其它任何一種調(diào)速方式(如:降壓調(diào)速、變極調(diào)速、滑差調(diào)速、內(nèi)反饋串級(jí)調(diào)速和液力耦合調(diào)速)。它以顯著的節(jié)能效益,高精度,寬范圍,完善的電力電子保護(hù)功能,以及易于實(shí)現(xiàn)的自動(dòng)通信功能,得到了廣大用戶的認(rèn)可,在運(yùn)行的安全可靠、安裝使用、維修維護(hù)等方面,也給使用者帶來(lái)了極大的便利,使之成為國(guó)內(nèi)外企業(yè)采用電機(jī)節(jié)能方式的首選。變頻調(diào)速的方法及節(jié)能原理通過(guò)流體力學(xué)的基本定律可知:風(fēng)機(jī)、水泵類

      設(shè)備均屬平方轉(zhuǎn)矩負(fù)載,其轉(zhuǎn)速 與流量Q、壓力(揚(yáng)程)H 以及軸功率P具有如下關(guān)系: Q1/Q2一 1/ 2(1)

      Hl/H 2一(1/ 2)(2)

      Pl/P2一(1/ 2)(3)

      式中,Q、、P —— 風(fēng)機(jī)(或水泵)在7"/ 轉(zhuǎn)速時(shí)的流量、壓力(或揚(yáng)程)、軸功率; Q、H、P ——。風(fēng)機(jī)(或水泵)在 轉(zhuǎn)速及相似工況下的流量、壓力(或揚(yáng)程)和軸功率。由公式(1)、(2)、(3)可知,風(fēng)機(jī)(或水泵)的流量與其轉(zhuǎn)速成正比,壓力(或揚(yáng)程)與其轉(zhuǎn)速的平方成正比,軸功率與其轉(zhuǎn)速的立方成正比。

      由公式(3)可知,在其它運(yùn)行條件不變的情況下,通過(guò)下調(diào)電機(jī)的運(yùn)行速度,其節(jié)電效果是與轉(zhuǎn)速降落成立方的關(guān)系,節(jié)電效果非常明顯。例如若工況只需要5O 的風(fēng)量或水量,則可以將電機(jī)的轉(zhuǎn)速調(diào)節(jié)為額定的一半,此時(shí)電機(jī)消耗的功率僅為額定的12.5,即理論上節(jié)能可達(dá)87.5。高壓變頻調(diào)速系統(tǒng)與液力耦力器比較

      2.1 液力耦合器存在的主要缺陷

      火力發(fā)電廠一般采用液力耦合器進(jìn)行風(fēng)機(jī)調(diào)速,由于液力耦合器本身具有如下技術(shù)缺陷,在電廠中將無(wú)法較好地滿足安全生產(chǎn)的要求。

      (1)液力耦合器調(diào)速屬耗能型調(diào)速方式,在調(diào)速范圍較大時(shí),產(chǎn)生機(jī)械損耗和轉(zhuǎn)差損耗,消耗能量,效率較低,節(jié)能效果一般。

      (2)液力耦合器是一種以液體為介質(zhì),靠液體動(dòng)量矩的變化傳遞能量的裝置,工作時(shí)是通過(guò)一導(dǎo)管調(diào)整工作腔的充液量,從而改變傳遞扭矩和輸出轉(zhuǎn)速來(lái)滿足工況要求。因此,對(duì)工作

      腔及供油系統(tǒng)需經(jīng)常維護(hù)及檢修。

      (3)液力耦合器故障時(shí),無(wú)法再用其它方式使其拖動(dòng)的風(fēng)機(jī)運(yùn)行,必須停電檢修。

      (4)采用液力耦合器時(shí),在低速向高速運(yùn)行過(guò)程中,延遲性較明顯,不能快速響應(yīng),同時(shí)這時(shí)候的電流較大,如整定不好會(huì)引起跳閘,影響系統(tǒng)的安全穩(wěn)定性。

      (5)液力耦合器本身控制精度差,調(diào)速范圍窄,通常在4O%~9O%之間。

      (6)電機(jī)啟動(dòng)時(shí),沖擊電流較大,影響電網(wǎng)的穩(wěn)定性。

      (7)在高速運(yùn)行時(shí),液力耦合器有丟轉(zhuǎn)現(xiàn)象,嚴(yán)重時(shí)會(huì)影響正常運(yùn)行。從以上情況來(lái)看,如果繼續(xù)使用液力耦合器,將會(huì)制約電廠節(jié)能降耗、降低生產(chǎn)成本、提高生產(chǎn)效率、增加企業(yè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的目的。

      2.2 高壓變頻器的優(yōu)點(diǎn)

      同傳統(tǒng)的液力耦合器比較,高壓變頻器具有以下優(yōu)點(diǎn):

      (1)采用先進(jìn)的拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)與輸入變壓器副邊多級(jí)繞組移相整流技術(shù),減少了輸出側(cè)的電流諧波,提高了功率因數(shù),解決了對(duì)電網(wǎng)的諧波污染,無(wú)需任何濾波或功率因數(shù)的補(bǔ)償。

      (2)電動(dòng)機(jī)實(shí)現(xiàn)了真正的軟啟動(dòng)、軟停運(yùn),變頻器提供給電機(jī)的無(wú)諧波干擾的正弦波電流,峰值電流和峰值時(shí)間大為減少,可消除對(duì)電網(wǎng)負(fù)載的沖擊,避免產(chǎn)生操作過(guò)電壓而損傷電機(jī)絕緣,延長(zhǎng)了電動(dòng)機(jī)和風(fēng)機(jī)、水泵的使用壽命。同時(shí),變頻器設(shè)置共振點(diǎn)跳轉(zhuǎn)頻率,避免了風(fēng)機(jī)、水泵會(huì)處于共振點(diǎn)運(yùn)行的可能性,使風(fēng)機(jī)、水泵工作平穩(wěn),軸承磨損減少,啟動(dòng)平滑,消除了機(jī)械的沖擊力,提

      高了設(shè)備的使用壽命。

      (3)變頻器自身保護(hù)功能完善,同原來(lái)繼電保護(hù)比較,保護(hù)功能更多、更靈敏,瞬間過(guò)流保護(hù)(超過(guò)200 額定電流峰值)10 s動(dòng)作,有效過(guò)流保護(hù)(15O%額定電流)3 S動(dòng)作,過(guò)載保護(hù)(12O%額定電流)1 rain動(dòng)作,大大加強(qiáng)了對(duì)電動(dòng)機(jī)保護(hù)的可靠性。

      (4)調(diào)速工段內(nèi)的設(shè)備調(diào)節(jié)和優(yōu)化控制由機(jī)組DCS完成,DCS負(fù)責(zé)采集模擬量、開(kāi)關(guān)量等信號(hào),變頻器輸出的模擬量、開(kāi)關(guān)量信號(hào)全部進(jìn)入DCS系統(tǒng),形成閉環(huán)控制,同時(shí)實(shí)現(xiàn)相關(guān)輔機(jī)聯(lián)鎖功能等。

      (5)采用變頻調(diào)節(jié),實(shí)現(xiàn)了擋板、閥門全開(kāi),減少了擋板、閥門節(jié)流損失,且能均勻調(diào)速,滿足調(diào)峰需要,節(jié)約了大量的電能,具有顯著的節(jié)電效果。

      (6)整機(jī)的運(yùn)行噪音改善明顯。采用液力耦合器時(shí),無(wú)論低速高速,由于電機(jī)均處于工頻運(yùn)行,整機(jī)的噪音明顯,達(dá)到9O dB左右;但是進(jìn)行變頻改造后,整機(jī)的運(yùn)行頻率下降至40 Hz左右,電機(jī)的運(yùn)行噪音明顯下降,低于8O dB,在低速運(yùn)

      行時(shí)基本上聽(tīng)不到噪音,達(dá)到65 dB以下,大大改善了現(xiàn)場(chǎng)的噪音污染。

      (7)由于電機(jī)降速運(yùn)行及工作在高效區(qū),電合器時(shí)的59℃下降至44 C,電機(jī)前后軸承的溫度都有相應(yīng)的下降,延長(zhǎng)了風(fēng)機(jī)系統(tǒng)的使用壽命。

      (8)低負(fù)荷下轉(zhuǎn)速降低,減少了機(jī)械部分的磨損和振動(dòng),延長(zhǎng)了風(fēng)機(jī)大修周期,可節(jié)省大量的檢修費(fèi)用。

      (9)日常維護(hù)保養(yǎng)工作量和費(fèi)用下降。采用液力耦合器估計(jì)每年的維護(hù)費(fèi)用在5萬(wàn)元左右,采用變頻器后,這項(xiàng)費(fèi)用下降為數(shù)千元左右。

      (10)采用液力耦合器時(shí)的調(diào)速范圍具有很大限制,而用變頻器可實(shí)現(xiàn)智能調(diào)速,調(diào)頻范圍0~ 50 Hz,大大地增強(qiáng)了工藝調(diào)節(jié)能力。

      2.3 高壓變頻調(diào)速同液力耦合器調(diào)速經(jīng)濟(jì)比較為了檢測(cè)高壓變頻裝置的節(jié)能情況,某電廠在風(fēng)機(jī)上采用液力耦合器與某公司的Harsvert—A高壓變頻裝置調(diào)速做對(duì)比試驗(yàn),數(shù)據(jù)如下。

      (1)采用變頻器拖動(dòng)風(fēng)機(jī)時(shí)高速狀態(tài):

      P1= ~/r Ulcos~=1.732×6.3×40.2×0.96= 419.01(kW)

      低速狀態(tài):

      P2=、/r Ulcos~=1.732X 6.3X18×0.95— 186.59(kW)

      平均功率P=P X 0.8+P。X 0.2—372.52(kW)(高速狀態(tài)約8O,低速狀態(tài)約2O%)。

      (2)采用液力耦合器時(shí)

      高速狀態(tài):P L =、/r Ulcos~=1.732X 6.3X 52X 0.93=527.68(kW)

      低速狀態(tài):

      P2 一~/3 Ulcos~=1.732X 6.3×44×0.9—432.1(kW)

      平均功率P 一P1 ×0。8+P2 ×0。2—508.56(kW)(高速狀態(tài)約8O,低速狀態(tài)約2O)。

      (3)節(jié)能率對(duì)比

      F 一(P 一P)/P一(508.56—375.52)/508.56— 26.17

      由此得出結(jié)論:變頻改造后,風(fēng)機(jī)運(yùn)行效率明顯提高,比液力耦合器調(diào)速節(jié)電26.17。變頻器節(jié)能分析

      火力發(fā)電企業(yè)消耗的廠用電量中,75 以上的負(fù)荷為水泵與風(fēng)機(jī),這些水泵與風(fēng)機(jī)都是經(jīng)過(guò)調(diào)整門擋板來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)的,不但調(diào)節(jié)質(zhì)量差、響應(yīng)慢,而且存在著浪費(fèi)電能的問(wèn)題。

      3.1 風(fēng)機(jī)節(jié)能分析

      3.1.1 風(fēng)機(jī)風(fēng)量控制

      送風(fēng)機(jī)和引風(fēng)機(jī)是火電廠中的耗電大戶,其耗電量約占廠用電量的3O,占機(jī)組發(fā)電量的2 ~4。因此,正確選擇送風(fēng)機(jī)和引風(fēng)機(jī)的調(diào)風(fēng)方式,對(duì)火電廠的安全和經(jīng)濟(jì)運(yùn)行有著重要意義。電機(jī)以定速運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn),調(diào)節(jié)風(fēng)機(jī)風(fēng)量典型的方法是采用擋板控制。根據(jù)擋板在風(fēng)道中的安裝位置可分為出口擋板控制和入口擋板控制,采用擋板控制時(shí),當(dāng)擋板關(guān)小則增加風(fēng)阻,且不能在寬范圍調(diào)節(jié)風(fēng)量。例如,要求風(fēng)量在8O 的情況下,電機(jī)消耗的功率約為9O,能量損失嚴(yán)重。風(fēng)機(jī)在變速狀態(tài)下運(yùn)行,保持擋板全開(kāi),通過(guò)改變風(fēng)機(jī)轉(zhuǎn)速來(lái)調(diào)整風(fēng)量,采用變頻控制時(shí),電動(dòng) 機(jī)消耗的功率為(80)。≈50,與其他控制方式相比,轉(zhuǎn)速控制的節(jié)電效果十分明顯。電廠風(fēng)機(jī)的各種調(diào)速裝置的比較如圖1所示。

      3.1.2 送風(fēng)機(jī)變頻改造后的節(jié)能分析

      某電廠使用某公司的Harsvert—A高壓變頻器,選定在機(jī)組帶5O%、75、1OO 負(fù)荷3種工況下,對(duì)4號(hào)爐2臺(tái)送風(fēng)機(jī)進(jìn)行工頻和變頻2種運(yùn)行方式下的對(duì)比試驗(yàn),機(jī)組運(yùn)行工況和測(cè)試計(jì)算結(jié)果見(jiàn)表1。

      從表1可以看出,送風(fēng)機(jī)變頻調(diào)節(jié)方式運(yùn)行效率基本在75 ~8O,而工頻調(diào)節(jié)方式運(yùn)行效率為55 左右(見(jiàn)圖2);機(jī)組在100 kWh、15OMW、200 MW 負(fù)荷時(shí),2臺(tái)送風(fēng)機(jī)變頻運(yùn)行比工頻運(yùn)行每小時(shí)分別節(jié)電750 kWh、602.5 kWh、733.6 kWh。變頻改造后,送風(fēng)機(jī)運(yùn)行效率明顯提高,節(jié)電效果顯著。

      圖2 送風(fēng)機(jī)運(yùn)行效率比較4號(hào)爐2臺(tái)送風(fēng)機(jī)變頻改造后以年運(yùn)行7 000 h計(jì)算,全年可節(jié)約電量492.9萬(wàn)kWh。按該公司上網(wǎng)電價(jià)0.30元/kwh計(jì)算,直接經(jīng)濟(jì)效

      益約為148萬(wàn)元。

      3.2 水泵節(jié)能分析

      3.2.1 水泵流量控制水泵是由恒速電機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)出口閥及調(diào)節(jié)閥控制水的流量和壓力,通過(guò)人為增加阻力和回流的辦法以達(dá)到調(diào)節(jié)流量的目的,因而在運(yùn)行中產(chǎn)生了大量的能量損失。水泵的轉(zhuǎn)速在某一范圍內(nèi)變化時(shí),流量、總揚(yáng)程、軸功率依次有線性、平方、立方關(guān)系。但對(duì)于實(shí)際的水泵負(fù)載,通常存在一個(gè)與高低差有關(guān)的實(shí)際揚(yáng)程,揚(yáng)程越小,軸功率越接近于同轉(zhuǎn)速成立方關(guān)系的定常特性,而且轉(zhuǎn)速控制產(chǎn)生的節(jié)電效果也越大。根據(jù)實(shí)際調(diào)查表明,一般老電廠大型水泵平均流量的余量大于2o%,即有多于2o%的流量損耗在節(jié)流閥和回流調(diào)節(jié)上,若所需要的流量減少2O,則相應(yīng)的電動(dòng)機(jī)轉(zhuǎn)速也應(yīng)降低2O%,即實(shí)際轉(zhuǎn)速為8O%,則根據(jù)流

      量與轉(zhuǎn)速的關(guān)系式我主蒸汽溫度(甲/L)/c 534/540 529/538 531/534 535/537 538/537 530/532主蒸汽壓力/MPa 11.8O 12.1O 13.43 13.66 13.37 13〃41風(fēng)機(jī)入VI擋板開(kāi)度(甲/乙)/ 25/20 lOO/lOO 30/30 lOO/lOO 38/36 94/90風(fēng)機(jī)電流(甲/乙)/A 80/79 41/21 81/80 43/36 90/87 50/49電動(dòng)機(jī)輸入功率(甲/乙)/kW 729.0/720.0 452.8/246.2 778.4/743.2 476.0/443.1 886.2/822.9 470.2/505.3風(fēng)機(jī)設(shè)備運(yùn)行效率/ 58.47/50.14 75.53/75.33 52.34/49.73 87.oo/79.53 56.73/58.42 52.34/49.73平均運(yùn)行時(shí)間/ 6O 3O 1O們可得出:(8O%)。≈51%,即按此工況水泵節(jié)電近5O%。由此可見(jiàn),節(jié)能潛力之大,效益之高。電

      廠水泵的各種調(diào)速裝置的比較,如圖3所示。

      1—— 排出霄路閥門控制時(shí)電動(dòng)機(jī)輸入功率;

      2—— 轉(zhuǎn)差功率調(diào)節(jié)控制(轉(zhuǎn)差電動(dòng)機(jī)或液力耦合器)時(shí)的電動(dòng)機(jī)輸入功率;3—— 變頻器調(diào)速控制時(shí)電動(dòng)機(jī)的輸入功率;4—— 調(diào)速控制時(shí)電動(dòng)機(jī)軸功率

      圖3 泵的輸入功率一流量特性當(dāng)采用變頻調(diào)速時(shí),5O Hz滿載時(shí)功率因數(shù)接近1,工作電流比電機(jī)額定電流值要低許多,這是由于變頻裝置的內(nèi)濾波電容產(chǎn)生的改善功率因數(shù)的作用,可以為電廠節(jié)約容量2O 左右。

      3.2.2 凝結(jié)水泵變頻改造后的節(jié)能分析某電廠使用某公司的Harsvert—A高壓變頻器,選定在機(jī)組帶350 MW、315 MW、280 MW、240 MW、210 MW、175 MW 負(fù)荷6種工況下對(duì)某電廠1號(hào)機(jī)1臺(tái)凝結(jié)水泵進(jìn)行工頻和變頻2種運(yùn)行方式下的對(duì)比試驗(yàn),機(jī)組運(yùn)行工況和測(cè)試計(jì)算結(jié)果見(jiàn)表2。

      凝結(jié)水泵改造為變頻無(wú)級(jí)調(diào)節(jié)運(yùn)行后,一方面減少了運(yùn)行中的節(jié)流損失,凝結(jié)水泵電流下降,起到節(jié)能作用,另一方面由于凝結(jié)水泵出口水壓的下降,大大改善了低壓加熱器的工作條件,減少了低壓加熱器泄漏,降低了檢修工作量,取得了較為明顯的安全和經(jīng)濟(jì)效益。

      (1)耗電量計(jì)算

      工頻運(yùn)行時(shí),累計(jì)年耗電量為:Cd一7 000×(652.55×10 + 633.38×5%

      +617.61×2O%+609.0×5 +564.38×10 +539.24×5O%)一4 038 675.23(kWh)因此,采用變頻運(yùn)行時(shí),每年凝結(jié)泵耗電量約為403.9萬(wàn)kW h。

      變頻運(yùn)行時(shí),累計(jì)年耗電量為:

      Cb一7 000×(573.58×10%+454.18×5%+384.14×2O 9/5+349.95×5% +44.09×10%+193.92×5O)一2 070 343.93(kW h)因此,采用變頻運(yùn)行時(shí),每年凝結(jié)泵耗電量約為207.0萬(wàn)kW h。

      1號(hào)機(jī)組2號(hào)機(jī)組 3號(hào)機(jī)組4號(hào)機(jī)組

      圖3 1號(hào)機(jī)組改造前后4臺(tái)機(jī)組的真空度比較大約降低了2 g/kWh,由此而產(chǎn)生的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益約157萬(wàn)元/a。

      (2)網(wǎng)板由原來(lái)的平板狀改為半弧形狀,可以使進(jìn)入濾網(wǎng)的垃圾從底部被帶到地面,然后被沖洗水沖至專用垃圾籠里,有效地防止了垃圾附在濾網(wǎng)正面,造成濾網(wǎng)前后壓差大而壓彎濾網(wǎng)的情況發(fā)生。從而使1號(hào)機(jī)組的1號(hào)和2號(hào)一次濾網(wǎng)更換率由2O塊/a降為0塊/a,既節(jié)省了材料,又節(jié)約了人工費(fèi)用。

      (3)一次濾網(wǎng)沖洗水噴嘴改為在濾網(wǎng)外清洗,不用再像以前那樣,要鉆進(jìn)濕滑的濾網(wǎng)里面,騎在離水面12 m 高的管道上清理噴嘴,為檢修人員提供了安全保障。

      (4)網(wǎng)板、鏈板、導(dǎo)軌及密封裝置均采用不銹鋼制成,提高了部件的防腐性能,延長(zhǎng)了使用壽命。

      (5)網(wǎng)板與導(dǎo)軌緊貼在一起,密封性能好,使未過(guò)濾的水和過(guò)濾過(guò)的水完全分開(kāi),凈水質(zhì)量得到了保證。

      (6)1號(hào)機(jī)組二次濾網(wǎng)維修量由21次/a降為1次/a,凝汽器、主機(jī)冷油器、小汽機(jī)冷油器、閉式水冷卻器、發(fā)電機(jī)定子冷卻水冷卻器、發(fā)電機(jī)密封油冷卻器、勵(lì)磁機(jī)空氣冷卻器的鈦管檢修率都下降了8O 以上,節(jié)約了大量人力、物力,初步計(jì)算節(jié)約成本達(dá)36萬(wàn)元/a。

      (7)新型一次濾網(wǎng)結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單,操作方便,并可實(shí)現(xiàn)程控操作。結(jié)論

      (1)經(jīng)過(guò)一年的試運(yùn)行證明,1號(hào)機(jī)的一次濾網(wǎng)改造是成功的,由此產(chǎn)生的直接經(jīng)濟(jì)效益約500萬(wàn)元/a。

      (2)節(jié)能計(jì)算:

      年節(jié)電量:AC—Cd—Cb一403.9—207.0—196.9萬(wàn)kWh節(jié)電率:(△c/cd)×1OO 一(1 96.9/403.9)× 1O0 一48.75按該公司上網(wǎng)電價(jià)0.334元/kWh計(jì)算,則每年直接經(jīng)濟(jì)效益為65.77萬(wàn)元。

      (3)隨著廠網(wǎng)分開(kāi),竟價(jià)上網(wǎng)改革的深入,節(jié)能已成為各發(fā)電企業(yè)的重要工作,只有降低廠用電率,降低發(fā)電成本,才能提高上網(wǎng)電價(jià)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力,因此,采用變頻技術(shù)對(duì)電廠輔機(jī)進(jìn)行節(jié)能改造,是各電廠的當(dāng)務(wù)之急。經(jīng)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)運(yùn)行證明,采用高壓大功率變頻器性能好,可靠性高,其節(jié)能效果明顯優(yōu)于其他任何一種調(diào)速方式,特別是在低負(fù)荷時(shí)更為顯著。電廠輔機(jī)采用變頻調(diào)速后,提高了機(jī)組自動(dòng)裝置的穩(wěn)定性,大大改善了電機(jī)的啟動(dòng)性能,延長(zhǎng)了電機(jī)的壽命,在老電廠的大功率風(fēng)機(jī)、水泵系統(tǒng)上實(shí)現(xiàn)變頻調(diào)速,是理想的節(jié)能項(xiàng)目,一般1~3年即可收回設(shè)備改造投資成本。

      參考文獻(xiàn)

      [I]楊立?。h(huán)水旋轉(zhuǎn)濾網(wǎng)的改造.浙江電力,200I,(6):l1~ 13

      [2]李松生,陳勝利,鄭建濤,等.EDF 18H 型耐海水二次

      濾網(wǎng)設(shè)計(jì)、制造及應(yīng)用.電站輔機(jī),2000,(4):19~21

      E3]李壯揚(yáng),寧立明,劉吉文.沙角C發(fā)電廠循環(huán)水控制系

      統(tǒng)分析及改進(jìn).廣東電力,13(4):58-60

      E4]羅萬(wàn)金.電廠熱工過(guò)程自動(dòng)調(diào)節(jié).北京,中國(guó)電力 版

      第三篇:畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

      齒輪和軸的介紹

      摘 要:在傳統(tǒng)機(jī)械和現(xiàn)代機(jī)械中齒輪和軸的重要地位是不可動(dòng)搖的。齒輪和軸主要 安裝在主軸箱來(lái)傳遞力的方向。通過(guò)加工制造它們可以分為許多的型號(hào),分別用于許 多的場(chǎng)合。所以我們對(duì)齒輪和軸的了解和認(rèn)識(shí)必須是多層次多方位的。關(guān)鍵詞:齒輪;軸 關(guān)鍵詞 在直齒圓柱齒輪的受力分析中,是假定各力作用在單一平面的。我們將研究作用 力具有三維坐標(biāo)的齒輪。因此,在斜齒輪的情況下,其齒向是不平行于回轉(zhuǎn)軸線的。而在錐齒輪的情況中各回轉(zhuǎn)軸線互相不平行。像我們要討論的那樣,尚有其他道理需 要學(xué)習(xí),掌握。斜齒輪用于傳遞平行軸之間的運(yùn)動(dòng)。傾斜角度每個(gè)齒輪都一樣,但一個(gè)必須右旋 斜齒,而另一個(gè)必須是左旋斜齒。齒的形狀是一濺開(kāi)線螺旋面。如果一張被剪成平行 四邊形(矩形)的紙張包圍在齒輪圓柱體上,紙上印出齒的角刃邊就變成斜線。如果 我展開(kāi)這張紙,在血角刃邊上的每一個(gè)點(diǎn)就發(fā)生一漸開(kāi)線曲線。直齒圓柱齒輪輪齒的初始接觸處是跨過(guò)整個(gè)齒面而伸展開(kāi)來(lái)的線。斜齒輪輪齒的 初始接觸是一點(diǎn),當(dāng)齒進(jìn)入更多的嚙合時(shí),它就變成線。在直齒圓柱齒輪中,接觸是平行于回轉(zhuǎn)軸線的。在斜齒輪中,該先是跨過(guò)齒面的對(duì)角線。它是齒輪逐漸進(jìn)行嚙合 并平穩(wěn)的從一個(gè)齒到另一個(gè)齒傳遞運(yùn)動(dòng),那樣就使斜齒輪具有高速重載下平穩(wěn)傳遞運(yùn) 動(dòng)的能力。斜齒輪使軸的軸承承受徑向和軸向力。當(dāng)軸向推力變的大了或由于別的原 因而產(chǎn)生某些影響時(shí),那就可以使用人字齒輪。雙斜齒輪(人字齒輪)是與反向的并 排地裝在同一軸上的兩個(gè)斜齒輪等效。他們產(chǎn)生相反的軸向推力作用,這樣就消除了 軸向推力。當(dāng)兩個(gè)或更多個(gè)單向齒斜齒輪被在同一軸上時(shí),齒輪的齒向應(yīng)作選擇,以 便產(chǎn)生最小的軸向推力。交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪或螺旋齒輪,他們是軸中心線既不相交也不平行。交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪的 齒彼此之間發(fā)生點(diǎn)接觸,它隨著齒輪的磨合而變成線接觸。因此他們只能傳遞小的載 荷和主要用于儀器設(shè)備中,而且肯定不能推薦在動(dòng)力傳動(dòng)中使用。交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪與斜 齒輪之間在被安裝后互相捏合之前是沒(méi)有任何區(qū)別的。它們是以同樣的方法進(jìn)行制 造。一對(duì)相嚙合的交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪通常具有同樣的齒向,即左旋主動(dòng)齒輪跟右旋從動(dòng)齒 輪相嚙合。在交錯(cuò)軸斜齒設(shè)計(jì)中,當(dāng)該齒的斜角相等時(shí)所產(chǎn)生滑移速度最小。然而當(dāng)

      該齒的斜角不相等時(shí),如果兩個(gè)齒輪具有相同齒向的話,大斜角齒輪應(yīng)用作主動(dòng)齒輪。蝸輪與交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪相似。小齒輪即蝸桿具有較小的齒數(shù),通常是一到四齒,由 于它們完全纏繞在節(jié)圓柱上,因此它們被稱為螺紋齒。與其相配的齒輪叫做蝸輪,蝸 輪不是真正的斜齒輪。蝸桿和蝸輪通常是用于向垂直相交軸之間的傳動(dòng)提供大的角速 度減速比。蝸輪不是斜齒輪,因?yàn)槠潺X頂面做成中凹形狀以適配蝸桿曲率,目的是要 形成線接觸而不是點(diǎn)接觸。然而蝸桿蝸輪傳動(dòng)機(jī)構(gòu)中存在齒間有較大滑移速度的缺 點(diǎn),正像交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪那樣。蝸桿蝸輪機(jī)構(gòu)有單包圍和雙包圍機(jī)構(gòu)。單包圍機(jī)構(gòu)就是蝸輪包裹著蝸桿的一種機(jī) 構(gòu)。當(dāng)然,如果每個(gè)構(gòu)件各自局部地包圍著對(duì)方的蝸輪機(jī)構(gòu)就是雙包圍蝸輪蝸桿機(jī)構(gòu)。著兩者之間的重要區(qū)別是,在雙包圍蝸輪組的輪齒間有面接觸,而在單包圍的蝸輪組 的輪齒間有線接觸。一個(gè)裝置中的蝸桿和蝸輪正像交錯(cuò)軸斜齒輪那樣具有相同的齒 向,但是其斜齒齒角的角度是極不相同的。蝸桿上的齒斜角度通常很大,而蝸輪上的 則極小,因此習(xí)慣常規(guī)定蝸桿的導(dǎo)角,那就是蝸桿齒斜角的余角;也規(guī)定了蝸輪上的 齒斜角,該兩角之和就等于 90 度的軸線交角。當(dāng)齒輪要用來(lái)傳遞相交軸之間的運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí),就需要某種形式的錐齒輪。雖然錐齒輪 通常制造成能構(gòu)成 90 度軸交角,但它們也可產(chǎn)生任何角度的軸交角。輪齒可以鑄出,銑制或滾切加工。僅就滾齒而言就可達(dá)一級(jí)精度。在典型的錐齒輪安裝中,其中一個(gè) 錐齒輪常常裝于支承的外側(cè)。這意味著軸的撓曲情況更加明顯而使在輪齒接觸上具有 更大的影響。另外一個(gè)難題,發(fā)生在難于預(yù)示錐齒輪輪齒上的應(yīng)力,實(shí)際上是由于齒輪被加工 成錐狀造成的。直齒錐齒輪易于設(shè)計(jì)且制造簡(jiǎn)單,如果他們安裝的精密而確定,在運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)中會(huì)產(chǎn)生 良好效果。然而在直齒圓柱齒輪情況下,在節(jié)線速度較高時(shí),他們將發(fā)出噪音。在這 些

      情況下,螺旋錐齒輪比直齒輪能產(chǎn)生平穩(wěn)的多的嚙合作用,因此碰到高速運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)的場(chǎng) 合那是很有用的。當(dāng)在汽車的各種不同用途中,有一個(gè)帶偏心軸的類似錐齒輪的機(jī)構(gòu),那是常常所希望的。這樣的齒輪機(jī)構(gòu)叫做準(zhǔn)雙曲面齒輪機(jī)構(gòu),因?yàn)樗鼈兊墓?jié)面是雙曲 回轉(zhuǎn)面。這種齒輪之間的輪齒作用是沿著一根直線上產(chǎn)生滾動(dòng)與滑動(dòng)相結(jié)合的運(yùn)動(dòng)并 和蝸輪蝸桿的輪齒作用有著更多的共同之處。軸是一種轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)或靜止的桿件。通常有圓形橫截面。在軸上安裝像齒輪,皮帶輪,飛輪,曲柄,鏈輪和其他動(dòng)力傳遞零件。軸能夠承受彎曲,拉伸,壓縮或扭轉(zhuǎn)載荷,這些力相結(jié)合時(shí),人們期望找到靜強(qiáng)度和疲勞強(qiáng)度作為設(shè)計(jì)的重要依據(jù)。因?yàn)閱胃S 可以承受靜壓力,變應(yīng)力和交變應(yīng)力,所有的應(yīng)力作用都是同時(shí)發(fā)生的。“軸”這個(gè)詞包含著多種含義,例如心軸和主軸。心軸也是軸,既可以旋轉(zhuǎn)也可 以靜止的軸,但不承受扭轉(zhuǎn)載荷。短的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)軸常常被稱為主軸。當(dāng)軸的彎曲或扭轉(zhuǎn)變形必需被限制于很小的范圍內(nèi)時(shí),其尺寸應(yīng)根據(jù)變形來(lái)確 定,然后進(jìn)行應(yīng)力分析。因此,如若軸要做得有足夠的剛度以致?lián)锨惶螅敲春?應(yīng)力符合安全要求那是完全可能的。但決不意味著設(shè)計(jì)者要保證;它們是安全的,軸 幾乎總是要進(jìn)行計(jì)算的,知道它們是處在可以接受的允許的極限以內(nèi)。因之,設(shè)計(jì)者 無(wú)論何時(shí),動(dòng)力傳遞零件,如齒輪或皮帶輪都應(yīng)該設(shè)置在靠近支持軸承附近。這就減 低了彎矩,因而減小變形和彎曲應(yīng)力。雖然來(lái)自 M.H.G 方法在設(shè)計(jì)軸中難于應(yīng)用,但它可能用來(lái)準(zhǔn)確預(yù)示實(shí)際失效。這 樣,它是一個(gè)檢驗(yàn)已經(jīng)設(shè)計(jì)好了的軸的或者發(fā)現(xiàn)具體軸在運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)中發(fā)生損壞原因的好方 法。進(jìn)而有著大量的關(guān)于設(shè)計(jì)的問(wèn)題,其中由于別的考慮例如剛度考慮,尺寸已得到 較好的限制。設(shè)計(jì)者去查找關(guān)于圓角尺寸、熱處理、表面光潔度和是否要進(jìn)行噴丸處理等資料,那真正的唯一的需要是實(shí)現(xiàn)所要求的壽命和可靠性。由于他們的功能相似,將離合器和制動(dòng)器一起處理。簡(jiǎn)化摩擦離合器或制動(dòng)器的 動(dòng)力學(xué)表達(dá)式中,各自以角速度 w1 和 w2 運(yùn)動(dòng)的兩個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)慣量 I1 和 I2,在制動(dòng)器情 況下其中之一可能是零,由于接上離合器或制動(dòng)器而最終要導(dǎo)致同樣的速度。因?yàn)閮?個(gè)構(gòu)件開(kāi)始以不同速度運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)而使打滑發(fā)生了,并且在作用過(guò)程中能量散失,結(jié)果導(dǎo)致 溫升。在分析這些裝置的性能時(shí),我們應(yīng)注意到作用力,傳遞的扭矩,散失的能量和 溫升。所傳遞的扭矩關(guān)系到作用力,摩擦系數(shù)和離合器或制動(dòng)器的幾何狀況。這是一 個(gè)靜力學(xué)問(wèn)題。這個(gè)問(wèn)題將必須對(duì)每個(gè)幾何機(jī)構(gòu)形狀分別進(jìn)行研究。然而溫升與能量 損失有關(guān),研究溫升可能與制動(dòng)器或離合器的類型無(wú)關(guān)。因?yàn)閹缀涡螤畹闹匾允巧?熱表面。各種各樣的離合器和制動(dòng)器可作如下分類: 1.輪緣式內(nèi)膨脹制凍塊; 2.輪緣式外接觸制動(dòng)塊; 3.條帶式; 4.盤(pán)型或軸向式; 5.圓錐型;

      6.混合式。分析摩擦離合器和制動(dòng)器的各種形式都應(yīng)用一般的同樣的程序,下面的步驟是必 需的: 1.假定或確定摩擦表面上壓力分布; 2.找出最大壓力和任一點(diǎn)處壓力之間的關(guān)系; 3.應(yīng)用靜平衡條件去找尋(a)作用力;(b)扭矩;(c)支反力。混合式離合器包括幾個(gè)類型,例如強(qiáng)制接觸離合器、超載釋放保護(hù)離合器、超越 離合器、磁液離合器等等。強(qiáng)制接觸離合器由一個(gè)變位桿和兩個(gè)夾爪組成。各種強(qiáng)制接觸離合器之間最大的 區(qū)別與夾爪的設(shè)計(jì)有關(guān)。為了在結(jié)合過(guò)程中給變換作用予較長(zhǎng)時(shí)間周期,夾爪可以是 棘輪式的,螺旋型或齒型的。有時(shí)使用許多齒或夾爪。他們可能在圓周面上加工齒,以便他們以圓柱周向配合來(lái)結(jié)合或者在配合元件的端面上加工齒來(lái)結(jié)合。雖然強(qiáng)制離合器不像摩擦接觸離合器用的那么廣泛,但它們確實(shí)有很重要的運(yùn) 用。離合器需要同步操作。有些裝置例如線性驅(qū)動(dòng)裝置或電機(jī)操作螺桿驅(qū)動(dòng)器必須運(yùn)行到一定的限度然后 停頓下來(lái)。為著這些用途就需要超載釋放保護(hù)離合器。這些離合器通常用彈簧加載,以使得在達(dá)到預(yù)定的力矩時(shí)釋放。當(dāng)?shù)竭_(dá)超載點(diǎn)時(shí)聽(tīng)到的“喀嚓”聲就被認(rèn)定為是所 希望的信號(hào)聲。超越離合器

      或連軸器允許機(jī)器的被動(dòng)構(gòu)件“空轉(zhuǎn)”或“超越”,因?yàn)橹鲃?dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)件 停頓了或者因?yàn)榱硪粋€(gè)動(dòng)力源使被動(dòng)構(gòu)件增加了速度。這種離合器通常使用裝在外套 筒和內(nèi)軸件之間的滾子或滾珠。該內(nèi)軸件,在它的周邊加工了數(shù)個(gè)平面。驅(qū)動(dòng)作用是 靠在套筒和平面之間契入的滾子來(lái)獲得。因此該離合器與具有一定數(shù)量齒的棘輪棘爪 機(jī)構(gòu)等效。磁液離合器或制動(dòng)器相對(duì)來(lái)說(shuō)是一個(gè)新的發(fā)展,它們具有兩平行的磁極板。這些 磁極板之間有磁粉混合物潤(rùn)滑。電磁線圈被裝入磁路中的某處。借助激勵(lì)該線圈,磁 液混合物的剪切強(qiáng)度可被精確的控制。這樣從充分滑移到完全鎖住的任何狀態(tài)都可以 獲得。

      GEAR AND SHAFT INTRODUCTION

      Abstract: The important position of the wheel gear and shaft can't falter in

      traditional machine and modern machines.The wheel gear and shafts mainly install the direction that delivers the dint at the principal axis box.The passing to process to make them can is divided into many model numbers, useding for many situations respectively.So we must be the multilayers to the understanding of the wheel gear and shaft in many ways.Key words: Wheel gear;Shaft

      In the force analysis of spur gears, the forces are assumed to act in a single plane.We shall study gears in which the forces have three dimensions.The reason for this, in the case of helical gears, is that the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation.And in the case of bevel gears, the rotational axes are not parallel to each other.There are also other reasons, as we shall learn.Helical gears are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts.The helix angle is the same on each gear, but one gear must have a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand helix.The shape of the tooth is an involute helicoid.If a piece of paper cut in the shape of a parallelogram is wrapped around a cylinder, the angular edge of the paper becomes a helix.If we unwind this paper, each point on the angular edge generates an involute curve.The surface obtained when every point on the edge generates an involute is called an involute helicoid.The initial contact of spur-gear teeth is a line extending all the way across the face of the tooth.The initial contact of helical gear teeth is a point, which changes into a line as the teeth come into more engagement.In spur gears the line of contact is parallel to the axis of the rotation;in helical gears, the line is diagonal across the face of the tooth.It is this gradual of the teeth and the smooth transfer of load from one tooth to another, which give helical gears the ability to transmit heavy loads at high

      speeds.Helical gears subject the shaft bearings to both radial and thrust loads.When the thrust loads become high or are objectionable for other reasons, it may be desirable to use double helical gears.A double helical gear(herringbone)is equivalent to two helical gears of opposite hand, mounted side by side on the same shaft.They develop opposite thrust reactions and thus cancel out the thrust load.When two or more single helical gears are mounted on the same shaft, the hand of the gears should be selected so as to produce the minimum thrust load.Crossed-helical, or spiral, gears are those in which the shaft centerlines are neither parallel nor intersecting.The teeth of crossed-helical fears have point contact with each other, which changes to line contact as the gears wear in.For this reason they will carry out very small loads and are mainly for instrumental applications, and are definitely not recommended for use in the transmission of power.There is on difference between a crossed helical gear and a helical gear until they are mounted in mesh with each other.They are manufactured in the same way.A pair of meshed crossed helical gears usually have the same hand;that is ,a right-hand driver goes with a

      right-hand driven.In the design of crossed-helical gears, the minimum sliding velocity is obtained when the helix angle are equal.However, when the helix angle are not equal, the gear with the larger helix angle should be used as the driver if both gears have the same hand.Worm gears are similar to crossed helical gears.The pinion or worm has a small number of teeth, usually one to four, and since they completely wrap around the pitch cylinder they are called threads.Its mating gear is called a worm gear, which is not a true helical gear.A worm and worm gear are used to provide a high angular-velocity reduction between nonintersecting shafts which are usually at right angle.The worm gear is not a helical gear because its face is made concave to fit the curvature of the worm in order to provide line contact instead of point contact.However, a disadvantage of worm gearing is the high sliding velocities across the teeth, the same as with crossed

      helical gears.Worm gearing are either single or double enveloping.A single-enveloping gearing is one in which the gear wraps around or partially encloses the worm..A gearing in which each element partially encloses the other is, of course, a double-enveloping worm gearing.The important difference between the two is that area contact exists between the teeth of double-enveloping gears while only line contact between those of single-enveloping gears.The worm and worm gear of a set have the same hand of helix as for crossed helical gears, but the helix angles are usually quite different.The helix angle on the worm is generally quite large, and that on the gear very small.Because of this, it is usual to specify the lead angle on the worm, which is the complement of the worm helix angle, and the helix angle on the gear;the two angles are equal for a 90-deg.Shaft angle.When gears are to be used to transmit motion between intersecting shaft, some of bevel gear is required.Although bevel gear are usually made for a shaft angle of 90 deg.They may be produced for almost any shaft angle.The teeth may be cast, milled, or generated.Only the generated teeth may be classed as accurate.In a typical bevel gear mounting, one of the gear is often mounted outboard of the bearing.This means that shaft deflection can be more pronounced and have a greater effect on the contact of teeth.Another difficulty, which occurs in predicting the stress in bevel-gear teeth, is the fact the teeth are tapered.Straight bevel gears are easy to design and simple to manufacture and give very good results in service if they are mounted accurately and positively.As in the case of squr gears, however, they become noisy at higher values of the pitch-line velocity.In these cases it is often good design practice to go to the spiral bevel gear, which is the bevel counterpart of the helical gear.As in the case of helical gears, spiral bevel gears give a much smoother tooth action than straight bevel gears, and hence are useful where high speed are encountered.7

      It is frequently desirable, as in the case of automotive differential applications, to have gearing similar to bevel gears but with the shaft offset.Such gears are called hypoid gears because their pitch surfaces are hyperboloids of revolution.The tooth action between such gears is a combination of rolling and sliding along a straight line and has much in common with that of worm gears.A shaft is a rotating or stationary member, usually of circular cross section, having mounted upon it such elementsas gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets, and other power-transmission elements.Shaft may be subjected to bending, tension, compression, or torsional loads, acting singly or in combination with one another.When they are combined, one may expect to find both static and fatigue strength to be important design considerations, since a

      single shaft may be subjected to static stresses, completely reversed, and repeated stresses, all acting at the same time.The word “shaft” covers numerous variations, such as axles and spindles.Anaxle is a shaft, wither stationary or rotating, nor subjected to torsion load.A shirt rotating shaft is often called a spindle.When either the lateral or the torsional deflection of a shaft must be held to close limits, the shaft must be sized on the basis of deflection before analyzing the stresses.The reason for this is that, if the shaft is made stiff enough so that the deflection is not too large, it is probable that the resulting stresses will be safe.But by no means should the designer assume that they are safe;it is almost always necessary to calculate them so that he knows they are within acceptable limits.Whenever possible, the power-transmission elements, such as gears or pullets, should be located close to the supporting bearings, This reduces the bending moment, and hence the deflection and bending stress.Although the von Mises-Hencky-Goodman method is difficult to use in design of shaft, it probably comes closest to predicting actual failure.Thus it is a good way of checking a shaft that has already been designed or of discovering

      why a particular shaft has failed in service.Furthermore, there are a considerable number of shaft-design problems in which the dimension are pretty well limited by other considerations, such as rigidity, and it is only necessary for the designer to discover something about the fillet sizes, heat-treatment, and surface finish and whether or not shot peening is necessary in order to achieve the required life and reliability.Because of the similarity of their functions, clutches and brakes are treated together.In a simplified dynamic representation of a friction clutch, or brake, two inertias I1 and I2 traveling at the respective angular velocities W1 and W2, one of which may be zero in the case of brake, are to be brought to the same speed by engaging the clutch or brake.Slippage occurs because the two elements are running at different speeds and energy is dissipated during actuation, resulting in a temperature rise.In analyzing the performance of these devices we shall be interested in the actuating force, the torque transmitted, the energy loss and the temperature rise.The torque transmitted is related to the actuating force, the coefficient of friction, and the geometry of the clutch or brake.This is problem in static, which will have to be studied separately for eath geometric configuration.However, temperature rise is related to energy loss and can be studied without regard to the type of brake or clutch because the geometry of interest is the heat-dissipating surfaces.The various types of clutches and brakes may be classified as fllows:

      1.Rim type with internally expanding shoes 2.Rim type with externally contracting shoes 3.Band type 4.Disk or axial type 5.Cone type 6.Miscellaneous type The analysis of all type of friction clutches and brakes use the same general procedure.The following step are necessary:

      1.Assume or determine the distribution of pressure on the frictional surfaces.2.Find a relation between the maximum pressure and the pressure at any point 3.Apply the condition of statical equilibrium to find(a)the actuating force,(b)the torque, and(c)the support reactions.Miscellaneous clutches include several types, such as the

      positive-contact clutches, overload-release clutches, overrunning clutches, magnetic fluid clutches, and others.A positive-contact clutch consists of a shift lever and two jaws.The greatest differences between the various types of positive clutches are concerned with the design of the jaws.To provide a longer period of time for shift action during engagement, the jaws may be ratchet-shaped, or gear-tooth-shaped.Sometimes a great many teeth or jaws are used, and they may be cut either circumferentially, so that they engage by cylindrical mating, or on the faces of

      the mating elements.Although positive clutches are not used to the extent of the frictional-contact type, they do have important applications where

      synchronous operation is required.Devices such as linear drives or motor-operated screw drivers must run to definite limit and then come to a stop.An overload-release type of clutch is required for these applications.These clutches are usually spring-loaded so as to release at a predetermined toque.The clicking sound which is heard when the overload point is reached is considered to be a desirable signal.An overrunning clutch or coupling permits the driven member of a machine to “freewheel” or “overrun” because the driver is stopped or because another source of power increase the speed of the driven.This type of clutch usually uses rollers or balls mounted between an outer sleeve and an inner member having flats machined around the periphery.Driving action is obtained by wedging the rollers between the sleeve and the flats.The clutch is

      therefore equivalent to a pawl and ratchet with an infinite number of teeth.Magnetic fluid clutch or brake is a relatively new development which has two parallel magnetic plates.Between these plates is a lubricated magnetic powder mixture.An electromagnetic coil is inserted somewhere in the magnetic circuit.By varying the excitation to this coil, the shearing strength of the magnetic fluid mixture may be accurately controlled.Thus any condition from a full slip to a frozen lockup may be obtained.11

      第四篇:畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

      經(jīng)濟(jì)增速放緩對(duì)中國(guó)銀行業(yè)的影響顯現(xiàn) Lagging Indicators: China's Banks and the Slowdown

      摘要: Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?Not nec...Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?

      Not necessarily.The banks have a tendency to be lagging indicators.Only after a certain amount of time has passed will China's macro situation show up on the bottom line.Take, for example, bad loans.They're finally growing, incrementally, after years of declining.Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd., the nation's largest bank by assets, saw its

      nonperforming loans rise by 3.82 billion yuan(about $606 million)in the fourth quarter;China Construction Bank Corp., the No.2 bank on the mainland, reported a 6.27 billion yuan rise in such loans.Bank of China Ltd.'s bad loans in the fourth quarter rose 1.39 billion yuan.(In China, nonperforming loans are those that have at least a 30% chance of turning sour.)

      Smaller banks also saw some increases in bad loans.China Minsheng Banking Corp., the

      country's largest non-state-owned bank, posted a rise of 200 million yuan in nonperforming loans in 2011.Such loans at Industrial Bank Co.grew by 99 million yuan last year.More tellingly, data from the Chinese banking regulator showed that the nonperforming loan ratio in the nation's banking sector edged up 0.1 percentage point in the fourth quarter from the third quarter, the first rise in the past six years.The regulator didn't give a reason, but the earnings reports from Chinese banks this week offered some cues: The property market might be the culprit.China Construction Bank said among the total, its nonperforming loans related to the real estate sector surged 20% over the same period.Minsheng Bank said the nonperforming ratio of its real estate financing businesses was 1.72%, well above its overall bad loan ratio of 0.63%.Home prices have been under pressure for about two years, but it's only now do we see a sign of it in banks' statements.The question is whether investors see a few more problem numbers down the road.In three years starting 2009, banks in China issued a total of 25 trillion yuan of

      renminbi-denominated loans, with roughly 40% of the lending going to government-initiated infrastructure projects and the property sector.'The second quarter of this year will be one of the peak seasons for the repayment of property loans and local government borrowings.With a slowing economy, we can expect that higher nonperforming loans are on the cards,' GF Securities analyst Mu Hua said in a recent note.According to Noah Wealth Management, a Chinese financial service company, a total of 117.25 billion yuan of property trust products will be due this year, well above the 47.05 billion yuan last year, putting huge pressure on property developers' cash flows.Besides property, analysts say local government borrowings will present a bigger challenge to banks.Banking executives have estimated that a third of China's 10.7 trillion yuan government debt will be due this year and the next.Standard & Poor's analyst Liao Qiang said he believes Beijing will likely give some regulatory forbearance to local government debt to prevent a surge in banks' bad loans.'Nevertheless, property developers and manufacturers in industries with a supply glut will continue to face policy-induced refinancing uncertainties from time to time,' he said.Monday in Hong Kong, China Construction Bank Chairman Wang Hongzhang said he's optimistic about the bank's asset quality, given China's economic growth is likely to remain solid.'Nonperforming loan levels are controllable.Even though they are higher than before, the amount is small and [the rise] is likely to be temporary,' he said.Agence France-Presse/Getty Images

      中資銀行凈利潤(rùn)去年創(chuàng)下新高,似乎并沒(méi)有受到中國(guó)這一世界第二大經(jīng)濟(jì)體經(jīng)濟(jì)增速放緩的影響。這是否意味著,銀行業(yè)可以免受經(jīng)濟(jì)下行的影響呢?

      未必。

      銀行業(yè)的反應(yīng)往往有一定的滯后性。只有在一段時(shí)期后,中國(guó)宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)形勢(shì)的影響才會(huì)在銀行的營(yíng)收中有所體現(xiàn)。

      以不良貸款為例。在下降趨勢(shì)持續(xù)了幾年之后,不良貸款的比例終于開(kāi)始上升,雖然漲幅不大。按資產(chǎn)總量計(jì)算,中國(guó)最大的銀行中國(guó)工商銀行(Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd.)的不良貸款去年第四季度增加了人民幣38.2億元(約合6.06億美元),中國(guó)第二大銀行中國(guó)建設(shè)銀行(China Construction Bank Corp.)的不良貸款增加了人民幣62.7億元。中國(guó)銀行(Bank of China Ltd.)的不良貸款在第四季度增加了13.9億元。(在中國(guó),不良貸款指的是變成壞賬的幾率在30%以上的貸款。)

      規(guī)模較小銀行的不良貸款水平也在增長(zhǎng)。中國(guó)最大的非國(guó)有銀行中國(guó)民生銀行(China

      Minsheng Banking Corp.)2011年不良貸款增加了人民幣2億元。興業(yè)銀行(Industrial Bank Co.)的不良貸款去年增加了人民幣9,900萬(wàn)元。

      更能說(shuō)明這一問(wèn)題的是,中國(guó)銀監(jiān)會(huì)的數(shù)據(jù)顯示,中國(guó)銀行業(yè)的不良貸款比例在第四季度較第三季度上升了0.1個(gè)百分點(diǎn),這是該比例過(guò)去六年來(lái)首次上升。

      銀監(jiān)會(huì)沒(méi)有給出原因,但是中資銀行本周發(fā)布的年報(bào)提供了一些線索:房地產(chǎn)市場(chǎng)可能是罪魁禍?zhǔn)住?/p>

      中國(guó)建設(shè)銀行表示,在該銀行的所有不良貸款中,與房地產(chǎn)業(yè)有關(guān)的不良貸款同比上漲了20%。民生銀行說(shuō),其房地產(chǎn)融資業(yè)務(wù)的不良貸款比例為1.72%,大大超過(guò)了其0.63%的總體不良貸款比例。

      兩年來(lái)住房?jī)r(jià)格一直在承受壓力,但直到現(xiàn)在我們才在銀行的年報(bào)中看到了相關(guān)跡象。問(wèn)題是,投資者是否看到了更多問(wèn)題數(shù)據(jù)出現(xiàn)的可能性。

      從2009年到2011年這三年里,中資銀行共發(fā)放了25萬(wàn)億元以人民幣計(jì)價(jià)的貸款,其中約有40%的貸款流向了政府主導(dǎo)的基建項(xiàng)目和樓市。

      今年的第二季度將是房地產(chǎn)貸款和地方政府借貸的還款高峰期。廣發(fā)證券(GF Securities Co.)分析師沐華在最近的一份報(bào)告中說(shuō),由于經(jīng)濟(jì)減速,我們預(yù)計(jì)可能出現(xiàn)更多的不良貸款。

      中國(guó)的金融服務(wù)公司諾亞財(cái)富投資管理有限公司(Noah Private Wealth Management, 簡(jiǎn)稱:諾亞財(cái)富)說(shuō),共有1,172.5億元的房地產(chǎn)信托產(chǎn)品將會(huì)在今年到期,高于去年的470.5億元,這給房地產(chǎn)開(kāi)發(fā)商的現(xiàn)金流造成了巨大壓力。

      分析人士說(shuō),除了房地產(chǎn),地方政府借的貸款將為銀行帶來(lái)更大的挑戰(zhàn)。據(jù)一些銀行高管估計(jì),中國(guó)10.7萬(wàn)億元的政府貸款中,有三分之一將在今明兩年到期。

      標(biāo)準(zhǔn)普爾(Standard & Poor)的分析師廖強(qiáng)說(shuō),中國(guó)中央政府可能會(huì)給予地方政府債務(wù)一定的寬限,以防不良貸款激增。他說(shuō),盡管如此,房地產(chǎn)開(kāi)發(fā)商以及供應(yīng)過(guò)剩行業(yè)的制造企業(yè)仍會(huì)不時(shí)地面臨由政策引發(fā)的再融資不確定性。

      中國(guó)建設(shè)銀行董事長(zhǎng)王洪章周一在香港說(shuō),考慮到中國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)很可能繼續(xù)保持穩(wěn)定增長(zhǎng),他對(duì)該銀行的資產(chǎn)質(zhì)量持樂(lè)觀態(tài)度。他說(shuō),不良貸款的水平是可控的。即使是比以往有所增加,總量還是很小,而且增長(zhǎng)很可能也是暫時(shí)的。

      第五篇:畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

      外文翻譯:

      安全評(píng)估和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方法建設(shè)

      張軍,張明元,袁勇波,周靜

      (中國(guó)土木與水利工程大學(xué),大連理工,大連116085)

      摘要: 改進(jìn)后的LEC法是用于處理與期貨大廈項(xiàng)目的安全評(píng)估的。經(jīng)修訂的評(píng)估項(xiàng)目L的危險(xiǎn)方法隱藏的工作條件,存在由實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果確定了不同價(jià)值體系之間的能源和人工能源,表明該方法的科學(xué)性和實(shí)用性,并能提高安全成本的經(jīng)濟(jì)效率。

      關(guān)鍵詞:建設(shè)危害,安全評(píng)價(jià),安全管理

      1建筑的危害和安全評(píng)估

      建筑存在的危險(xiǎn)性都和周圍的建設(shè)用地有關(guān)系。這些條件不合理造成的勘查施工前和施工期間的經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)不合理并會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)移到危險(xiǎn)性上。首先,它是認(rèn)識(shí)到科學(xué)和危害之后而確定安全管理的必要,進(jìn)行任何監(jiān)測(cè)都有可能發(fā)生意外。

      評(píng)估的目的是尋找出安全分析和預(yù)測(cè)危險(xiǎn)的方法,而且其結(jié)果與現(xiàn)有工程或一個(gè)系統(tǒng),都需要合理并可行。因此我們提出了從監(jiān)督監(jiān)測(cè)和抵御風(fēng)險(xiǎn)中得到的情況,以求意外事故有最低發(fā)生率,這是不同的方法之間的安全評(píng)估和正常的安全管理和監(jiān)控。這樣做的安全評(píng)估、分析、論證和可能的損失建筑工程有關(guān)的傷害和影響范圍都最小。

      安全文化是伴隨人類的生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)而產(chǎn)生的。但是,人類有意識(shí)地發(fā)展安全文化,還是近1 0余年的事,國(guó)際原子能機(jī)構(gòu)在對(duì)1 9 8 6年發(fā)生的切爾諾貝利核泄漏事故調(diào)查分析的基礎(chǔ)上,于1 9 9 1年編寫(xiě)的“7 5一工N 8 A G-4 "評(píng)。報(bào)告首次提出了“安全文化”的概念,并建立了一套核安全文化建設(shè)的思想和策略。

      安全文化從核安全文化、航空航天安全文化等企業(yè)安全文化,拓寬到全民安全文化,由此發(fā)展到了由安全觀念文化、安全行為文化、安全物質(zhì)文化組成的全民安全文化的新時(shí)代。在該階段,安全教育體系正在形成,兒童和,},小學(xué)生的安全教育已經(jīng)起步。大學(xué)和成人的專業(yè)化安全教育已初具規(guī)模,在有關(guān)政府機(jī)

      構(gòu)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下的安全文化普及教育正蓬勃發(fā)展;安全科學(xué)作為獨(dú)立的學(xué)科體系已經(jīng)建立,安全科學(xué)形成了由安全科學(xué)技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)學(xué)科、安全學(xué)、安全工程等構(gòu)成的多學(xué)科體系;安全管理機(jī)構(gòu)進(jìn)一步健全,建立健全了一大批國(guó)際的、國(guó)家的、行業(yè)的、社會(huì)的、企業(yè)的安全管理機(jī)構(gòu);在法規(guī)、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、安全制度方而,體現(xiàn)在而向全民的安全建設(shè)開(kāi)始起步,而向行業(yè)的、企業(yè)的安全法規(guī)、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、制度、操作規(guī)程等具有更強(qiáng)的針對(duì)性,在安全宣傳方而,一個(gè)社會(huì)化的安全宣傳網(wǎng)正在形成,出現(xiàn)了一些而向大眾、宣傳安全光榮、安全就是效益的作品,“安全第一,頂防為主”的安全哲學(xué)思想更加深入人心。

      “安全文化是人類文化的部分,它涉及人類活動(dòng)的各個(gè)領(lǐng)域,存在于社會(huì)生活的各個(gè)方而;它涉及自然科學(xué)和社會(huì)科學(xué)的諸學(xué)科,它為安全的世界觀和方法論的形成提供乳育的胚胎,它既具有歷史的繼承性,又具有鮮明的時(shí)代感”。安全文化是燦爛的,華民族文化的組成部分,華民族在生存和繁衍,},與世界其他民族一起創(chuàng)造并傳播了安全文化。安全文化在我國(guó)的發(fā)展也經(jīng)歷了人類對(duì)安分與健康的臺(tái)目追求、核安全文化出現(xiàn)、全民安全文化的興起等二個(gè)階段。2危險(xiǎn)方法評(píng)估工作

      考慮到人的危險(xiǎn)在工作條件,格雷厄姆和吉爾伯特。樓金尼建議的頻率和嚴(yán)重程度,以該評(píng)估環(huán)境和一些揭露應(yīng)指環(huán)境變量作為獨(dú)立設(shè)置的函數(shù)公式。根據(jù)他們的實(shí)際經(jīng)驗(yàn),根據(jù)不同情況獨(dú)立變量的值,給出了三被標(biāo)記的對(duì)象,然后在危害水平也分為公式后的危險(xiǎn)值來(lái)計(jì)算。這種方法容易識(shí)別。

      D=LEC

      其中,D指該商標(biāo),L是指事故的發(fā)生概率,E和C是指人類正暴露的頻率和在環(huán)境意味著損失。

      3管理建設(shè)的危害

      建造業(yè)是高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)行業(yè),需要管理并改善其意外總數(shù)的發(fā)生。政府提出安全建設(shè)模式位“統(tǒng)一的模式,法律監(jiān)督機(jī)構(gòu)負(fù)責(zé)企業(yè)所有安全監(jiān)管,部分群眾以及整個(gè)社會(huì)參與監(jiān)督”。作者假設(shè)如下:

      (1)加強(qiáng)安全監(jiān)察,建設(shè),以確保施工安全的措施費(fèi)組成競(jìng)爭(zhēng)費(fèi)和特殊項(xiàng)目費(fèi)用;建設(shè)行政主管部門應(yīng)加強(qiáng)項(xiàng)目前的審計(jì)。

      (2)加強(qiáng)并完善組織建設(shè)施工安全監(jiān)管,成立一個(gè)監(jiān)管組織,其的特點(diǎn)是依法執(zhí)行監(jiān)管任務(wù)。

      (3)編制依據(jù)不同專業(yè)的職業(yè)經(jīng)理人的安全的安全生產(chǎn)監(jiān)管部根據(jù)建筑由大小的地盤(pán)遵守《組織對(duì)構(gòu)建企業(yè)安全生產(chǎn)和職業(yè)經(jīng)理人準(zhǔn)備》。

      (4)發(fā)展項(xiàng)目和危害安全風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估,登記項(xiàng)目,消除構(gòu)建社會(huì)安全危害的可能影響。

      (5)建立和落實(shí),檢查系統(tǒng)的支架固定和拆卸起重機(jī)械,成型板,建立和落實(shí)制度,消除危害的技術(shù),設(shè)備和材料,建立和實(shí)施項(xiàng)目系統(tǒng)研究項(xiàng)目的施工安全。

      (6)監(jiān)測(cè)信息系統(tǒng)的致命危害工地使用是高級(jí)電力監(jiān)控。

      (7)開(kāi)展風(fēng)險(xiǎn)規(guī)避。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)規(guī)避是一個(gè)有用的和共同的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理策略。當(dāng)認(rèn)識(shí)到嚴(yán)重后果的隱患和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素,但沒(méi)有可用的措施之前,建設(shè),施工計(jì)劃可能改變或放棄為避免風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。

      (8)建筑企業(yè)要建立和完善安全體系建設(shè)的長(zhǎng)期性,管理和設(shè)備應(yīng)達(dá)到 降低風(fēng)險(xiǎn)損失之和(參考標(biāo)準(zhǔn):標(biāo)準(zhǔn)JGJ59 一 1999年)。

      (9)發(fā)揮媒體的咨詢作用,進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)的安全性評(píng)估、設(shè)計(jì)、安全監(jiān)測(cè)、認(rèn)證和考試,以及意外傷害保險(xiǎn)賠償。

      (10)建立工會(huì)公關(guān),處理緊急項(xiàng)目。

      4結(jié)論

      本文主要內(nèi)容是考察了管理層在判斷建筑危害中應(yīng)用的安全性評(píng)估方法。以及建設(shè)項(xiàng)目危險(xiǎn)評(píng)價(jià)工作的執(zhí)行情況,我們已確保了致命的危險(xiǎn)事故發(fā)生率為最低。根據(jù)經(jīng)驗(yàn),可納入危險(xiǎn)管理系統(tǒng)的危險(xiǎn)值為:低于160時(shí)的危險(xiǎn),否則,它會(huì)被認(rèn)為是不可承受的危險(xiǎn)事故。應(yīng)該充分應(yīng)用現(xiàn)代化的信息技術(shù)來(lái)建立和完善

      一道預(yù)防和控制系統(tǒng)來(lái)檢測(cè)意外事故。以期待應(yīng)用技術(shù)來(lái)預(yù)防更多的意外事故發(fā)生。

      下載電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯(小編整理)word格式文檔
      下載電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯(小編整理).doc
      將本文檔下載到自己電腦,方便修改和收藏,請(qǐng)勿使用迅雷等下載。
      點(diǎn)此處下載文檔

      文檔為doc格式


      聲明:本文內(nèi)容由互聯(lián)網(wǎng)用戶自發(fā)貢獻(xiàn)自行上傳,本網(wǎng)站不擁有所有權(quán),未作人工編輯處理,也不承擔(dān)相關(guān)法律責(zé)任。如果您發(fā)現(xiàn)有涉嫌版權(quán)的內(nèi)容,歡迎發(fā)送郵件至:645879355@qq.com 進(jìn)行舉報(bào),并提供相關(guān)證據(jù),工作人員會(huì)在5個(gè)工作日內(nèi)聯(lián)系你,一經(jīng)查實(shí),本站將立刻刪除涉嫌侵權(quán)內(nèi)容。

      相關(guān)范文推薦

        經(jīng)典電氣工程專業(yè)英語(yǔ)翻譯(外文翻譯)(5篇)

        進(jìn)行中的工程——電力電子技術(shù)和可 再生能源實(shí)驗(yàn)課程的一體化 摘要 這個(gè)正在進(jìn)行的工作展現(xiàn)了研究工作和教育活動(dòng)在利用可替代能源的電力電子實(shí)驗(yàn)室和可再生能源作為未來(lái)經(jīng)......

        外文翻譯——自動(dòng)化立體倉(cāng)庫(kù)

        自動(dòng)化立體倉(cāng)庫(kù) 1. 自動(dòng)化立體倉(cāng)庫(kù)的優(yōu)越性 由于自動(dòng)化立體倉(cāng)庫(kù)的特殊結(jié)構(gòu),使其在與傳統(tǒng)的倉(cāng)庫(kù)相比中具有以下優(yōu)點(diǎn): 1.1 提高空間利用率 早期立體倉(cāng)庫(kù)的構(gòu)想, 其基本出發(fā)點(diǎn)......

        電氣工程自動(dòng)化專業(yè)

        自 薦 信 尊敬的領(lǐng)導(dǎo): 您好! 真誠(chéng)地感謝您在百忙之中瀏覽這份求職材料。這里有一顆熱情而赤誠(chéng)的心渴望得到您的了解與幫助,為了發(fā)揮自己的才能、實(shí)現(xiàn)自己的人生價(jià)值,謹(jǐn)向您毛遂......

        工程管理專業(yè)畢業(yè)論文(外文翻譯)

        工程技術(shù)協(xié)調(diào)與社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)建模的公共政策的影響: 交通基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施管理中的應(yīng)用 摘要: 持續(xù)的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施投資不足和顯著增長(zhǎng)的商業(yè)及非商業(yè)的交通需求,已經(jīng)使美國(guó)的當(dāng)前和未來(lái)的交通設(shè)......

        畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯(5篇)

        國(guó)際服務(wù)貿(mào)易:對(duì)進(jìn)口商和出口商的詳細(xì)描述 霍爾格·布仁里奇基婭拉·克里斯庫(kù)勒 摘要:本文提供了一組從事國(guó)際服務(wù)貿(mào)易企業(yè)的一些新穎的特殊案例,采用的獨(dú)特?cái)?shù)據(jù)來(lái)自于進(jìn)出口企......

        企業(yè)文化畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯

        外文文獻(xiàn)譯文企業(yè)文化已經(jīng)寫(xiě)了許多文章和書(shū)籍近年約有文化組織,通常被稱為“企業(yè)文化”。 該字典對(duì)文化“開(kāi)發(fā)智力和道德行為能力,特別是通過(guò)教育” 這將使用文字略有不同文......

        電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化專業(yè)

        電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化專業(yè) 專業(yè)介紹 電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化的觸角伸向各行各業(yè),小到一個(gè)開(kāi)關(guān)的設(shè)計(jì),大到宇航飛機(jī)的研究,都有它的身影。本專業(yè)生能夠從事與電氣工程有關(guān)的系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行、......

        電氣工程及其自動(dòng)化專業(yè)

        本專業(yè)學(xué)生主要學(xué)習(xí)電工技術(shù)、電子技術(shù)、信息控制、計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)、電氣工程及自動(dòng)化技術(shù)等方面較寬廣的工程技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)和一定的專業(yè)知識(shí),使學(xué)生受到電工電子、信息控制及計(jì)算機(jī)技......