第一篇：嵌入式Linux應(yīng)用：概述

Embedded Linux applications: An overview Linux now spans the spectrum of computing applications, including IBM's tiny Linux wrist watch, hand-held devices(PDAs and cell phones), Internet appliances, thin clients, firewalls, industrial robotics, telephony infrastructure equipment, and even cluster-based supercomputers.Let's take a look at what Linux has to offer as an embedded system, and why it's the most attractive option currently available.One.Emergence of embedded systems The computers used to control equipment, otherwise known as embedded systems, have been around for about as long as computers themselves.They were first used back in the late 1960s in communications to control electrome chanical telephone switches.As the computer industry has moved toward ever smaller systems over the past decade or so, embedded systems have moved along with it, providing more capabilities for these tiny machines.Increasingly, these embedded systems need to be connected to some sort of network, and thus require a networking stack, which increases the complexity level and requires more memory and interfaces, as well as, you guessed it, the services of an operating system.Off-the-shelf operating systems for embedded systems began to appear in the late 1970s, and today several dozen viable options are available.Out of these, a few major players have emerged, such as VxWorks, pSOS, Neculeus, and Windows CE.Two.Advantages/disadvantages of using Linux for your embedded system Although most Linux systems run on PC platforms, Linux can also be a reliable workhorse for embedded systems.The popular “back-to-basics” approach of Linux, which makes it easier and more flexible to install and administer than UNIX, is an added advantage for UNIX gurus who already appreciate the operating system because it has many of the same commands and programming interfaces as traditional UNIX.The typical shrink-wrapped Linux system has been packaged to run on a PC, with a

hard disk and tons of memory, much of which is not needed on an embedded system.A fully featured Linux kernel requires about 1 MB of memory.However, the Linux micro-kernel actually consumes very little of this memory, only 100 K on a Pentium CPU, including virtual memory and all core operating system functions.With the networking stack and basic utilities, a complete Linux system runs quite nicely in 500 K of memory on an Intel 386 microprocessor, with an 8-bit bus(SX).Because the memory required is often dictated by the applications needed, such as a Web server or SNMP agent, a Linux system can actually be adapted to work with as little as 256 KB ROM and 512 KB RAM.So it's a lightweight operating system to bring to the embedded market.Another benefit of using an open source operating system like Embedded Linux over a traditional real-time operating system(RTOS), is that the Linux development community tends to support new IP and other protocols faster than RTOS vendors do.For example, more device drivers, such as network interface card(NIC)drivers and parallel and serial port drivers, are available for Linux than for commercial operating systems.The core Linux operating system itself has a fairly simple micro-kernel architecture.Networking and file systems are layered on top of the micro-kernel in modular fashion.Drivers and other features can be either compiled in or added to the kernel at run-time as loadable modules.This provides a highly modular building-block approach to constructing a custom embeddable system, which typically uses a combination of custom drivers and application programs to provide the added functionality.An embedded system also often requires generic capabilities, which, in order to avoid re-inventing the wheel, are built with off-the-shelf programs and drivers, many of which are available for common peripherals and applications.Linux can run on most microprocessors with a wide range of peripherals and has a ready inventory of off-the-shelf applications.Linux is also well-suited for embedded Internet devices, because of its support of multiprocessor systems, which lends it scalability.This capability gives a designer the option of running a real-time application on a dual processor system, increasing total processing power.So you can run a Linux system on one processor while running a GUI, for example, simultaneously on another processor.The one disadvantage to running Linux on an embedded system is that the Linux architecture provides real-time performance through the addition of real-time software modules that run in the kernel space, the portion of the operating system that implements the scheduling policy, hardware-interrupts exceptions and program execution.Since these

real-time software modules run in the kernel space, a code error can impact the entire system's reliability by crashing the operating system, which can be a very serious vulnerability for real-time applications.An off-the-shelf RTOS, on the other hand, is designed from the ground up for real-time performance, and provides reliability through allocating certain processes a higher priority than others when launched by a user as opposed to by system-level processes.Processes are identified by the operating system as programs that execute in memory or on the hard drive.They are assigned a process ID or a numerical identifier so that the operating system may keep track of the programs currently executing and of their associated priority levels.Such an approach ensures a higher reliability(predictability)with the RTOS time than Linux is capable of providing.But all-in-all, it's still a more economical choice.Three.Different types of Embedded Linux systems There are already many examples of Embedded Linux systems;it's safe to say that some form of Linux can run on just about any computer that executes code.The ELKS(Embeddable Linux Kernel Subset)project, for example, plans to put Linux onto a Palm Pilot.Here are a couple of the more well-known small footprint Embedded Linux versions: ETLinux--a complete Linux distribution designed to run on small industrial computers, especially PC/104 modules.LEM--a small(<8 MB)multi-user, networked Linux version that runs on 386s.LOAF--“Linux On A Floppy” distribution that runs on 386s.uClinux--Linux for systems without MMUs.Currently supports Motorola 68K, MCF5206, and MCF5207 ColdFire microprocessors.uLinux--tiny Linux distribution that runs on 386s.ThinLinux--a minimized Linux distribution for dedicated camera servers, X-10 controllers, MP3 players, and other such embedded applications.Software and hardware requirements Several user-interface tools and programs enhance the versatility of the Linux basic kernel.It's helpful to look at Linux as a continuum in this context, ranging from a stripped-down micro-kernel with memory management, task switching and timer services to a full-blown server supporting a complete range of file system and network services.A minimal Embedded Linux system needs just three essential elements:

? ? A boot utility

The Linux micro-kernel, composed of memory management, process An initialization process Drivers for hardware

One or more application processes to provide the needed functionality A file system(perhaps in ROM or RAM)TCP/IP network stack

A disk for storing semi-transient data and swap capability A 32-bit internal CPU(required by all complete Linux systems)management and timing services

?

To doing anything useful while remaining minimal, you also need to add:

? ?

As additional requirements become necessary, you might also want: ? ? ? ?

Four.Hardware platform options Choosing the best hardware can be complex because of internal company politics, prejudices, legacies of other projects, a lack of complete or accurate information, and cost, which should take into account the total product costs and not just the CPU itself.Sometimes a fast, inexpensive CPU can become expensive once bus logic and the delays necessary to make it work with other peripherals are considered.To calculate the necessary speed of a CPU for any given project, start with a realistic view of how fast the CPU needs to run to accomplish a given task and triple it.Also, determine how fast the bus needs to run.If there are secondary buses, such as a PCI bus, consider them also.A slow bus(that is, one that is saturated with DMA traffic)can significantly slow down a fast CPU.Here are some of the best hardware solutions for Embedded Linux applications.Bright Star Engineering: Bright Star Engineering's ipEngine-1 is a credit-card sized single-board computer with Embedded Linux support.It utilizes a PowerPC-based CPU and provides an array of on-board peripherals, including Ethernet, LCD/Video Controller, USB, Serial I/O, and a 16K gate user-configurable FPGA.BSE's Embedded Linux configuration allows Linux to be booted from the ipEngine's on-board 4MB flash memory.Calibri: CalibriTM-133 is a ready-to-use, compact, multipurpose network appliance

that uses Embedded Linux as its operating system.It offers a highly efficient and low-cost solution to firewall, VPN, and routing demands.EmbeddedPlanet: EmbeddedPlanet has created a PostPC-era computer that comes loaded with MontaVista's HardHat Linux.Powered by a PowerPC-based computing engine and matching I/O card, Linux Planet comes in a colorful translucent case with a touchscreen and access to digital and analog I/O.Eurotech: Eurotech provides embedded PC SBC and sponsors ET-Linux, a complete Linux system designed to run on small industrial computers and based on glibc 2.1.2.Microprocess Ingenierie: Microprocess develops, produces, and sells standard and customized products for the industrial and embedded market.Microprocess has a global activity in real-time software and great expertise in systems integration.Its products, like the 740 PowerPC compactPCI board, can be ordered with a standard distribution of Linux or an Embedded Linux version.Moreton Bay: Moreton Bay is releasing their NETtel 2520 and NETtel 2500 range of Linux-based Internet routers.These small, easy-to-connect intelligent router solutions are engineered to offer a simple, secure, and affordable extranet-friendly Virtual Private Network(VPN)for flat networks.The NETtel router family runs an Embedded Linux kernel.A development kit is available;it enables customized code to be stored in flash memory and executed inside the NETtel.The code may contain special encryption or authentication protocols, or some local monitoring script where NETtel is used as a remote control device.Matrix Orbital: This an optional, but not recommended, addition.Matrix Orbital manufactures a line of serial LCDs and VFDs, which many Linux users are including in their embedded systems.The product line ranges from 8x2 to 40x4 character LCDs, 20x2 and 20x4 VFDs, plus a 240x64 graphic LC(128x128 on the way).Communication with the displays is accomplished via either RS232 or I2C, both of which are standard on all of their modules.A comprehensive command set is included in the modules' BIOS.Five.Real-time Embedded Linux applications One of the most important issues with embedded systems is the need for a real-time operating system.The definition of real-time here varies quite a bit.To some people, real-time means responding to an event in the one-microsecond range, to others it is 50 milliseconds.The hardness of real-time also varies quite a bit.Some systems need hard

real-time response, with short deterministic response latencies to events.However, on many systems, when analyzed closely, we see a response time requirement that is actually near real-time.Often the real-time requirement is a tradeoff of time and buffer space.With memory getting cheaper, and CPUs getting faster, near real-time is now more typical than hard real-time and many commercial operating systems that claim to be real-time are far from being hard real-time.Usually, when you get into the detailed design of these systems, there are warnings that the drivers' interrupts and applications must be very carefully designed in order to meet real-time requirements.RT-Linux(Linux with real-time extensions)contains time critical functions to provide precise control over interrupt handling, through the use of an interrupt manager, and does a good job of making sure that critical interrupts get executed when needed.The hardness of this approach depends mostly on the CPU interrupt structure and context-switch hardware support.This approach is sufficient for a large range of real-time requirements.Even without the real-time extensions, Linux does pretty well at keeping up with multiple streams of events.For example, a Linux PC system on a low end Pentium is able to keep multiple 10BaseT interfaces executing effectively, while simultaneously running character-level serial ports at a full 56KBPS without losing any data.Some real-time hardware and software Linux APIs to consider are RTLinux, RTAI, EL, and Linux-SRT.RTLinux is a hard real-time Linux API originally developed at the New Mexico Institute of Technology.RTAI(DIAPM)is a spin-off of the RTLinux real-time API that was developed by programmers at the Department of Aerospace Engineering, Polytechnic Politecnico di Milano(DIAPM).EL/IX is a proposed POSIX-based hard real-time Linux API being promoted by Red Hat.And Linux-SRT is a soft real-time alternative to real-time APIs, which provides performance-enhancing capabilities to any Linux program without requiring that the program be modified or recompiled.See the Resources section later in this article for information on the above and for some Web sites offering different flavors of software extensions, development tools, support, and training courses for the standard Linux operating system.Short deterministic response latencies Some real-time embedded systems need to respond quickly to external events in order to accomplish a specific task.A custom microcontroller embedded inside a missile, for example, needs to respond quickly to external events such as moving targets, weather, humans, etc., before instructing the missile to target a specific object in its surrounding

environment.Short deterministic response latencies mean that the embedded system can determine the time it will take to respond to an external event.Six.Configuration procedures Now let's take a look at how to make LEM, a small, embeddable Linux distribution, which provides both network and X server.You can download this distribution, although it is not essential.You will need a full Linux distribution to build your own Embedded Linux operating system, which will contain everything you need(utilities, sources, compiler, debugger, and documentation).Here is a list of the software that can be used to make LEM: TinyLogin: TinyLogin is a suite of tiny UNIX utilities for handling logging into, being authenticated by, changing one's password for, and otherwise maintaining users and groups on an embedded system.It also provides shadow password support to enhance system security.TinyLogin is, as the name implies, very small, and makes an excellent complement to BusyBox on an embedded System.BusyBox: BusyBox is a multicall binary used to provide a minimal subset of POSIX-style commands and specialized functions.It is geared toward the very small, such as boot floppies, embedded systems, etc.Specifically it is used in the Debian Rescue/Install system(which inspired development on the original BusyBox), the Linux Routeur Project, LEM, lineo, and others.Busybox is being maintained by Erik Andersen.Ash: Ash is a very small Bourne shell.Sysvinit: Sysvinit is the most used init package for Linux.We will use init and the C version of the start-stop-daemon.See the Resources section for more information on these items.Seven.Creating a bootdisk A bootdisk is basically a miniature, self-contained Linux system on a floppy diskette.It can perform many of the same functions that a complete full-size Linux system performs.The following material is based on the Bootdisk-HOWTO(see Resources).Step 1.Bios

All PC systems start the boot process by executing code in ROM(specifically, the BIOS)to load the sector from sector 0, cylinder 0 of the boot drive.The boot drive is usually the

first floppy drive(designated A: in DOS and /dev/fd0 in Linux).The BIOS then tries to execute this sector.On most bootable disks, sector 0, cylinder 0 contains either:

? Code from a boot loader such as LILO, which locates the kernel, loads it, and The start of an operating system kernel, such as Linux executes it to start the boot proper

?

If a Linux kernel has been raw copied to a diskette, a hard drive, or another media, the first sector of the disk will be the first sector of the Linux kernel itself.This first sector will continue the boot process by loading the rest of the kernel from the boot device.Step 2.The boot loader

You will use a boot loader like LILO to operate the boot process.It allows the development and production platforms to co-exist on the same hardware and permits switching from one to the other just by rebooting.The LILO boot loader is loaded by the bios.It then loads kernels or the boot sectors of other operating systems.It also provides a simple command line interface to interactively select the item to boot with its options.See Resources for more information on LILO.Step 3.The kernel

The kernel checks the hardware and mounts the root device and then looks for the init program on the root filesystem and executes it.Step 4.Init Init is the parent of all other processes that will run on your Linux OS.It will watch its child processes and start, stop, re-launch them if needed.Init takes all information from /etc/inittab.Step 5.Inittab The file /etc/inittab/ refers to scripts named /etc/rc...to do the system setup.It also has entries for the getty tool to handle the login process.Step 6.The login process

There is one getty available in the inittab file for each console allowed for the users.Getty will launch /bin/login to verify the user password.Step 7.Creating a new partition

From the LFS-HOWTO(see Resources): Before we can build our new Linux system, we need to have an empty Linux partition on which we can build our new system.If you already have a Linux Native partition available, you can skip this step and the following one.Start the fdisk program(or cfdisk if you prefer that program)with the appropriate hard disk as the option(like /dev/hda if you want to create a new partition on the primary

master IDE disk).Create a Linux Native partition, write the partition table, and exit the(c)fdisk program.If you get the message that you need to reboot your system to ensure that the partition table is updated, then please reboot your system now before continuing.Step 8.Creating an ext2 file system on the new partition

From the LFS-HOWTO(see Resources): To create a new ext2 file system we use the mke2fs command.Give $LFS as the only option, and the file system will be created.From now on I'll refer to this newly created partition as $EMBPART.$EMBPART should be substituted with the partition you have created.Step 9.Mounting the partition

To access the newly created filesystem, you have to mount it.To do this, create an /mnt/hda? directory and type the following at the shell prompt:

mkdir /mnt/hda? mount $EMBPART /mnt/hda? If you created your partition on /dev/hda4 and you mounted it on /mnt/hda4, then you'll need to return to the step where you copied a file to $dollar;EMBPART/usr/sbin, and copy that file to /mnt/hda4/usr/bin.Do this after the last command in Step 14(Copy the file in $EMBPART/usr/sbin).Step 10.Populating the filesystem

The root filesystem must contain everything needed to support a full Linux system.We will build a directory structure not that far from the File Hierarchy Standard(see Resources).Step 11.Directories The mkdir function in the new mounted filesystem creates the following directories: /proc

Directory stub required by the proc filesystem /etc :System configuration file /sbin :Critical System binaries

/bin :Basic binaries considered part of the system /lib :Shared Libraries to provide run-time support /mnt :Mount point for maintenance /usr :Additional utilities and applications

? ? ? ?

cd /mnt/hda?

mkdir bin dev home proc sbin usr boot etc liv mnt root tmp var mkdir-p usr/bin usr/sbin usr/share usr/lib mkdir-p etc/config etc/default etc/init.d etc/rc.boot

? mkdir-p etc/rc0.d etc/rc1.d etc/rc2.d etc/rc3.d etc/rc4.d etc/rc5.d etc/rc6.d etc/rcS.d

/dev :The dev directory is the stub required to perform devices input / output.Each file in this directory may be created using the mknod function.You may save time by directly copying the required dev entries from your desktop Linux, using the following instruction: cp-dpR /dev /mnt Eight.Installing TinyLogin and login dependencies TinyLogin(see the Resources section to install it)will give us the following tools in less than 35Kb:

/bin/addgroup, /bin/adduser, /bin/delgroup, /bin/deluser, /bin/login, /bin/su, /sbin/getty, /sbin/sulogin, /usr/bin/passwd.Please refer to your main distribution doc or man pages for a full description of those commands.Step 12.Configuring TinyLogin

From the TinyLogin README: TinyLogin is modularized to help you build only the components you need, thereby reducing binary size.To turn off unwanted TinyLogin components, simply edit the file tinylogin.def.h and comment out the parts you do not want using C++ style(//)comments.Step 13.Installing TinyLogin After the build is complete, a tinylogin.links file is generated, which is then used by make install to create symlinks to the tinylogin binary for all compiled-in functions.By default, make install will place a symlink forest into pwd /_install unless you have defined the PREFIX environment variable.Step 14.Installing Sysvinit and start-stop daemon

After the kernel is done loading, it tries to run the init program to finalize the boot process.Now: 1.Unpack the Sysvinit archive 2.Go to the src directory

3.Copy the init executable in $EMBPART/sbin

The Sysvinit package also offers a C version of the start-stop-daemon in the contrib directory.1.Compile it

2.Copy the file in $EMBPART/usr/sbin Step 15.Configuring Sysvinit

Sysvinit needs a configuration file named inittab, which should be placed in $EMBPART/etc.Here is the one used in the LEM distribution: # /etc/inittab: init(8)configuration.# $Id: inittab,v 1.6 1997/01/30 15:03:55 miquels Exp $ # Modified for LEM 2/99 by Sebastien HUET # default rl.id:2:initdefault: # first except in emergency(-b)mode.si::sysinit:/etc/init.d/rcS # single-user mode.~~:S:wait:/sbin/sulogin # /etc/init.d executes the S and K scripts upon change # 0:halt 1:single-user 2-5:multi-user(5 may be X with xdm or other)6:reboot.l0:0:wait:/etc/init.d/rc 0 l1:1:wait:/etc/init.d/rc 1 l2:2:wait:/etc/init.d/rc 2 l3:3:wait:/etc/init.d/rc 3 l4:4:wait:/etc/init.d/rc 4 l5:5:wait:/etc/init.d/rc 5 l6:6:wait:/etc/init.d/rc 6 # CTRL-ALT-DEL pressed.ca:12345:ctrlaltdel:/sbin/shutdown-t1-r now # Action on special keypress(ALT-UpArrow).kb::kbrequest:/bin/echo “Keyboard Request--edit /etc/inittab to let this work.” # /sbin/mingetty invocations for runlevels.1:2345:respawn:/sbin/getty 9600 tty1 2:23:respawn:/sbin/getty 9600 tty2 #3:23:respawn:/sbin/getty tty3 #you may add console there #4:23:respawn:/sbin/getty tty4 Step 16.Creating initial boot scripts

As seen in the inittab file, Sysvinit needs additional scripts in its own directories.Step 17.Creating the necessary directories and base files

Use the following command to create the directories: cd $EMBPART/etc mkdir rc0.d rc1.d rc2.d rc3.d rc4.d rc5.d rc6.d init.d rcS.d rc.boot Go to the unpacked Sysvinit source directory Copy the debian/etc/init.d/rc to:$EMBART/etc/init.d Go to the $EMBPART/etc/init.d/ Create a new file rcS like those in LEM: #!/bin/sh PATH=/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin runlevel=S prevlevel=N umask 022 export PATH runlevel prevlevel /etc/default/rcS export VERBOSE # Trap CTRL-C only in this shell so we can interrupt subprocesses.trap “:” 2 3 20 # Call all parts in order.for i in /etc/rcS.d/S??* do

[!-f “$i” ] && continue

case “$i” in

*.sh)

（trap-2 3 20

.$i start)

;;

*)

$i start

;;

esac done # run the files in /etc/rc.boot [-d /etc/rc.boot ] && run-parts /etc/rc.boot

Copy run-parts from your distro to $EMBPART/bin.Step 18.Adding base scripts

A lot of the commands being used here are UNIX/Linux commands that set, export, etc.paths that are embedded inside of a UNIX shell script. Create a new file reboot containing the following: #!/bin/sh PATH=/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin echo-n “Rebooting...” reboot-d-f-i Create a new file halt containing the following: #!/bin/sh PATH=/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin halt-d-f-i-p

Nine.Summary The Linux operating system has a very bright future in the area of embedded applications for anything from Internet appliances to dedicated control systems.Roughly 95% of all newly manufactured microcomputer chips are used for embedded applications.The power, reliability, flexibility, and scalability of Linux, combined with its support for a multitude of microprocessor architectures, hardware devices, graphics support, and communications protocols have established Linux as an increasingly popular software platform for a vast array of projects and products.Because Linux is openly and freely available in source form, many variations and configurations of Linux and its supporting software components have evolved to meet the diverse needs of the markets and applications to which Linux is being adapted.There are small footprint versions and real-time enhanced versions.Despite the origins of Linux as a PC architecture operating system, there are now ports to numerous non-x86 CPUs, with and without memory management units, including PowerPC, ARM, MIPS, 68K, and even microcontrollers.But look out, there's more coming in the near future for many other Information Technology(IT)domains!

第二篇：嵌入式linu學(xué)習(xí)心得

嵌入式Linux學(xué)習(xí)心得

1、Linux命令

ls:查看目錄-l以列表方式查看;ls –l 與ll的功能一樣 pwd: 查看當(dāng)前的目錄

cd:改變當(dāng)前操作目錄cd /直接跳到根目錄 cd..回到上一級(jí)目錄 cat: 打印顯示當(dāng)前文件的內(nèi)容信息

mkdir:創(chuàng)建目錄

fdisk: 查看硬盤分區(qū)信息，-l以列表方式查看

->代表是鏈接文件，類似window下的快捷方式。

cp: 復(fù)制命令,例子cp 文件名 /home/dir/

mv: 移動(dòng)或改名，如mv sonf.confsonf.txt(改名)移動(dòng)：mv sonf.conf / rm:刪除命令，如rm –f test.c;如刪除目錄rm –fr d

man:查看某個(gè)命令的幫助，man 命令

2、各系統(tǒng)目錄的功能

drw—r—w--:d代表是目錄，drw代表當(dāng)前用戶的權(quán)限，r代表組用戶的權(quán)限，w代表其它用戶的權(quán)限。x代表有執(zhí)行權(quán)限。

/boot/gruff.conf: 啟動(dòng)引導(dǎo)程序

/dev:brw—rw--:b代表是塊設(shè)備。Linux設(shè)備有三種，塊設(shè)備（b開頭）、字符設(shè)備(c開頭)、網(wǎng)絡(luò)設(shè)備。had代表第一個(gè)硬盤，hdb代表第二個(gè)硬盤。Hdb2代表第二塊硬盤的第二個(gè)分區(qū)。3，67代表主設(shè)備為3，從設(shè)備為67./etc:存放的是系統(tǒng)的配置文件。Inittab文件存放不同啟動(dòng)方式下必須啟動(dòng)的進(jìn)程。Inittab文件中有6個(gè)啟動(dòng)level，wait中對(duì)應(yīng)著6個(gè)level的目錄，respawn代表當(dāng)一個(gè)進(jìn)程被意外終止了，但會(huì)自動(dòng)啟動(dòng)的進(jìn)程，如守護(hù)進(jìn)程。rc.d目錄中存放了一個(gè)rc.sysinit文件，里面存放系統(tǒng)初始化配置信息。/etc還有一個(gè)vsftpd里面存放tcp、ftp的配置。

/home : 用戶目錄，存放用戶的文件，/lib：存放庫(kù)文件，后綴為so的文件代表動(dòng)態(tài)鏈接庫(kù)。

/lost+found：系統(tǒng)意外終止，存放一些可以找回的文件。

/mnt：掛載外部設(shè)備，如掛載光驅(qū)：mount –t /dev/cdrom/mnt/cdrom，如

果在雙系統(tǒng)中，要查看windows中D盤的文件，首先應(yīng)該將D盤的文件映射過(guò)來(lái)，mount –t /dev/hda2/mnt/windows/d

/opt:用戶安裝的應(yīng)用程序

/proc:是系統(tǒng)運(yùn)行的映射，比較重要。里面的文件數(shù)字代表進(jìn)程號(hào)。每個(gè)進(jìn)程號(hào)目錄下包含進(jìn)程的基本信息。還有其他信息，如cpuinfo等，內(nèi)核支持的文件系統(tǒng)filesystem等。系統(tǒng)支持的中斷interrupts，iomen代表內(nèi)存分配情況。ioport存放IO端口號(hào)。還有分區(qū)信息，modole信息，狀態(tài)信息，版本信息

對(duì)于Linux的設(shè)備驅(qū)動(dòng)程序，有兩種加載模式，一種是直接加載進(jìn)linux內(nèi)核，一種是以模塊的方式加載到內(nèi)核。

/sbin： 系統(tǒng)管理的一些工具。如poweroff關(guān)機(jī)工具。

/usr: 安裝系統(tǒng)時(shí)很多文件放在此目錄下面，包含一些更新等，include包含的頭文件，lib 是Linux的庫(kù)文件，src包含Linux2.4的內(nèi)核源碼

/var：存放是臨時(shí)變量

3、

第三篇：遙感技術(shù)應(yīng)用概述

遙感技術(shù)應(yīng)用概述

很多人以為遙感離自己的生活很遙遠(yuǎn)，其實(shí)這些技術(shù)早就已經(jīng)深入大家的生活。從上個(gè)世紀(jì)六十年代提出“遙感”這個(gè)詞，到1972年美國(guó)陸地衛(wèi)星計(jì)劃發(fā)射了第一顆對(duì)地觀測(cè)衛(wèi)星（LandSat）,經(jīng)過(guò)幾十年的發(fā)展，遙感技術(shù)已經(jīng)廣泛地應(yīng)用在軍事、國(guó)防、農(nóng)業(yè)、林業(yè)、國(guó)土、海洋、測(cè)繪、氣象、生態(tài)環(huán)境、水利、航天、地質(zhì)、礦產(chǎn)、考古、旅游等領(lǐng)域，影響了人類生活的方方面面,它為人類提供了從多維和宏觀角度去認(rèn)識(shí)世界的新方法與新手段，遙感技術(shù)能夠全面、立體、快速有效地探明地上和地下資源的分布情況，其效率之高是以前各種技術(shù)無(wú)法企及的。因此，遙感技術(shù)已成為一門實(shí)用的，先進(jìn)的空間探測(cè)技術(shù)。下面就三個(gè)方面介紹一下遙感技術(shù)：

一、“3S”技術(shù)的涵義：

包括RS、GPS、GIS。

RS即遙感技術(shù)是指從地面上空的飛機(jī)、飛船、衛(wèi)星等飛行器上，利用各種波段的遙感器，通過(guò)攝影、掃描、信息感應(yīng)，識(shí)別地面物質(zhì)的性質(zhì)和運(yùn)動(dòng)狀態(tài)的技術(shù)，具有遙遠(yuǎn)感知事物的意思。

GPS即全球定位系統(tǒng)，是一種同時(shí)接收來(lái)自多顆衛(wèi)星的電波導(dǎo)航信號(hào)，測(cè)量地球表面某點(diǎn)準(zhǔn)確地理位置的技術(shù)系統(tǒng)；

GIS即地理信息系統(tǒng)技術(shù)，是利用現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)圖形技術(shù)和數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)技術(shù)，用以輸入、存儲(chǔ)、編輯、分析、顯示空間信息及其屬性信息的地理資料系統(tǒng)。分為兩大類： 第一類是地圖數(shù)據(jù)或圖形數(shù)據(jù)；第二類是文字?jǐn)?shù)據(jù)或非圖形數(shù)據(jù)。

二、遙感技術(shù)的主要特點(diǎn)：

可獲取大范圍數(shù)據(jù)資料。遙感用航攝飛機(jī)飛行高度為10km左右，陸地衛(wèi)星的衛(wèi)星軌道高度達(dá)910km左右，從而，可及時(shí)獲取大范圍的信息。例如，一張陸地衛(wèi)星圖像，其覆蓋面積可達(dá)3萬(wàn)多平方公里。這種展示宏觀景象的圖像，對(duì)地球資源和環(huán)境分析極為重要。

獲取信息的速度快，周期短。由于衛(wèi)星圍繞地球運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)，從而能及時(shí)獲取所經(jīng)地區(qū)的各種自然現(xiàn)象的最新資料，以便更新原有資料，或根據(jù)新舊資料變化進(jìn)行動(dòng)態(tài)監(jiān)測(cè)，這是人工實(shí)地測(cè)量和航空攝影測(cè)量無(wú)法比擬的。例如，法國(guó)SPOTS5衛(wèi)星重復(fù)覆蓋地球周期為1-5天，NOAA（美國(guó)國(guó)家海洋和大氣局）氣象衛(wèi)星一天能收到兩次圖像。美國(guó)氣象衛(wèi)星（meteorological 和 satellite 縮合）每30分鐘獲得同一地區(qū)的圖像。

獲取信息受條件限制少。在地球上有很多地方，自然條件極為惡劣，人類難以到達(dá)，如沙漠、沼澤、高山峻嶺等。采用不受地面條件限制的遙感技術(shù)，可方便及時(shí)地獲取各種寶貴資料。

獲取信息的手段多，信息量大。根據(jù)不同的任務(wù)，遙感技術(shù)可選用不同波段和遙感儀器來(lái)獲取信息。例如可采用可見光探測(cè)物體，也可采用紫外線，紅外線和微波探測(cè)物體。利用不同波段對(duì)物體不同的穿透性，還可獲取地物內(nèi)部信息。例如，地面深層、水的下層，冰層下的水體，沙漠下面的地物特性等，微波波段還可以全天候的工作。

三、遙感技術(shù)的應(yīng)用

1、地質(zhì)遙感遙感技術(shù)應(yīng)用于大面積的地質(zhì)災(zāi)難調(diào)查，可達(dá)到及時(shí)、具體、準(zhǔn)確且經(jīng)濟(jì)的目的。在2008年“5.12”汶川大地震的后續(xù)救援工作中，遙感技術(shù)就發(fā)揮了突出作用，第一時(shí)間提供了地質(zhì)地貌變化情況，為政府作出正確決策提供了依據(jù)。在舟曲泥石流災(zāi)害中，中國(guó)科學(xué)院對(duì)地觀測(cè)與數(shù)字地球科學(xué)中心科研人員就使用遙感技術(shù)，重點(diǎn)提取了6條溝谷與泥石流發(fā)生有關(guān)的信息，得到集水面積、流域平均坡度、流域落差和植被覆蓋度等參數(shù)。經(jīng)過(guò)分析，科研人員判斷出，當(dāng)?shù)啬男┑胤饺源嬖谀嗍麟[患，哪些地段發(fā)生大型泥石流的可能性較小，讓前方人員可以更有針對(duì)性地安排救災(zāi)工作。地震預(yù)報(bào)是舉世矚目的科學(xué)難題，利用紅外遙感資料進(jìn)行地震預(yù)報(bào)和監(jiān)測(cè)已取得了巨大的成功, 1991年3月，觀察山西省大同5.8 級(jí)地震前衛(wèi)星熱紅外遙感圖象后發(fā)現(xiàn)，震前4～6 天在局部地區(qū)出現(xiàn)地表溫度場(chǎng)發(fā)生增溫現(xiàn)象或稱暫時(shí)異?！盁釐u”現(xiàn)象, 異常帶長(zhǎng)80km, 寬30km，距離震中25km，地表亮度溫度變化數(shù)值由22℃增加到28℃，部分歐美發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家已進(jìn)入了實(shí)際研究和應(yīng)用階段。

2、環(huán)境遙感

遙感技術(shù)應(yīng)用于環(huán)境監(jiān)測(cè)上既可宏觀觀測(cè)空氣、土壤、植被和水質(zhì)狀況，為環(huán)境保護(hù)提供決策依據(jù)，也可實(shí)時(shí)快速跟蹤和監(jiān)測(cè)突發(fā)環(huán)境污染事件的發(fā)生、發(fā)展，及時(shí)制定處理措施，減少污染造成的損失。其從空中對(duì)地表環(huán)境進(jìn)行大面積同步連續(xù)監(jiān)測(cè)，突破了以往從地面研究環(huán)境的局限性。例如：每年夏收后的秸稈燃燒是個(gè)讓當(dāng)?shù)卣^疼的問(wèn)題。過(guò)去監(jiān)察人員坐車巡查，能去的地方少，大部分火點(diǎn)都被漏掉?，F(xiàn)在氣象和環(huán)保聯(lián)手，遙感中心通過(guò)衛(wèi)星監(jiān)測(cè)火點(diǎn)，分辨率高達(dá)250米的衛(wèi)星定位可以精確到鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)，讓秸稈燃燒無(wú)處遁身，保證環(huán)保人員能有效執(zhí)法。在2009年6月6日全國(guó)秸稈焚燒公布的遙感監(jiān)測(cè)結(jié)果中，山西省有3個(gè)火點(diǎn)，其中就有介休市1個(gè)火點(diǎn)，具體位置在禁燒區(qū)省道旁經(jīng)度111.98度，緯度37.082度上。

3、林業(yè)遙感

在林業(yè)方面，利用遙感技術(shù)可以清查森林資源，監(jiān)測(cè)森林火災(zāi)和病蟲害?；馂?zāi)是林業(yè)的大敵，利用航空紅外遙感技術(shù)，不僅能發(fā)現(xiàn)已燃燒起來(lái)的烈火，而且可以探測(cè)到面積小于0.1-0.3㎡小火情，還能及時(shí)預(yù)報(bào)由于自燃尚未起火的隱伏火情。利用衛(wèi)星遙感，一次就可探測(cè)到上千平方千米范圍內(nèi)發(fā)生的林火現(xiàn)象。衛(wèi)星遙感防火監(jiān)測(cè)服務(wù)在吉林省森林和草原防火工作中發(fā)揮了重要作用，對(duì)于人煙稀少的原始林區(qū)，能及時(shí)監(jiān)測(cè)到瞭望崗哨難以發(fā)現(xiàn)的火點(diǎn)，為林火的撲救贏得時(shí)間，2009年春季防火期間衛(wèi)星遙感防火監(jiān)測(cè)服務(wù)在吉林省森林和草原防火工作中發(fā)揮了重要作用。共向吉林省森林防火指揮辦公室和草原防火辦公室通報(bào)熱點(diǎn)87處，出色地完成了吉林省春季防火任務(wù)，為保衛(wèi)吉林省實(shí)現(xiàn)連續(xù)30年無(wú)重大森林火災(zāi)的目標(biāo)做出了貢獻(xiàn)。

4、測(cè)繪遙感

人造衛(wèi)星每隔18天就可送回一套全球的圖像資料。利用遙感技術(shù)，可以高速度、高質(zhì)量地測(cè)繪地圖。

5、軍事遙感

在伊拉克戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中，遙感技術(shù)發(fā)揮了重要的作用，如打擊目標(biāo)的確定，水源的發(fā)現(xiàn)，地下坑道的發(fā)現(xiàn)，隱藏所的目標(biāo)鎖定等。為戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的戰(zhàn)略指揮和后勤工作做了充分的準(zhǔn)備，最大限度的發(fā)揮攻擊效益，極大的增強(qiáng)了軍隊(duì)?wèi)?zhàn)斗力。自動(dòng)化偵察系統(tǒng)，搜集預(yù)處理情報(bào)系統(tǒng)，自動(dòng)化通信系統(tǒng)，氣象偵察等，充分保障了空中、地面作戰(zhàn)的進(jìn)行。

遙感技術(shù)獲得的信息探測(cè)范圍大，資料新穎，而且為動(dòng)態(tài)變化，還可迅速成圖，搜集方便，不受雨霧、地形等條件的限制?？扑魑謶?zhàn)爭(zhēng)就是一場(chǎng)現(xiàn)代化的信息戰(zhàn)，科索沃上空20多顆衛(wèi)星進(jìn)行了追蹤定位偵察，監(jiān)視部隊(duì)動(dòng)態(tài)變化并及時(shí)傳遞信息，制導(dǎo)轟炸。阿富汗戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)更有著太多的始料未及，B-52的遠(yuǎn)程轟炸，直接從美本土起飛，飛行上萬(wàn)里，且目標(biāo)準(zhǔn)確，由于傳感的精確指導(dǎo)，美泊于印度洋上的航空母艦直接進(jìn)行導(dǎo)彈發(fā)射，阿富汗多山的優(yōu)勢(shì)，在遙感監(jiān)聽下亦喪失殆盡，崇山峻嶺中山洞的防御亦不能逃脫精確制導(dǎo)的打擊，微波的功能讓塔利班地下工事無(wú)所遁形。

6、農(nóng)業(yè)遙感

農(nóng)業(yè)遙感是指利用遙感技術(shù)進(jìn)行農(nóng)業(yè)資源調(diào)查，土地利用現(xiàn)狀分析，農(nóng)業(yè)病蟲害監(jiān)測(cè)，農(nóng)作物估產(chǎn)等農(nóng)業(yè)應(yīng)用的綜合技術(shù)，是當(dāng)前遙感應(yīng)用的最大用戶之一。在2007年的中央一號(hào)文件中寫到“鼓勵(lì)有條件的地方在農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)中積極采用全球衛(wèi)星定位系統(tǒng)、地理信息系統(tǒng)、遙感和管理信息系統(tǒng)等技術(shù)?！笨梢娺b感在農(nóng)業(yè)中的重要地位。

①．農(nóng)作物估產(chǎn)與監(jiān)測(cè)2004年以來(lái)，利用遙感估產(chǎn)運(yùn)行系統(tǒng)得到的冬小麥、玉米的長(zhǎng)勢(shì)、墑情、面積和產(chǎn)量監(jiān)測(cè)結(jié)果一直納入農(nóng)業(yè)部“農(nóng)情信息發(fā)布日歷”,成為農(nóng)業(yè)部糧食會(huì)商的3大信息渠道之一,通過(guò)農(nóng)業(yè)部官方網(wǎng)站對(duì)外發(fā)布。像遙感站所進(jìn)行的冬小麥監(jiān)測(cè)、玉米監(jiān)測(cè)就是遙感估產(chǎn)運(yùn)行系統(tǒng)中的地面調(diào)查系統(tǒng)。

②．“3S”集成技術(shù)在精細(xì)農(nóng)業(yè)中的應(yīng)用遙感和GIS結(jié)合提供多種數(shù)據(jù)源，這為建立農(nóng)田基礎(chǔ)數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)奠定了基礎(chǔ)。農(nóng)田基礎(chǔ)數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)是農(nóng)田科學(xué)管理的基礎(chǔ)。搭載在拖拉機(jī)和聯(lián)合收割機(jī)上的地理信息系統(tǒng)可以記錄下各種農(nóng)田操作過(guò)程中獲得的數(shù)據(jù)，如作物品種、播種深度、噴灑農(nóng)藥類型以及收獲產(chǎn)量，同時(shí)記錄下田間作業(yè)時(shí)的位置與范圍，灌溉量、化肥使用量、農(nóng)藥噴灑量、噴施部位、使用時(shí)間、當(dāng)時(shí)天氣狀況等，這些都可以記錄在數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)內(nèi)，日積月累，形成農(nóng)田生產(chǎn)輔助決策系統(tǒng)的重要科學(xué)依據(jù)。GIS能夠根據(jù)地塊中的土壤結(jié)構(gòu)、有機(jī)質(zhì)含量和土地平整度，結(jié)合GPS接收機(jī)提供的位置數(shù)據(jù)，指揮播種機(jī)進(jìn)行定量播種，播種的疏密程度與土地肥力和土壤質(zhì)地等作物生長(zhǎng)環(huán)境相適應(yīng)。在GIS和GPS指揮下，農(nóng)藥噴灑機(jī)可以在病蟲害發(fā)生地去自動(dòng)噴灑農(nóng)藥。

③．在病蟲害防治中的應(yīng)用在小麥生產(chǎn)中，小麥條銹病是損失大、危及范圍最廣的一種病害。長(zhǎng)期以來(lái)，我國(guó)對(duì)小麥條銹病的監(jiān)測(cè)工作僅限于田間取樣調(diào)查。但是，針對(duì)大面積病害的監(jiān)測(cè)，采用人工調(diào)查不僅耗費(fèi)大量人力物力，而且監(jiān)測(cè)效率很低，等病情上報(bào)到有關(guān)部門時(shí)，往往病害已大范圍暴發(fā)。在國(guó)家自然科學(xué)基金的支持下，中國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)農(nóng)學(xué)與生物技術(shù)學(xué)院副院長(zhǎng)馬占鴻教授帶領(lǐng)的研究團(tuán)隊(duì)已能夠利用衛(wèi)星遙感技術(shù)對(duì)我國(guó)主要小麥品種實(shí)施條銹病病情監(jiān)測(cè)。和人工進(jìn)行農(nóng)作物病蟲害監(jiān)測(cè)相比，采用衛(wèi)星遙感監(jiān)測(cè)效率更高，精度更高。

④．農(nóng)情監(jiān)測(cè) 農(nóng)情參數(shù)的獲取可以用于指導(dǎo)農(nóng)田的生產(chǎn)管理，實(shí)行變量投入，達(dá)到優(yōu)化生產(chǎn)、提高生產(chǎn)率、減少污染，是現(xiàn)代化農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展的趨勢(shì)。遙感技術(shù)具有覆蓋范圍大、探測(cè)周期短、現(xiàn)時(shí)性強(qiáng)、費(fèi)用成本低的特點(diǎn)，為農(nóng)情參數(shù)快速、準(zhǔn)確、動(dòng)態(tài)地獲取提供了重要的技術(shù)手段。

⑤．農(nóng)業(yè)資源調(diào)查和動(dòng)態(tài)監(jiān)測(cè)遙感技術(shù)使農(nóng)業(yè)動(dòng)態(tài)監(jiān)測(cè)工作可以從幾公里甚至幾萬(wàn)公里的高度俯視地面資源及其變化，從而開拓了人們的思路和視野，為農(nóng)業(yè)資

源調(diào)查、監(jiān)測(cè)提供了更先進(jìn)、更科學(xué)、更有效的方法。山西省遙感中心利用遙感技術(shù)進(jìn)行農(nóng)業(yè)資源調(diào)查和動(dòng)態(tài)監(jiān)測(cè)經(jīng)費(fèi)是常規(guī)方法的1/5-1/10，人力是1/10-1/20，時(shí)間是1/5-1/10，經(jīng)濟(jì)效益可觀，還取得了較好的生態(tài)效益。

總之，衛(wèi)星遙感技術(shù)的迅速發(fā)展，把人類帶入了立體化、多層次、多角度、全方位和全天候地對(duì)地觀測(cè)的新時(shí)代。就在我們?yōu)樵诰W(wǎng)絡(luò)上通過(guò)Google Earth的衛(wèi)星影像可以看到自己家的房頂感到震撼時(shí)，現(xiàn)在我告訴大家：在網(wǎng)絡(luò)上不僅能搜索到自己家，還能看見陽(yáng)臺(tái)上種的幾盆花，甚至可以判斷哪幾盆要澆水；當(dāng)我們站在某個(gè)海灘邊，掏出手機(jī)，就可以接收到衛(wèi)星遙感發(fā)回的數(shù)據(jù)：附近哪里陽(yáng)光充足、哪里的沙灘沙多，哪里的海水污染較少，哪里游泳水溫比較合適，這會(huì)不會(huì)嚇到你？中國(guó)正在開發(fā)比“谷歌地圖”更精細(xì)的衛(wèi)星系統(tǒng)——高分辨率對(duì)地觀測(cè)系統(tǒng)。到2020年，借助該系統(tǒng)，上述的場(chǎng)景就真能實(shí)現(xiàn)了，到時(shí)我們就可以把整個(gè)地球裝進(jìn)自己的口袋。

第四篇：應(yīng)用文體概述

應(yīng)用文體概述

設(shè)計(jì)者：授課時(shí)間：

一、教學(xué)目標(biāo)：

1、理解什么是應(yīng)用文，掌握應(yīng)用文的特點(diǎn)。

2、了解應(yīng)用文的分類和應(yīng)用文寫作的重要意義。

二、教學(xué)重點(diǎn)：

1、使學(xué)生了解應(yīng)用文的分類和特點(diǎn)，2、認(rèn)識(shí)到應(yīng)用文的實(shí)用性及重要性。

三、教學(xué)方法：

講授法，對(duì)話法，比較法，自主，合作

四、課時(shí)安排：2課時(shí)

五、教學(xué)過(guò)程：

首先教師提問(wèn)問(wèn)題，什么是應(yīng)用文？學(xué)生根據(jù)自己的理解自由回答。根據(jù)學(xué)生所答內(nèi)容，進(jìn)行引導(dǎo)并進(jìn)行總結(jié)。

1、應(yīng)用文的含義

應(yīng)用文是指 單位或個(gè)人為處理個(gè)人事務(wù)、解決具體問(wèn)題而寫作的具有慣用格式的一種文體。

2、應(yīng)用文寫作的含義

又稱 公文寫作，就是根據(jù)現(xiàn)實(shí)的需要，運(yùn)用應(yīng)用文的文體知識(shí)，創(chuàng)作出具有較強(qiáng)實(shí)用意義的作品的過(guò)程。

舉例子：（當(dāng)今社會(huì)，信息高速發(fā)展，生活節(jié)奏日益加快，無(wú)論是經(jīng)商、從政、學(xué)習(xí)還是日常生活中簡(jiǎn)單的人際交往，信息的處理和傳播都占據(jù)著舉足輕重的地位，人們?cè)絹?lái)越離不開應(yīng)用文的寫作了。例如：雙方發(fā)生借貸關(guān)系，借款方要寫出借據(jù)，證明借貸關(guān)系的存在，朋友之間的書信，message，電子郵件，重要物品遺失，尋物啟事，啟事也是一種應(yīng)用文體，總之應(yīng)用文體多種多樣，也是幾乎囊括生活的各個(gè)方面，應(yīng)用文寫作無(wú)處不在。）

教師使學(xué)生列舉出所知道的所有應(yīng)用文文體。列入板書，并找同學(xué)進(jìn)行分類。從而導(dǎo)出應(yīng)用文的種類和特點(diǎn)。

3、應(yīng)用文的種類

行政公文類是以黨和國(guó)家機(jī)關(guān) 社會(huì)團(tuán)體 企事業(yè)單位的名義發(fā)出或記錄某種信息時(shí)使用的一類應(yīng)用文。公告 通告 通知 通報(bào) 報(bào)告 議案 會(huì)議紀(jì)要等 事務(wù)類文書就是指機(jī)關(guān) 團(tuán)體 企事業(yè)單位或者個(gè)人在處理日常事務(wù)時(shí)所普遍使用的一種應(yīng)用文。啟事與聲明 計(jì)劃 總結(jié) 簡(jiǎn)報(bào)開幕詞 述職報(bào)告等

經(jīng)濟(jì)類文書主要指人們?cè)诮?jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)中所使用的應(yīng)用文合同 協(xié)議書 廣告 商品說(shuō)明書等

法律類文書 是指訴訟司法文書 在法律活動(dòng)中使用的應(yīng)用文起訴狀 申訴狀仲裁申請(qǐng)書等

科技類文書是指在學(xué)習(xí)科學(xué)研究 技術(shù)創(chuàng)新活動(dòng)中使用的文書實(shí)習(xí)報(bào)告 畢業(yè)論文科技論文等

傳播類文書人們?cè)谛畔鞑ミ^(guò)程中使用的一種應(yīng)用文新聞 通訊 廣播稿 演講稿 解說(shuō)詞等

禮儀類文書人們?cè)谏缃换顒?dòng)中使用的一類應(yīng)用文。請(qǐng)柬 聘書 祝詞 歡迎詞等

根據(jù)以上所講內(nèi)容，小組討論應(yīng)用文特點(diǎn)，并找代表回答：

4、應(yīng)用文的特點(diǎn)

1、具有實(shí)用性合同 計(jì)劃海報(bào)

2、有特定的對(duì)象經(jīng)濟(jì)合同書文學(xué)作品投標(biāo)書

3、有較為固定的慣用格式 書信開頭 結(jié)尾等

4、有較強(qiáng)的實(shí)效性請(qǐng)假條通知

5、應(yīng)用文的語(yǔ)言要簡(jiǎn)明、準(zhǔn)確。2月27號(hào)前來(lái)上課

5、應(yīng)用文的作用

1、宣傳教育指導(dǎo)工作

2、傳遞信息 協(xié)調(diào)溝通

3、作為依據(jù)和憑證。

4、提供和保存資料。

6、寫作應(yīng)用文的注意事項(xiàng)

1、要熟悉政策法規(guī)，具有較高的政策水平

2、要有較寬的知識(shí)面 交豐富的只是儲(chǔ)備

3、要具備較強(qiáng)的文字表達(dá)能力

4、掌握規(guī)范的格式。

六、隨堂提問(wèn)并總結(jié)

1、應(yīng)用文含義？

2、應(yīng)用文種類至少說(shuō)出4種？

3、應(yīng)用文特點(diǎn)有哪些？

七、作業(yè)：

1、應(yīng)用文含義

2、應(yīng)用文種類

3、應(yīng)用文特點(diǎn)

八、教學(xué)總結(jié)

————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————

第五篇：應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)概述

應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)概述

一、應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)的起源

19世紀(jì)初，語(yǔ)言理論方面的研究和應(yīng)用方面的研究開始分化，語(yǔ)言教學(xué)從理論語(yǔ)言學(xué)中分化出來(lái)。19世紀(jì)末葉，博杜恩·德·庫(kù)爾德內(nèi)提出了應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)這個(gè)概念，但是沒有得到廣泛的注意。20世紀(jì)以后，語(yǔ)言學(xué)得到了進(jìn)一步的發(fā)展，應(yīng)用范圍空前擴(kuò)大，語(yǔ)言應(yīng)用方面的研究和理論方面的研究明確地區(qū)分開來(lái)，應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)這個(gè)名詞開始廣泛運(yùn)用。應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)涉及的領(lǐng)域很廣泛，通常分為一般應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)和機(jī)器應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)。

二、課本內(nèi)容總結(jié)

（一）應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)的基本概念

本單元談到的第一個(gè)問(wèn)題就是什么是應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)。應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)在廣義上指關(guān)于語(yǔ)言學(xué)應(yīng)用的所有的分支，其中包括政治、計(jì)劃、來(lái)源、機(jī)器翻譯、人工語(yǔ)言等多個(gè)方面，從此依舊體現(xiàn)出來(lái)語(yǔ)言學(xué)是一個(gè)綜合性、多樣性的學(xué)科。狹義上一方面為應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)在語(yǔ)音、語(yǔ)義等方面的語(yǔ)言學(xué)知識(shí)，另一方面指的是應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)在語(yǔ)言教學(xué)方面的應(yīng)用。其次，語(yǔ)言學(xué)是一個(gè)綜合性學(xué)科，涉及到語(yǔ)言的獲?。ㄕZ(yǔ)料庫(kù)的收集）、語(yǔ)言的分析（話語(yǔ)分析）、語(yǔ)言的發(fā)展過(guò)程、心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)的實(shí)驗(yàn)，大腦的認(rèn)知等都方面來(lái)源的知識(shí)。充分體現(xiàn)了語(yǔ)言學(xué)綜合性、實(shí)驗(yàn)性、和實(shí)踐性的特征。二語(yǔ)習(xí)得屬于應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)的一個(gè)分支，兩者有一定的重疊，在實(shí)驗(yàn)性方面有相同點(diǎn)。語(yǔ)言教學(xué)方法是應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)很重要的部分，其中包括應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)中一切有關(guān)教學(xué)的知識(shí)。

（二）對(duì)比語(yǔ)言學(xué)和二語(yǔ)習(xí)得

首先，對(duì)比語(yǔ)言學(xué)和二語(yǔ)習(xí)得對(duì)于應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)的研究都有一定的促進(jìn)作用。其次，對(duì)比語(yǔ)言學(xué)從屬于應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)，小于等于應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)，王力學(xué)者曾說(shuō)過(guò)，外語(yǔ)教學(xué)最有力的方法是中外語(yǔ)言的比較教學(xué)。實(shí)質(zhì)對(duì)比語(yǔ)言學(xué)的適用于所有語(yǔ)言的習(xí)得。對(duì)比語(yǔ)言學(xué)其中會(huì)對(duì)比語(yǔ)言本身（音位、詞素、語(yǔ)法）和文化。再者是二語(yǔ)習(xí)得的兩個(gè)特點(diǎn)（正、負(fù)遷移）和語(yǔ)言轉(zhuǎn)移的關(guān)系，一部分的教育現(xiàn)象就是語(yǔ)言轉(zhuǎn)移的特征。

（三）交際能力

這是一個(gè)現(xiàn)實(shí)到認(rèn)知再到語(yǔ)言的過(guò)程，而交際能力是教育最為重要的目的，教育的目的就是充分發(fā)揮語(yǔ)言的最大作用達(dá)到交流的有效結(jié)果。這一部分是社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)的知識(shí)，同樣也是應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)眾多分支之一。在交際能力和教學(xué)方法結(jié)合的時(shí)候，認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)顯得尤為重要。認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)涉及人工智能、語(yǔ)言學(xué)、心理學(xué)、系統(tǒng)論等多種學(xué)科，它針對(duì)生成語(yǔ)言學(xué)天賦觀，提出：語(yǔ)言的創(chuàng)建、學(xué)習(xí)及運(yùn)用，基本上都必須能夠透過(guò)人類的認(rèn)知而加以解釋，因?yàn)檎J(rèn)知能力是人類知識(shí)的根本。認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)不是一種單一的語(yǔ)言理論,而是代表一種研究范式,是多種認(rèn)知語(yǔ)

言理論的統(tǒng)稱,其特點(diǎn)是把人們的日常經(jīng)驗(yàn)看成是語(yǔ)言使用的基礎(chǔ),著重闡釋語(yǔ)言和一般認(rèn)知能力之間密不可分的聯(lián)系。這些語(yǔ)言理論雖不相同,但對(duì)語(yǔ)言所持的基本假設(shè)都大同小異,都不同程度地認(rèn)可上一節(jié)提到的基本觀點(diǎn),只是在討論和關(guān)注的具體語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象上有所差別。

（四）文化與跨文化交際可以概括為語(yǔ)言是文化的輸出工具，文化是語(yǔ)言的凝練總結(jié)，教授語(yǔ)言就是教授該語(yǔ)言存在的文化。籠統(tǒng)地說(shuō)，文化是一種社會(huì)現(xiàn)象，是人們長(zhǎng)期創(chuàng)造形成的產(chǎn)物，同時(shí)又是一種歷史現(xiàn)象，是社會(huì)歷史的積淀物。確切地說(shuō)，文化是凝結(jié)在物質(zhì)之中又游離于物質(zhì)之外，能夠被傳承的國(guó)家或民族的歷史、地理、風(fēng)土人情、傳統(tǒng)習(xí)俗、生活方式、文學(xué)藝術(shù)、行為規(guī)范、思維方式、價(jià)值觀念等，是人類之間進(jìn)行交流的普遍認(rèn)可的一種能夠傳承的意識(shí)形態(tài)。從此可以看出學(xué)習(xí)文化對(duì)研究應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)的重要性。對(duì)于二語(yǔ)習(xí)得者，學(xué)習(xí)文化有效地方法就有對(duì)比學(xué)習(xí)和跨文化交際（出國(guó)留學(xué)等），文化存在于語(yǔ)言應(yīng)用的每一個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)和細(xì)節(jié)中，因而教學(xué)中不能只重視詞匯和語(yǔ)法，文化也是必不可少的一部分。對(duì)于教學(xué)方面同社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)有一定的聯(lián)系，語(yǔ)言可以表達(dá)思想，傳播文化，文化和思想是語(yǔ)言的存在意義。

（五）心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)和多語(yǔ)言習(xí)得的過(guò)程

本單元首先對(duì)比了母語(yǔ)和二語(yǔ)習(xí)得者的差別，主要表現(xiàn)在認(rèn)知過(guò)程中獲取信息的技巧，從而總結(jié)出了二語(yǔ)習(xí)得者正確高效的學(xué)習(xí)方法。其次，心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)家想要證明理解和記憶語(yǔ)言功能的器官的存在，這一論題來(lái)自于心理學(xué)，可以在語(yǔ)言習(xí)得中體現(xiàn)出來(lái)。在語(yǔ)言習(xí)得過(guò)程中興趣是學(xué)習(xí)的基礎(chǔ)，而每個(gè)人的學(xué)習(xí)方法都不相同，是因?yàn)槊總€(gè)人的詞匯儲(chǔ)備和說(shuō)話風(fēng)格等個(gè)人因素的影響。重要的是在語(yǔ)言習(xí)得過(guò)程中學(xué)習(xí)者心理活動(dòng)很大程度上影響了學(xué)習(xí)的結(jié)果，也就是我們書上說(shuō)的心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)對(duì)二語(yǔ)習(xí)得者的作用。

（六）語(yǔ)料庫(kù)和應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)

語(yǔ)料庫(kù)是語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究過(guò)程中迄今為止最有效的研究方法，語(yǔ)料庫(kù)是所以研究對(duì)象的集合，語(yǔ)料庫(kù)根據(jù)其功能可以分為特殊語(yǔ)料庫(kù)、普通語(yǔ)料庫(kù)、對(duì)比語(yǔ)料庫(kù)、類似語(yǔ)料庫(kù)、學(xué)習(xí)者語(yǔ)料庫(kù)、教學(xué)者語(yǔ)料庫(kù)、歷史語(yǔ)料庫(kù)和成長(zhǎng)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)。語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的應(yīng)用需要有計(jì)算機(jī)輔佐完成，還要搭配一系列的語(yǔ)言分析工具。分析方法大概有從普通到特殊的總結(jié)、測(cè)試某一項(xiàng)的用法、對(duì)比語(yǔ)料的不同還有計(jì)算某一詞素出現(xiàn)的概率。當(dāng)下語(yǔ)料庫(kù)主要應(yīng)用于詞典的編纂和封閉語(yǔ)料的定向研究。

（七）語(yǔ)篇分析和應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)

本單元的話語(yǔ)分析主要是口語(yǔ)方面的分析，第一項(xiàng)工作要確定研究對(duì)象，研究的方面主要有說(shuō)話人的發(fā)言順序、說(shuō)話時(shí)的錯(cuò)誤分析還有說(shuō)話時(shí)的詞匯選擇。錯(cuò)誤提供反饋，它可以告訴教師教材和教學(xué)方法產(chǎn)生了什么效果，并且也向他們提出所依據(jù)的教學(xué)大綱中哪部分在教與學(xué)的過(guò)程中還有什么不足，需要重視。分析時(shí)還要重視在特殊場(chǎng)合研究對(duì)象的話語(yǔ)分析。對(duì)于多語(yǔ)者的話語(yǔ)分析通常會(huì)遇到文化和語(yǔ)法的評(píng)價(jià)。綜上，話語(yǔ)分析幫助確定教學(xué)目標(biāo)和方法，改進(jìn)教學(xué)大綱起著決定性作用。

（八）話語(yǔ)分析和語(yǔ)言教學(xué)

本單元特指書面語(yǔ)的話語(yǔ)分析，其目的在于提高二語(yǔ)習(xí)得者的寫作能力。通過(guò)大量的母語(yǔ)語(yǔ)料的研究總結(jié)出來(lái)貼近的寫作框架，供二語(yǔ)習(xí)得者利用更好的表

達(dá)自己的想法，使二語(yǔ)習(xí)得者的寫作更加接近母語(yǔ)者。系統(tǒng)的分析方法會(huì)分析語(yǔ)法、結(jié)構(gòu)和體裁。把二語(yǔ)習(xí)得者和母語(yǔ)者的作文進(jìn)行比較，從而找到有效地寫作方法加以效仿。此外，還要明白語(yǔ)言學(xué)存在與我們生活的每一個(gè)地方，社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)重視各種方言的研究。話語(yǔ)分析屬于功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)的一部分。

（九）教學(xué)大綱設(shè)計(jì)和語(yǔ)言項(xiàng)目

一個(gè)制定得好的教學(xué)大綱就是教學(xué)程序的全面計(jì)劃，常見的教學(xué)大綱有結(jié)構(gòu)性語(yǔ)言教學(xué)大綱、交際教學(xué)大綱、理論教學(xué)大綱、情景教學(xué)大綱和任務(wù)型教學(xué)大綱。和課程相關(guān)的就是一般情況小都是根據(jù)語(yǔ)言學(xué)合理性的次序排列來(lái)設(shè)計(jì)大綱的，其中有個(gè)教學(xué)內(nèi)容的部分就是我們談到的大綱設(shè)計(jì)。我們重視的是以技能為基礎(chǔ)的教學(xué)大綱，這才體現(xiàn)到了學(xué)習(xí)語(yǔ)言的目的。教學(xué)大綱的設(shè)計(jì)是一種藝術(shù)，牽涉到語(yǔ)言學(xué)、教育學(xué)、社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)和心理學(xué)方面的問(wèn)題，要懂得因材施教才是王道。

（十）語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者和教學(xué)者的提高

這個(gè)單元的主要任務(wù)是在最大程度發(fā)揮老師自己特長(zhǎng)的情況下，找到幫助老師更好的完成教學(xué)任務(wù)的方法。這個(gè)過(guò)程中，會(huì)出現(xiàn)四個(gè)方面的問(wèn)題：課本、學(xué)生、管理過(guò)程和方法和教學(xué)器材準(zhǔn)備。其中，學(xué)生要最大程度的學(xué)會(huì)聽課，配合老師；管理層應(yīng)及時(shí)和老師溝通，給予一定的鼓勵(lì)和支持。才外，我們應(yīng)該學(xué)會(huì)評(píng)價(jià)教學(xué)，有三點(diǎn)必須考慮：連貫性、擴(kuò)展性和有效性。充分發(fā)揮老師的職能，調(diào)動(dòng)學(xué)生的積極性，互動(dòng)中學(xué)習(xí)，更加專業(yè)化的教學(xué)。

（十一）學(xué)習(xí)者的個(gè)人因素和個(gè)性

語(yǔ)言學(xué)家最常討論的幾個(gè)問(wèn)題就是什么年齡適合學(xué)習(xí)二語(yǔ)，天賦到底會(huì)不會(huì)影響二語(yǔ)的學(xué)習(xí)，在學(xué)習(xí)中認(rèn)知特征是怎么作用的，還有個(gè)人因素（學(xué)習(xí)態(tài)度、個(gè)人喜好）對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)的影響。在學(xué)習(xí)和教學(xué)中這些問(wèn)題都是不可避免的，這時(shí)就需要老師可以平等對(duì)待每一位學(xué)生，盡最大努力做到因材施教，這關(guān)系到老師的教學(xué)態(tài)度和個(gè)人修養(yǎng)問(wèn)題。

（十二）測(cè)評(píng)和評(píng)估

語(yǔ)言學(xué)應(yīng)用于語(yǔ)言教學(xué)，不僅是一個(gè)描寫性的活動(dòng)，還是一個(gè)指示性的活動(dòng)。因此我們都追求提高學(xué)習(xí)效率，那么應(yīng)該要意識(shí)到的是教材并不是提高語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)效率的唯一因素?，F(xiàn)在我們有不同性質(zhì)的測(cè)評(píng)方法，多樣性和綜合性的評(píng)估原則。衡量和評(píng)價(jià)是兩個(gè)性質(zhì)不同、但又是邏輯上相互關(guān)聯(lián)的過(guò)程。衡量學(xué)生的知識(shí)，不僅是評(píng)價(jià)學(xué)生本人也是評(píng)價(jià)教師和教材的一種手段。測(cè)評(píng)和評(píng)估也應(yīng)該與時(shí)俱進(jìn)，創(chuàng)新與發(fā)展。

三、應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)和語(yǔ)言教學(xué)

本書的每個(gè)單元最后一部分都是應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)在教學(xué)方面的表象，足以表現(xiàn)這是一本關(guān)于語(yǔ)言教學(xué)的狹義應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)的簡(jiǎn)單概述。其中包括了語(yǔ)言學(xué)家、心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)家、社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家和認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)家等很多人的觀點(diǎn)，說(shuō)明應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)是一個(gè)人龐雜的學(xué)科。

淺談批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析

批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析(critical discourse analysis)，簡(jiǎn)稱CDA，也叫做批評(píng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)(critical linguist ics)，旨在通過(guò)分析語(yǔ)言特征及其生成的社會(huì)文化背景挖掘隱含于語(yǔ)言中的意識(shí)形態(tài), 進(jìn)而揭露語(yǔ)言、權(quán)勢(shì)和意識(shí)形態(tài)之間的復(fù)雜關(guān)系。批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析誕生于20 世紀(jì)70 年代，英國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家Fowler 等在《語(yǔ)言和控制》(Language and Control)一書中首次提出批評(píng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)這一概念, 揭開了批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析研究的序幕。

批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析被認(rèn)為是批評(píng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)最有影響的一個(gè)分析，它通過(guò)分析大眾語(yǔ)篇揭示意識(shí)形態(tài)對(duì)語(yǔ)篇的影響和語(yǔ)篇對(duì)意識(shí)形態(tài)的反作用。不同學(xué)者對(duì)批評(píng)話語(yǔ)分析的詮釋不盡相同。批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析家認(rèn)為話語(yǔ)是影響人們思想和實(shí)踐的強(qiáng)有力方式, 因而有必要通過(guò)詳細(xì)分析揭示其中的權(quán)勢(shì)關(guān)系。

在語(yǔ)言學(xué)上，批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析吸收了美國(guó)人類學(xué)家Sapir & Whorf關(guān)于語(yǔ)言和思維關(guān)系的假說(shuō)(語(yǔ)言相對(duì)論和語(yǔ)言決定論)以及Halliday 系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)(Systemic Functional Linguistics)的理論, 主張人們?cè)谑褂谜Z(yǔ)言時(shí)所選擇的語(yǔ)言形式是由其實(shí)現(xiàn)的社會(huì)功能所決定的(選擇即意義)，而CDA正是主張語(yǔ)言是一種社會(huì)實(shí)踐, 試圖使人們意識(shí)到以前所沒意識(shí)到的語(yǔ)言和社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)之間相互影響的關(guān)系。

Fairclough提出了批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析的三大論點(diǎn)：(1)語(yǔ)言是一種社會(huì)實(shí)踐(social practice)，它是社會(huì)秩序的一種永恒的介入力量，從各個(gè)角度反映現(xiàn)實(shí)，通過(guò)再現(xiàn)意識(shí)形態(tài)來(lái)操作、影響社會(huì)過(guò)程。(2)在社會(huì)文化環(huán)境中，語(yǔ)言與價(jià)值觀念、宗教信仰和權(quán)力關(guān)系之間是一種互為影響的關(guān)系。(3)語(yǔ)言的使用可以促使話語(yǔ)的改變和社會(huì)的變革。Fairclough 承認(rèn)批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析并非“毫無(wú)激情而純客觀的”社會(huì)科學(xué),批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析家都是帶著激情和強(qiáng)烈的責(zé)任感而投入工作的。批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析的獨(dú)特之處就是它幫助被統(tǒng)治和被壓迫群體反對(duì)統(tǒng)治者。它公開表明自己的動(dòng)機(jī)是為被壓迫群體謀求解放。這并不意味著批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析缺少堅(jiān)實(shí)的理論基礎(chǔ),也不意味著批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析的學(xué)術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)低或方法不嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)。Fairclough 和Wodak闡述了批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析在理論和方法上應(yīng)遵循的八條原則：

1.批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析關(guān)注的是社會(huì)問(wèn)題

2.話語(yǔ)反映權(quán)力關(guān)系

3.話語(yǔ)是社會(huì)和文化的構(gòu)成要素

4.話語(yǔ)是意識(shí)形態(tài)的工具

5.話語(yǔ)具有歷史關(guān)聯(lián)性

6.語(yǔ)篇與社會(huì)的關(guān)系是間接的7.話語(yǔ)分析是解釋性的8.批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析是社會(huì)行動(dòng)

批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析的主要方法有：系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法分析、語(yǔ)篇體裁交織性分析、話語(yǔ)歷史背景分析

按照 《現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)詞典》 的解釋,“批評(píng)話語(yǔ)分析是一種分析視角, 研究的是話語(yǔ)事件和社會(huì)政治, 文化因素之間的關(guān)系, 特別是話語(yǔ)在社會(huì)中如何在意識(shí)形態(tài)上受權(quán)勢(shì)關(guān)系的影響和自身如何影響權(quán)勢(shì)關(guān)系?！笨磥?lái)，批評(píng)話語(yǔ)分析的生命在于“ 批評(píng)”，批評(píng)話語(yǔ)分析的產(chǎn)生和發(fā)展都會(huì)受到政體的制約。任何社會(huì)科

學(xué)都或多或少帶著一定的政治偏見。批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析也不例外,它公開表明自己的動(dòng)機(jī)是幫助被統(tǒng)治和被壓迫群體反對(duì)統(tǒng)治者。但這并不意味著批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析缺少堅(jiān)實(shí)的理論基礎(chǔ),也并不意味著批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析的學(xué)術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)低或研究方法不嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)。從本文介紹的理論淵源、原則和方法來(lái)看,批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析有堅(jiān)實(shí)的理論基礎(chǔ)和科學(xué)的分析方法。當(dāng)今西方世界在社會(huì)文化方面所取得的進(jìn)步,有不少是批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析家努力的結(jié)果。

學(xué)習(xí)反思

批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析是西歐語(yǔ)言學(xué)界從20世紀(jì)70年代末至80年代初發(fā)展起來(lái)的一種語(yǔ)言學(xué)思潮。批評(píng)話語(yǔ)分析致力于解釋語(yǔ)言和社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)之間的相互作用并積極參加與當(dāng)代這種社會(huì)具體問(wèn)題的研究和實(shí)踐，所涉及的主題有政治話語(yǔ)、意識(shí)形態(tài)、種族主義、全球化、經(jīng)濟(jì)話語(yǔ)、廣告和推銷文化、媒體話語(yǔ)、性別、機(jī)構(gòu)話語(yǔ)、語(yǔ)文教育等。由于意識(shí)形態(tài)具有合法化、習(xí)慣化以及相對(duì)隱藏的特性，我們面對(duì)所有信息的過(guò)程中對(duì)語(yǔ)言有高度的敏感性，并對(duì)其進(jìn)行批評(píng)性分析，掀開某些語(yǔ)言過(guò)程和社會(huì)語(yǔ)言過(guò)程的面具，揭示那些用于超控、歧視和蠱惑的語(yǔ)言，樹立批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析觀，從而正確地把握其中蘊(yùn)藏的意識(shí)形態(tài)和價(jià)值觀。

參考文獻(xiàn)

1.毛浩然，《話語(yǔ)分析理論的溫故與知新》，河北北方學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)

2.紀(jì)玉華，《批評(píng)性話語(yǔ)分析：理論與方法》，廈門大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)

3.懂又能，王晶晶，《英語(yǔ)新聞的批判性話語(yǔ)分析》，湖北大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)