第一篇：語言學(xué)概論_課后參考答案__楊信彰

Charpter1 1.1.1 1.a.This sentence may have three interpretations: 1)He rolled from side to side in his grave.2)He returned his grave.3)He handed in his grave.b.There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1)They gave preference to both young men and young women.2)They gave preference to women and young men.2.Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.Units that indicate structure: when, to.3.a.This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.b.This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.c.This is a good sentence.d.This is a good sentence.1.1.2 1.a.This sign is a symbol.It means we will have good luck.I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character “?！?means “l(fā)uck” and the color red symbolizes “goodness”.The Chinese meaning of “upside down” is “倒”, which has the similar pronunciation of “到(arrive)”.Thus, when the character “?！?is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.b.This sign is an icon.It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.c.This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon.It means that “parking” is only allowed for disabled people.2.I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.3.To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.4.I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.1.1.3 1.according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.The link between them is a matter of convention.Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son.However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor.Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.2.No.The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts.In people's mind, “pig” stands for foolishness and laziness.If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.3.Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use.Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules.The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.1.1.4 1.I prefer to use the spoken language.In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other.People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.2.I think listening and speaking should come first.The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal.What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.1.1.5 1.No, I don't agree with this point of view.Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.2.A parrot only can say what it is taught.It can not form an infinite set of utterances from a finite use of units.So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.3.That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.4.Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects: 1)Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space.In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2)Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3)Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4)Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5)Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.1.1.6 1.The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent.People can communicate with others in remote places freely.2.There may exist several causes: 1)The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.2)The receiver can not understand what the sender said.3)The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.4)There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.3.We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the ways of thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.1.2.1 1.a.Physiological function b.Performative function c.Phatic function d.Informative function 2.People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry.And most creative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.3.I may not say anything, but move the desk away.1.2.2 1.General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.2.No.According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.3.Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.1.3.1 1.I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language.This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists.With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionary theory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.2.轟隆、乒乓、嘰嘰嘎嘎、嘰里咕嚕、汪汪

3.Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc.According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.1.3.2 1.Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic(or genealogical)and the typological.The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor.This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages.On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages.It is an attempt to group languages into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship.2.Currently, we cannot say that all languages in the world derived from one common ancestor.It might be true that some languages have diverged from one common ancestor, for example, French, Spanish, Italian and other Romance languages were clearly descended from Latin, but no evidence show that all languages in the world have the same origin.As research shows, there are at least 29 language families in the world.However, this problem will be solved when we have enough evidence to show that human beings have one common ancestor.3.The major causes for the language diversity in the world include grammatical structure, historical factors, social factors, intercultural contact, etc.1.4.1 1.The two sentences perform the same function of requesting.However, The two sentences have different choices of words and syntax structures.Sentence(a)is structurally an imperative sentence, while Sentence(b)takes the form of a question and the word 'please' is added.So, the effects of the two utterances are different.Sentence(b)would sound more polite.When we are decoding them, we would take into account such factors as choice of words and syntactic structures, the principle of politeness and the context.2.As a science, linguistics demands a scientific outlook upon language.To conduct a study of language scientifically, we must take an objective view of language and all linguistic phenomena and study language and reflect on it in a detached and unbiased way.Even a local variety with few native speakers may also fall within our investigations.Moreover, we should adopt the general principles of empirical research procedures to observe and analyze data found in natural languages.3.The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world.We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.1.4.2 1.It is very important to study speech in linguistics, because language is primarily vocal.As we know, no community has a written form only, though many have a spoken language only.Children learn spoken language first and most easily.Earlier in the 20th century certain linguists began to doubt the priority of writing.Bloomfield argued that writing was not language but merely a way of recording language.The contemporary linguistics maintains that the spoken language is primary and that writing is essentially a means of representing speech in another medium.Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech because it is the “natural,” or primary, medium in which language is manifest, and written language derives from the transference of speech to a secondary, visual medium.2.There is no absolute standard of correctness because linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.Different groups of people may use different varieties of language.The correctness in language use should not be prescribed grammatically.3.In reality, it is impossible to have a standard language.The reason is that linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.There is no absolute standard of correctness.What's more, as we know, with the passage of time, all languages are subject to change.All living languages are there to serve the different social needs of the communities that use them.As these needs change, languages will tend to change to meet the new situations.Thus, a standard language is not possible.1.5.1 1.There are many external factors related to language.Cultural factors influence the full meaning of the language conveys.Social factors include the social backgrounds of both the speaker and the addressee(i.e.their age, sex, social class, ethnic background, degree of integration into their neighborhood, etc.), the relationship between speaker and addressee and the context and manner of the interaction.Psychological factors have effects on people's behaviors.2.Though there are many translation softwares in the market, translations done by machines are full of errors and require much post-editing.The key problem is the lack of a good linguistic theory to provide a frame of reference for machine translation.It is unlikely that machines will replace human translators.3.Foreign language learning and teaching involves several interrelated factors.These are: linguistic theories, situational factors, input and interaction, learner differences, learner processes, linguistic output, curriculum and syllabus design, teaching methodology, learner and teacher roles, textbook writing, language planning, and so on.1.5.2 1.Linguistic studies have gone through many changes.Since the 1930s down to the present, the expansion of knowledge in so many directions have led to several attempts to make synthesis and to develop a unified theory of language.Several schools of thought have emerged round a few prominent linguists such as Firth, Halliday, Hjelmslev and Chomsky, major centers of linguistic study like Prague School, Geneva School, Copenhagen School, and leading concepts such as structuralism, functionalism, tagmemics, systemic functional grammar, transformational generative grammar, speech act theory.2.I think discourse analysis is a proper way to study language.Traditional linguistic analysis has concentrated on the internal structure of sentences, but discourse analysis is interested in the analysis of units larger than sentences.Thus, the term discourse or text refers to all linguistic units with a definable communicative function, spoken or written.It stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social, and interactive phenomenon.3.A corpus is always needed in linguistics.Over the past few years, the study of language in actual use has required a corpus-based research.Scholars need a corpus to analyze patterns of use in natural texts.The importance of corpus to language study is aligned to the importance of empirical data because empirical data enable the linguist to make objective statements, rather than those based upon the individual's own subjective perception of language.So, corpus linguistics should be seen as a subset of the activity within an empirical approach to linguistics.Charpter 2 2.1.1 1.Articulatory phonetics deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds.It attempts to provide a framework of the nature of speech sounds and how they are produced.Acoustic phonetics focuses on the analysis and measurement of sound waves.It studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds as they are determined and measured by machines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic basis of speech production and perception.2.The speech chain consists of three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the message.According to Ball and Rahilly, there are a series of activities in the speech chain.First, there is physiological activity in the brain of the speaker.Then the brain sends instructions to a variety of muscles of vocal organs.The result is a range of muscle contractions and physical movement of structures such as the rib cage, the larynx, the tongue and so on.In turn, these movements give rise to an aerodynamic phase of the speech chain, whereby air flows through the vocal tract.This airflow interacts with continued movement of structures such as the vocal folds, tongue, lips and soft palate to produce the different features of speech.This modified airflow through the vocal tract impinges on the air surrounding the speaker.3.Spelling is not the same as pronunciation in English.For example, in pronunciation, the “h” in the word “hour” is silent.“ph” in the word “elephant” is pronounced as [f], which seems to have nothing to do with its spelling.Another example might be a pair of words like “meet” and “meat”, who have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings.2.1.2 1.In the production of speech, the vocal tract sets a column of air into motion, and then modifies this moving air-stream in a number of ways to produce the sounds of speech.2.When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation.In terms of manner, sounds are classified into plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, trills and taps.When examined from view of place of articulation, sounds are divided into groups like bilabials, dentals, post-alveolar, retroflex, uvular, glottal, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and pharyngeal sounds.3.Bilabial, dental and labiodental sounds are different from one another in terms of place of articulation.Bilabials are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together.In bilabial stops they form an air-tight seal producing the plosives [p, b] or, if the velum is lowered, the nasal [m].Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue touching the back of the upper front teeth.Dental sounds are generally apical.Dental fricatives occur in English as pronunciations of the 'th' spellings.The voiceless dental fricative of 'th' in 'thin', whereas its voiced counterpart

is the sound

is the sound of 'th' in 'then'.Labiodentals are articulations produced with the lower lip approximating to the underside of the upper front teeth.For example, in English the [f] in fat and the [v] in vat are labiodental fricatives.2.1.3

3.First of all, vowels and consonants appear in different places in English words.Secondly, vowels and consonants are produced differently.Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity.Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.2.1.4 1.Narrow transcription captures the exact articulatory details of each sound.It records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording.On the contrary, broad transcription is a less subtle transcription.It omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation and is perfectly suitable for many users.2.Omitted.2.2.1 1.Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence.In other words, a phoneme is a block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts;it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis.Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.2.Omitted.3.[p] and [b] are different phonemes because they represent distinctive sounds.In addition, if we substitute one sound for the other, it results in a change of meaning.2.2.2 1.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs.For instance, “deed” and “seed” are minimal pairs, but “deed” and “dog” are not because the vowel and final consonant in these two sounds are different.2.a)/p/-/b/: pig-big;gap-gab;b)/k/-/g/: coat-goat;back-bag;c)/f/-/v/: life-live;fife-five;

d)/m/-/n/: meat-neat;time-tine;e)/r/-/l/: right-light;sear-seal 3.2.2.3 1.Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group.Thus, “distinctive” means serving to identify, distinguishing.2.The distinctive features for each group of sounds are: a)[p, t, b, d]: [-high,-back] b)[j, w, i, u]: [+voiced, +high] 3.a)life, lives: similarities: [-high,-back], differences: life [f]: [-voiced];lives[v]: [+voiced] b)choice, choose: similarities: [-high,-back];differences: choice[s]: [-voiced], choose [z]: [+voiced] c)deduce, deduction: similarities: [+back];differences: deduce: [-high,-round], deduction: [+high, +round] 2.3.1 1.Edinburgh, Wednesday, Thames are words in which pronunciation does not match the spelling.2.These words are not permissible in English.All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes.*tpray, *btry, *tgharg do not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.When three consonants occur, the first must be [s].2.3.2 1.When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e.in a context in which the other sound(s)never occur(s).2.For the speaker, the Chinese consonants [sh] and [x] are the same.So, to him, there is no need to distinguish these two sounds, and he pronounces the two consonants in the same way..2.4.1 1.Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, and the coda.The onset of a syllable consists of all the segments that precede the peak and are tautosyllabic with it.The peak is realized by a vowel.The coda consists of all the tautosyllabic segments that follow the peak.A syllable that has no coda is called an unchecked or open syllable;one with a coda is called a checked or closed syllable.2.The word “yesterday” has three syllables.ye-ster-day.“extra” has two syllables.ex-tra “secretarial” has four syllables.se-cre-ta-rial “camera” has three syllables.ca-me-ra “appreciation” has five syllables.a-pre-ci-a-tion 3.English has syllables that begin with vowels and onsets of from one to three consonants.In English, three-consonant onsets are highly restricted in their composition.The first consonants in such onsets must be an s, the second a voiceless stop, and the third a liquid.Moreover, if the second consonant is t, the third must be r.2.4.2 1.2.Stress in English is very important.English is a stress language.The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words.Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units.Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable.In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'.This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.2.4.3 1.Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech.Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave.Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound.2.Pitch is very important in Chinese.Different pitches on Chinese characters can lead to meaning differences.For example, “fei”, when given different pitches, may mean “飛(fly)”, “肥(fat)”, “匪(bandit)” or “沸(boil)”.2.4.4 1.The intonation patterns of the following English questions are: a)It begins with a mid pitch, rises to a higher pitch and then falls.b)Falling.c)Rising.d)It begins with a mid pitch, falls to a lower pitch and then rises.2.Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable.Intonation serves several functions in verbal communication such as grouping words, emphasizing words and differentiating meanings.3.Intonation plays a very important role in daily conversations.In some languages, such as English and Chinese, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches.Keys to Linguistics of Xiamen University Charpter 3 3.1.1 1.A word is characterized with the following four features:(1)A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal organs.(2)A word is symbolic, i.e.it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings or ideas.(3)A word is part of the large communication system we call language.(4)Words help human beings to interact culturally with one another.2.The relation between the sound or sound combination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary.There is no logical relationship between the sound or the combination of sounds which stands for an entity(including a thing, a happening or an idea)and the entity itself.On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages.On the other hand, the same meaning can be represented by different sound of combination of sounds.3.Apart from the conceptual meaning(also called “denotative”, “l(fā)ogical” or “cognitive” meaning), a word normally has various associated meanings, including the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning.We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning.As for its various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context of culture.3.1.2 1.In(prep.)practice(n.), writers(n.)on(prep.)style(n.)have(primary v.)differed(full v.)a(det.)great(adj.)deal(n.)in(prep.)their(pron.)understanding(n.)of(prep.)the(det.)subject(n.), and(conj.)one(num.)source(n.)of(prep.)disagreement(n.)has(primary v.)been(full v.)the(det.)question(n.)“To(prep.)what(pron.)or whom(pron.)do(primary v.)we(pron.)attribute(full v.)style(n.)? In(prep.)the(det.)broadest(adj.)sense(n.), STYLE(n.)can(modal v.)be(primary v.)applied(full v.)to(prep.)both(adv.)spoken(adj.)and(conj.)written(adj.), both(adv.)literary(adj.)and(conj.)non-literary(adj.)varieties(n.)of(prep.)language(n.);but(conj.)by(prep.)tradition(n.), it(pron.)is(full v.)particularly(adv.)associated(full v.)with(prep.)written(adj.)literary(adj.)texts(n.), and(conj.)this(pron.)is(full v.)the(det.)sense(n.)of(prep.)the(det.)term(n.)which(pron.)will(modal v.)concern(full v.)us(pron.).2.No.These two categories of words have different distribution in speech and writing.Lexical words denote objects, happenings, ideas and their attributes, features, and/or manners, thus relating the words with entities existing outside the text.Grammatical words, instead, denote certain grammatical meanings, thus relating one element within the text with another.In speech there are more grammatical words, while in writing there are more lexical words.Moreover, the more formal the style is, the more lexical words there are.3.Open-class words refer to those classes of words to which we can add new words.In English, nouns, notional verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category.Such words normally convey certain semantic contents and thus are also called ”content words“.Closed-class words refer to those classes to which new words can hardly be added.In English, closed-class words include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, relatives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the linking verb ”to be“.Their roles in the linguistic system are partly or wholly grammatical and thus are also called ”grammatical words“.3.2.1 1.1)un-+ bear +-able 2)watch +-ful 3)person+-ify(i)+-cation

4)un-+ exception +-al +-ly 5)un-+educate +-(e)d 6)inspir(e)+-ing

7)soft + heart +-ed 8)horse + man +-ship 2.1)3: geo-+-graph +-y 2)4: inter-+nation +-al +-ly 3)2: forget +-(t)en 4)1: Washington 5)2: inform +-ation 6)4: industry(i)+-al +-iz(e)+-ation 7)3: pre-+ dominat(e)+-ant 8)2: pre-+ conscious 3.The plural s has 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs:(1)-(e)s, as in ”cats“, ”matches“;(2)-(r)en: as in ”oxen“, ”children“;(3)-e-: as in ”men“, ”women“;(4)-ee-, as in ”feet“, ”teeth“;and(5)zero, as in ”sheep“, ”deer“.3.2.2 1.1)inspire: into 2)intransigent: not 3)insufficient: not 4)insert: into 5)insoluble: not 6)intact: not 7)impenetrable: not 8)immutable: not 9)illicit: not 10)irretrievable: not 2.1)princeempress 3)waiterfiancée 6)heroqueen 8)oxshe-wolf 10)doctor-woman doctor 3.1)operationresponsibilities 3)proposalmodernization 5)beautifyactivates 7)funnyfriendlier 3.3.1 1.Inflection refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the grammatical rules of the language.English inflections are used to express certain grammatical meanings: the plural morpheme {s} to change the noun into the plural-number form, the generative-case morpheme {'s} to indicate the relation of possession, the feminine-gender morpheme {ess} to change the masculine noun into its corresponding feminine-gender form, the third-person singular {s} to change the verb into the third-person singular form, the-ing participle {ing} to change the verb into the-ing participle, the past-form morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the past-tense form, the past-participle morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the-ing participle, the comparative {er} to change an adjective into the comparative-degree form, and the superlative {est} to change an adjective into the superlative-degree form.2.No, inflection is not universal.Different languages have different morphology.There are languages, like Latin and Sanskrit, which abound in inflectional morphemes.There are also languages, like Chinese, which have no inflectional morphemes.Between these two extremes are some intermediate languages, like English, which have comparatively few inflectional morphemes than languages of the first category.3.Omitted.3.3.2 1.1)password: word to be passed 2)housewife: wife in charge of a household 3)sunshine: shine of the sun 4)milkman: man who sells or delivers milk 5)sunflower: plant whose flower faces the sun 6)apple pie: pie consisting of a filling of apples 7)mosquito net: net to prevent mosquitoes 8)daydream: dream in the daytime 9)freezing-point: point at which a liquid freezes 10)flashlight: light of a flash 2.Abbreviation refers to the way in which a longer word or expression is abbreviated or shortened.In both English and Chinese, longer words can be abbreviated via clipping, blending, and initials and acronyms.However, differences exist.While English words are made up of letters which can be pronounced into syllables, Chinese words are made up of characters each of which is normally pronounced as a separate syllable.While the English language differentiates blending, initials and acronyms, the Chinese language makes no such differentiation.In Chinese, the major approach to abbreviating a longer expression is usually to combine the first character of each of the constituent words into a shortened expression, in which the constituent characters are pronounced individually.Another commonly-used way of abbreviation in Chinese is to combine a numeral and the head word of a series of parallel constructions, as in ”四化“.3.The English language normally adds new words to its vocabulary through coinage, compounding, derivation, abbreviation, imitation, and borrowing.3.4.1 1.1)11：他/在/學(xué)校/表現(xiàn)/很/好/，是/個/優(yōu)秀/學(xué)生/干部/。

2)12：這里/的/水果/真/多/，到處/是/荔枝/、香蕉/、芒果/、櫻桃/、西瓜/。

3)24：Had/ the/ construction/ worker/ not/ seen/ the/ attack/ as/ he/ was/ driving/ to/ work/ early/ and/ jumped/ in/ to/ try/ and/ help/, she/ might/ have/ died/, police/ said/.（The following lexemes occur twice in the sentence: the primary verb ”have“(had/have), the determiner ”the“, the infinitive marker ”to“.）

4)12：Astronomers/ are/ elated/ by/ the/ discovery/ of/ an/ object/ that/ rivals/ the/ size/ of/ Pluto's/ moon/.(The determiner ”the“ occurs twice in the sentence.)2.A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest form of a language that can occur by itself.A lexeme may be or may not be identical with a word.For example, the definite article ”the“ is both a lexeme and a word.However, the lexeme ”put up with“ has three different words.3.Collocation refers to the habitual co-occurrence of individual lexical items.In a word, collocation is the linguistic reflection of certain conventional relations conceived by the native speakers of a language between the lexical items and/or between the realities represented by these lexical items.Collocated lexical items fall into four categories:(1)Logical collocations: Some lexical items are allowable to co-occur because the objects, happenings, ideas and/or their properties they denote normally co-occur in the context of situation or culture.(2)Semantic collocations: Some lexical items are collocations because the contents they denote are normally related with each other.(3)Lexical collocations: Such collocations involve the habitual co-occurrence of lexical items of different categories because of certain expressional conventions.(4)Grammatical collocations: Some lexical items co-occur because of certain grammatical restrictions.3.4.2 1.Idioms refer to phrasal lexemes which have relatively regular lexical meaning and restricted grammatical variation.By definition, idioms are relatively fixed in structure.We cannot alter or substitute its component words of our own will.For example, we cannot alter the idiomatic greeting ”How do you do?“ into ”How did you do?“, nor can we substitute the adjective ”green“ in the idiomatic expression ”green with envy“ with ”red“.2.Language is the reflection of human knowledge of the world.With the constant economic, technological, social and cultural development and the expansion of human beings' knowledge of nature, the society and themselves, they have to create new words and expressions to denote the new natural and/or social phenomena, their new discoveries, new inventions and new perceptions.As a result, the lexicon of a language is constantly expanding.3.Proverbs refer to a brief epigram or maxim.They are always succinct in language and pregnant in meaning.In other words, they are the condensed summary of the experiences and wisdom of a culture.They not only help the members of a culture to express themselves wittily and tersely but also enable the community to pass their experiences and wisdom from one generation to another.Some proverbs are instructive.Charpter 4 4.1.1 1.No.Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence.One approach to explain sentences with discontinuous constituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related.One phrase marker is derived from another.By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively.Transformational rules are responsible for the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.2.1)

2)

3.(a)a)The door was shut down.b)The store was not open for business.(b)a)I don't like the painting of Jack.b)I don't like the painting owned by Jack.(c)a)I chalked a picture of the woman on the blackboard.b)I drew a picture of the woman who had a piece of chalk in her hand.4.1.2 1.(b)2.(a)

(b)

(c)

3.(a)complex;(b)coordinate;(c)simple 4.2.1(a)One clause.Main clause.Declarative.S ——→ NP VP Subject + Predicate

b)One clause.Main clause.Declarative.S ——→ NP VP NP

Subject + Predicate + Complement

(c)Two clauses.Main clause, and relative clause.Declarative.S ——→ NP VP VP ——→ V NP S'

Subject + Predicate + Complement Subject + Predicate + Adjunct

(d)Three clauses.Main clause, complement clause, and relative clause.Interrogative.S ——→(Q)NP VP NP S' S ——→ NP S'' VP NP

Subject + Predicate + Complement Subject + Predicate

4.2.2 1.1)(a)

(b)

2)

3)

2.(1)O,(2)O,(3)N,(4)O

4.3.1 1.Surface structure can be derived from deep structure.A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker.This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure.In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents.The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed through transformational rules.In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed.The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structure.2.The above two sentences have different deep structures.They appear to be similar in surface structure, but speakers of English know that in(a), the subject ”He“ is the doer of the action, and it is different from the object complement ”a good wife“ in reference.In(b), the subject ”He“ and the object complement ”a good husband“ are identical in reference.4.3.2 1.(a)The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are the subject NP(here the public), the object NP(here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V(criticize)and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted.The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.(b)In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure, The woman threw away the rake in the yard.is also the deep structure.It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V(verb)consists of a Vprt(verbs that can combine with verbal particles)and a Prt(verbal particles).In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.(c)The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarative sentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence(in this case, will)immediately before the first NP of that sentence(here, the new school master).So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.2.(a)A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similar to that of the declarative counterpart.So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive from a deep structure in the form of The computer program can do ”what“ for us?.The wh-element occurs initially and is followed by tense and an auxiliary.In this sentence, the object is fronted.First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer programknown as 'wh' movementthey all presuppose that the dog barked at the shadow.In other words, the truth value of the three utterances is dependent on the truth value of the presupposition.If the presupposition is true, then the three utterances are true.If the presupposition is false, then the three utterances are false.In contrast, in 1)and 5), the truth value of the statement ”The dog barked at the shadow“ is uncertain.In other words, we do not know for sure from the two utterances whether the dog barked at the shadow or not.2.1)This utterance presupposes that ”You have been eaten raw oysters“.The presupposition trigger is the verb ”stop“.2)This utterance presupposes that ”Little Franz had not studied French better before“.The presupposition trigger is the verb ”regretted“.3)This utterance presupposes that ”Catherine does not know anything about this event“.The presupposition trigger is the verb ”pretends“.4)This utterance presupposes that ”Mark Twain found the best setting for most of his best novels in the Mississippi valley“.The presupposition trigger is the emphatic construction ”It was … that …“.5)This utterance presupposes that ”You have helped us in the experiment“.The presupposition trigger is the verb ”appreciate“.6.3.2 1)Here(b)is the preferred response while(a)is the dispreferred.When A invites B to come and join them in the picnic, he or she normally expects the addressee to accept the invitation rather than decline it.2)Here(a)is the preferred response while(b)is the dispreferred.When A asks B to comment on a certain lady's performance, the positive response is more preferable than the negative(though modulated for the sake of politeness)one.3)Here(a)is the preferred response while(b)is the dispreferred.When A requests B to do him or her a favor, he or she normally expects a positive response rather than a negative(though indirect for the sake of politeness)one.6.4.1 1)In this utterance, 6 reference items are used in the second sentence to contribute to the coherence of the text.Firstly, the possessive determiner their and the possessive pronoun theirs, and the personal pronouns them and they are used to refer anaphorically to ”the children next door“.Secondly, the definite article the is used together with the noun toy to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase ”a toy“.Thirdly, the personal pronoun it is used to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase ”a toy“ and ”the toy“.2)In this utterance, 1 reference item is used in the first clause to contribute to the coherence of the text.Namely, the personal pronoun he is used to refer cataphorically to the proper name ”Alex“.3)In this utterance, the personal pronoun it is used in the fourth clause to refer anaphorically to the previous sentence ”If it rained day and night for two weeks, the basement flooded and everything was under water“.This clausal reference contributes to the coherence of the text by connecting the second sentence with the first one.4)In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second clause to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase ”a stamp“ in the first clause.This helps to connect the second clause with the first and thus contributes to the coherence of the text.5)In this utterance, the comparative Adjunct otherwise is used to make a contrast between Daddy's having a bit of cold and other aspects of his health.This helps to connect the two clauses into a coherent text.6.4.2 1.1)In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second sentence to substitute the noun ”book“.This establishes a comparison between the two sentences and connect them into a cohesive text.2)In this dialogue, B uses the pro-verb ”(have)done“ to substitute the verb phrase ”(have)succeeded in his ambitions“.This helps to connect B's utterances with A's into a cohesive text.3)In this dialogue, B uses the pronoun so to substitute the previous clause ”The Chicago Bulls will win the game“.This(together the ellipsis in the next clause, i.e.they will [win the game])helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.4)In this dialogue, B uses the clausal substitute not to replace the previous clause(i.e.We will probably join in your excursion this weekend)to avoid unnecessary repetition.This helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.2.1)In this dialogue, two clausal ellipses can be identified in B's utterance(i.e.I don't know how long I will be in here.You could ask matron how long I will be in here.).They help to connect B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text.2)In this dialogue, a verbal ellipsis can be identified in B's utterance(i.e.but Bob didn't care to take the course).This, together with the verbal substitution of did for the verb phrase ”take the course“, connects B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text.6.4.3 1)In this passage, there is one conjunctive expression, namely, moreover at the beginning of the second sentence.This conjunctive expression contributes to the cohesion of the passage by adding more information to the first sentence concerning the role of the media in shaping the social and moral norms in the American society.2)Three sequences of conjunctive expressions are used in this passage.The first sequence is the conjunctive expressions of listing, i.e.to begin in sentence 2finally in sentence(12).The second sequence is the repetition of some of the questions in sentence 6some of them in sentence 10.The third sequence includes two expressions of exemplification, i.e.for example in sentence 7 and for instance in sentence 11.Together they contribute to make the passage a cohesive text.6.4.4 1)In this passage, the author uses many expressions to describe his miserable life as a member of the working class.Such expressions include beneath the point at which I had started in sentence 1, down in the cellar of society and down in the subterranean depths of misery in sentence 3, the pit, the abyss, the human cesspool, the shambles and charnel-house of our civilization in sentence 3, the part of the edifice of society in sentence 4.Besides, the author also repeats the infinitive phrase ”to ignore“ in sentences 4 and 5.With these lexical cohesive ties, the author makes the passage a cohesive text.2)In this passage, the author uses the following lexical cohesive ties:(a)the repetition of the adjectives ”clean“, ”noble“ and ”clean“ and their derivatives, including ”(men who were)clean, noble, and alive“ and ”(whose ideas were)clean, noble, and alive in sentence 2, “(many that were)clean and noble” and “not alive” in sentence 4, “(they were)not alive”, “unclean(life)”, “clean and noble” and “not alive” in sentence 6.(b)the use of a series of parallel constructions ate with them, drank wine with them, automobiled with them, and studied them in sentence 4.(c)the repetition of the adjective passionless in sentence 7.The author uses these expressions to describe the sharp contrast between his expectation of the “masters” and the reality.6.5.1 1)He owed the tailor twenty dollars.→ It was the tailor whom he owed twenty dollars.2)“there” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.3)“Trees, forced by the damp heat” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.4)“Whether they come or not” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.5)“Getting the car on the boat” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.6)“It …getting the car on the boat” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.7)“Is” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.8)“Only once” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.6.5.2 1)He owed the tailor twenty dollars.→ It was the tailor whom he owed twenty dollars.2)The impossible has often proved possible.→ It is the impossible that has often proved possible.Or: What has often proved possible is the impossible.3)We have oral practice every other day.→ It is every other day that we have oral practice.4)We didn't leave the flat until we could smell the smoke in the corridor.→ It was not until we could smell the smoke in the corridor that we left the flat.5)The football match was cancelled because of the rain.→ It was because of the rain that the football match was cancelled.

第二篇：楊忠--語言學(xué)概論 課后綜合測試題及中文版答案

綜合測試題

（一）I.Indicate the following statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points)：

()1.General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.()2.The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.()3.The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.()4.Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.()5.Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.()6.According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.()7.Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.()8.Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.()9.Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research.()10.Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II.Multiple choice:(10 points)1.____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A.creativity

B.arbitrariness

C.displacement

D.interchangeability 2.Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A.analytic

B.isolating

C.synthetic

D.agglutinating 3.The general roles language plays are termed

A.metalanguages

B.metafunctions

C.metadiscourses

D.metagrammar 4.____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A.Blending

B.Eponyms

C.Backformation

D.Clipping 5.The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A.suffix

B.prefix

C.morpheme

D.morph 6.__________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A.Environmentalist

B.functionalist

C.nativist

D.both a and b 7.Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC.are called __________.A.person deixis

B.time deixis

C.place deixis

D.discourse deixis 8.Every syllable has a(n)__________, which is usually a vowel.A.nucleus

B.onset

C.code

D.rhyme 9.___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A.linguistics

B.semantics

C.morphology

D.pragmatics 10.A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.A.pidgin

B.creole

C.Esperanto

D.natural language

III.Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets:(10 points)A()1.Socialinguistics()2.Applied Linguistics()3.Morphology()4.Phonetics()5.Linguistics()6.Syntax()7.Psycholinguistics()8.Pragmatics()9.Phonology()10 Semantics B a.the analysis of sentence structure b.the analysis of meaning in context c.the analysis of meaning

d.the study of sound systems and patterns

e.the application of linguistic theories to other spheres f.the study of speech sounds

g.the study of the relationship between language and society h.the study of word structure i.the scientific study of language

j.the study of the relationship between language and mind

IV.For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s)they all share:(10 points)1.[t∫][dз]

2.[m] [n] [ɡ]

3.[f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h]

4.[d] [n] [z] [l] [r]

5.[i:] [i] [u:] [u]

V.Consider the following words and fill in the form:(10 points)Words analyzed number of morphemes troublesome free morphemes

stepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianism

VI.Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences:(10 points)1.The duck is too hot to eat.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________ 2.Visiting friends can be boring.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________

VII.Explain the following terms:(10 points)1.derivation

2.learner factors

VIII.Answer the following questions?(30 points)

1.What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat”? 2.What are the features of modern linguistics?

3.According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?

綜合測試題

（二）I.Indicate the following statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets:(10 points)()1.According to M.A.K.Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logical metafunction.()2.Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.()3.Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday.()4.Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.()5.Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning.()6.Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.()7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.()8.Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.()9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.()10.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II.Multiple choice:(10 points)1.The language used to talk about language is called __________.A.language

B.metalanguage

C.natural language

D.artificial language 2.[+continuant] specifies ________________.A.all the fricatives

B.all the fricatives and glides C.all the fricatives and liquids

D.all the fricatives, liquids and glides 3._________ is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.A.Coinage

B.Blending

C.Acronmyms

D.Clipping 4.A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A.morpheme

B.word

C.phoneme

D.allophones 5.The word ―multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A.2

B.3

C.4

D.5 6._________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to ―varieties according to use‖, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are ―varieties according to user‖.A.field

B.mode

C.tenor

D.register 7.__________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A.back-channel signals

B.adjacency pairs C.pre-sequences

D.insertion sequences 8.The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice(1975)as ____________.A.the principle of relevance

B.cooperative principle C.the politeness principle

D.the theory of prototypes 9.Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in __________.A.affective meaning

B.style

C.collocation

D.register 10.―John explained the theory‖ is a ___________ process according to Halliday.A.material

B.mental

C.verbal

D.behavioral

III.Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given:(10 points)1.Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principle generalized by Grice.2.M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and language teachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3.A speech act consists of three dimensions.The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act.The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act.The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________.5.C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.6.A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________，7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’ language development.8.A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from other regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV.Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B.And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence:(10 points)A()1.This vet is very famous in the town.()2.This classroom is large and bright..()3.He is watering flowers.()4.Orlon is a kind of cloth material.()5.Watt is the measurement unit of electricity.()6.EEC is an important organization in the world.()7.An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.()8.The road was enlarged last year.()9.Some young people have brunch quite often.B a.Conversion b.Derivation c.Blending d.Backformation e.Acronym

f.Compounding g.Coinage h.Eponym i.Clipping

V.Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds.And then name the feature(s)that define the one picked out and the group of sounds:(10 points)For example: 1.[ 2.[ 3.[ 4.[ 5.[ [z] voiced/voiceless ____ ____ ____ ___________ [f] [θ] [z] [s] [m] [?] [l] [n] [p] [b] [m] [v] [w] [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з] [i:] [i] [?] [u] [e] [i:] [?:] [e] [?] ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________] __________________________

VI.Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, ―He found his book on Wall Street‖:(10 points)

VII.Explain the following terms:(10 points)1.language and linguistics 2.semantics and pragmatics

VII.Answer the following questions:(40%)

1.How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language? 2.What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship between them? 3.What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?

綜合測試題

（三）I.Indicate the statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets.(10 points)()1.A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.()2.The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.()3.The word ―went‖ contains two morphemes.()4.The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis(CA).()5.Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.()6.The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.()7.In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones.()8.Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.()9.Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes and bound morphemes.()10.The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II.Multiple choice:(10 points)1.The followings are all features of language except __________.A.duality

B.productivity

C.changeability

D.displacement 2.The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A.synonymy

B.antonym

C.polysemy

D.homonymy 3.______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A.Conversion

B.Abbreviation

C.Eponyms

D.Blending 4.Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A.babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speech B.babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrastic C.babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speech D.babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word

5.The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A.motivation

B.nationality

C.age

D.learning strategy 6.Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others.Based on this observation, Leech(1983)proposes _____________.A.the cooperative principle

B.the principle of relevance C.the politeness principle

D.speech acts 7.Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A.moon/noon

B.foot/food

C.she/sheet

D.sea/sea 8.The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called ___________.A.distinctive features

B.non-distinctive features C.suprasegmental features

D.free variation 9.The ____________ function(sometimes also referred to as experiential function)is realized by the transitivity system of language.A.ideational

B.interpersonal

C.textual

D.logical 10.Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes _________.A.prefixes

B.suffixes

C.affixes

D.inflectional morphemes

III.Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B.And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence:(10 points)A()1.Most children like drinking Coca-cola.()2.UNESCO is a branch United Nations.()3.The police machineguned the gang.()4.I like sandwiches very much.()5.There are a lot of fruits in the fridge.()6.Infotech is popular nowadays.()7.An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.()8.His stepmother is very kind to him.()9.The street was widened last year.B a.Conversion

b.Derivation

c.Blending

d.Backformation

e.Acronym

f.Compounding g.Coinage

h.Eponym

i.Clipping

IV.Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1.labiodentals 2.interdentals 3.back vowels 4.high vowels

5.palatal affricates

V.Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B.And put the letter you choose in the bracket.(10 points)A()1.The noise annoyed him.()2.The police caught him

()3.There are two books on the table.()4.John explained the theory to me.()5.He watches TV every day.()6.The conference is on Monday B a.Material process

b.Relational process

c.Mental process d.Verbal process

e.Behavioral process

f.Existential process

VI.Explain the following terms:(10 points)1.arbitrariness 2.voicing

VII.Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, ―They can fish‖.(10 points)VIII.Answer the following questions?(30 points)1.2.What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse? What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3.What are the components of metaphors?

綜合測試題

（四）I.Indicate the statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets:(10 points)()1.English is a tone language.()2.Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.()3.Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings.()4.Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.()5.Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition.()6.According to M.A.K.Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and discourse metafunction.()7.The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.()8.There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language.()9.Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes.()10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II.Multiple choice:(10 points)1.The word ―antidisestablishmentariaism‖ is composed of ______ morphemes.A.six

B.seven

C.eight

D.nine 2.__________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A.Voicing

B.Voiced

C.Nasalization

D.Aspiration 3.Smog is a ___________ word.A.derived

B.clipped

C.blended

D.compound 4.The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance.This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A.instrumental

B.integrative

C.cognitive

D.none of them 5.[u:] possesses the features _____________.A.[+high][+back][+round][-tense]

B.[+high][-back][+round][+tense] C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]

D.[-high][+back][+round][+tense] 6.English is an example of _________ languages.A.VSO

B.SVO

C.SOV

D.SVO 7.A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.A.phoneme

B.phone

C.morpheme

D.morph 8.Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A.affixes

B.prefix

C.suffix

D.root 9.The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A.hyponymy

B.synonymy

C.antonymy

D.homonymy 10.Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc.are ________ antonyms.A.gradable

B.complementary

C.reversal

D.relative

III.Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B.And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence.(10 points)A()1.John is talking to Jane.()2.Tom is the leader

()3.There is a cat on the bed.()4.The bad news astonished her.()5.Edward broke the window.()6.He waved his hands.B a.Material process

b.Relational process

c.Mental process d.Verbal process

e.Behavioral process

f.Existential process

IV.State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words.(10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook 1.king, bachelor, son 2.bull, rooster, stallion 3.pine, rose, elm 4.bravery, charity, devotion 5.car, bike, plane [ +stationary] ________________________ ________________________

V.Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s)in the words and the describe it.(10 points)

Example: far [a:] back low vowel

1.thread

2.beat

3.important

4.live

5.stop [ [ [ [ [ ] ] ] ] ]

VI.Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences.(10 points)1.She can not bear children.(1)(2)(3)______________________________________________ 2.He hates old men and women.(1)(2)______________________________________________

VII.Explain the following terms with examples.(10 points)1.2.Compounding Free variation

VII.Answer the following questions?(30 points)1.2.What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics? What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence according to Hymes(1972)? 3.What are the three types of antonyms(lexical opposition)in English?

綜合測試題

（五）I.Indicate the statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets:(10 points)()1.Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.()2.Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.()3.The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.()4.Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.()5.Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.()6.We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us.()7.The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together.()8.When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences.()9.Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.()10.Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ.Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Geographic Red Song Clock Psychopathy

Ⅲ.The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions.(5 points)Initial pit/bit

Medial rapid/rabid

Final cap/cab

Find similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: 1.2.3.4.5./k/-/g/ /m/-/n/ /l/-/r/ /b/-/v/ /b/-/m/

Ⅳ.Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process.(10 points)Column Ⅰ A.chairs B.wider C.looked D.Tom’s

Column Ⅱ A.reality B.movement C.malcontent D.stepmother Column Ⅲ A.blackboard B.greenhouse C.makeshift D.paintwork

(1)What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2)What is the morphological difference between a),b)and c),d)in Column Ⅱ.Ⅴ.Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type(modalization or modulation).(10 points)1.I have not finished the task.2.He often comes to my office.3.I will show you how to make up the bed.4.He hardly came back to see his mother.5.The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ.Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etc.(10 points)boil: fry: steam: stew: bake:

Ⅶ.Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:(15 points)a).The professor’s appointment was shocking.b).The design has big squares and circles.c).The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ.What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B? What is the implicature?(5 points)a).The dress is lovely, isn’t it? b).The material is nice.Ⅸ.Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand.Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree.(10 points)

Ⅹ.Answer the following question:(20 points)1.What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?

2.How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology?

綜合測試題

（六）I.Indicate the statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets:(20 points)()1.In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.()2.The sound source is the larynx.()3.The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.()4.Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.()5.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.()6.Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.()7.Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.()8.All members.of a speech community can send and take messages.()9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.()10.One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.()11.Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.()12.The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings

()13.An expression used by a speaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.()14.Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.()15.Relevance is a relative notion.It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.()16.Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.()17.Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite.()18.Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.()19.Mental processes are processes of sensing.()20.A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ.Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes.(5 points)1.Retroactive 2.Befriended 3.Televise 4.Margin 5.Endearment

Ⅲ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A.(5 points)A

a.terrorized

b.uncivilized

c.terrorize

d.lukewarm

e.impossible B

(1)free root

(2)bound root

(3)inflectional suffix

(4)derivational suffix(5)inflectional prefix

(6)derivational prefix

(7)inflectional infix

(8)derivational infix

Ⅳ.Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate.(5 points)VP→V(NP)(PP)(Adv)NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)

Ⅴ.Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences:(10 points)a)The man found the letter.b)The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ.Write the semantic feature shared by the given words.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Bull, rooster, bachelor, boy Milk, water, alcohol, oil Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplar

Ⅶ.Each of the following words is a basic level term.Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank.(10 points)1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.table willow cat blue dictionary painting driver verb chemistry juice

Ⅷ.The opposite of analytic is contradictory.A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example.Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory.(10 points)1.My sister is a man.2.Witches are wicked.3.My sister is an only child.4.The evening star isn’t the morning star.5.The evening star isn’t the evening star.6.Babies are adults.7.Babies can lift one ton.8.Puppies are human.9.My bachelor friends are all married.10.My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ.Pig Latin is a common language game of English;but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the ―language game‖ with different rules.(10 points)

Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels: Dialect 1 ―eat‖ ―arc‖ [itme] [arkme] Dialect 2 [ithe] [arkhe] Dialect 3 [ite] [arke]

⑴ State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect.Dialect 1: Dialect 2: Dialect 3: ⑵ How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give the phonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms.honest admire 1.1.2.2.3.3.Illegal 1.2.3.Ⅹ.Answer the following questions:(20 points)1.What is the function of phonological knowledge?

2.Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoric reference.綜合測試題

（七）Ⅰ.Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given:(10 points)1.2.The term l a refers to the natural process of children’s language development.It is found that children all undergo certain stages of language development, namely the b 3.4.5.6.7.stage, holophrastic stage, , the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage.The practice of error analysis is divided into i describing and explaining.S refers to the analysis of meaning.In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commending in sense while politician is d D synonyms are words which are similar in meaning but used in different dialects of the language.In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a s to replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/she wants to continue to address that idea.8.9.The sentence ―The bachelor is unmarried‖ is it t The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain.10.P event.Ⅱ.Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions:(5 points)1.2.tense front mid vowel lateral liquid.domain, while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source deixis specifies the locations relative to the speech

3.4.5.lax high back vowel voiced bilabial oral stop mid central lax vowel

Ⅲ.A phonetic symbol is actually a ―cover term‖ for a composite of distinct phonetic properties or features.Define each of the symbols below by marking a ―+‖or a ―-‖ for each given feature: a ―+‖, if the property is present, a ―-‖,if it is absent:(10 points)sou phone featu segme u ? Ou I u:

High Low Back Tense Round

Ⅳ.Try to explain the following terms as clearly as you can:(10 points)(1)Minimal pair

(2)phoneme

Ⅴ.Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Weight Orange Veil Hair Team

Ⅵ.The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions.(5 points)Initial pit/bit Medial rapid/rabid Final cap/cab

Find similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: 1.2.3.4.5./p/-/f/ /s/-/?/ /?/-/?/ /s/-/z/ /t/-/k/

Ⅶ.For each of the following sentences, draw a deep structure diagram to show how the surface structure can be derived by transformational rules:(10 points)1.2.She speaks good Japanese.The problem would be solved by them.Ⅷ.Interprete the grammatical relations in the following sentences and then paraphrase them:(10 points)1.2.Girls are eager to please.Girls are easy to please.Ⅸ.Pick out from the following pairs the homonyms and the homophones:(5 points)style/stile ear/ear hear/here tale/tail bank/bank know/no hare/hair bear/bear soul/sole one/won

Ⅹ.Here are some Japanese words in phonetic transcription.[? ] is the voiceless palatal affricate that occurs in the English word church.[ts] is an alveolar affricate and should be taken as a single symbol.It is pronounced as the final sound(s)in cats.Japanese words(except for certain loan words)never contain the phonetic sequences.*[ti] or *[tu]:(20 points)1.Based on these data.Are [t], [ ? ],and [ts]in complementary distribution? 2.State the distribution---first in words, then using features---of these phones.3.Give a phonemic analysis of these data insofar as [t],[ ?],and[ts] are concerned.That is, identify the phonemes, and the allophones.4.Give the phonemic representation of the phonetically transcribed Japanese words given below.Assume phonemic and phonetic representations are the same except for [t],[ ?] ], and [ts].tatami_____ tsukue______ tsutsumu_______ ?izu

Tomoda?i_______ tetsudau______

Ⅺ.Exemplify The differences between derivational and inflectional morphemes:(10 points)

綜合測試題

（八）Ⅰ.Multiple Choice：(10 points)：

1.Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their A.synchronic solidarity

B.systemic agreement C.finite sentences

D.instinctive method in length and 2.Language is a set(infinite)of sentences, each constructed out of a finite set of elements.A.infinite

B.finite

C.fixed

D.definite 3.The Swiss Linguist regarded the linguistic sign as composed of signifier(sound image)and signified(referent).A.Chomsky

B.de Saussure

C.Bloomfield

D.Halliday 4.Human languages can be used to describe themselves.The language used to talk about language is called

A.special language.B.local language C.metalanguage

D.human language 5.refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.A.Arbitrariness

B.Duality

C.Creativity

D.Displacement 6.A community language is one that is the mother tongue of an ethnic A.artificial

B.natural

C.family

D.western 7.The fundamental difference between a religious belief and a scientific theory is whether it is A.disciple

B.observable.C.verifiable

D.functional 8.may be defined as the scientific study of language.A.Morphology

B.Linguistics

C.Phonology

D.Phonetics 9.Linguistics is seen as a discipline closest, among humanities to________sciences.A.physical

B.natural

C.absolute

D.universal 10.The study of language in general is often termed general linguistics.It is based on the view that language is composed of three aspects: sound, and meaning.A.regularity

B.construct

C.structure

D.discipline

Ⅱ.True or False：(10 points)：

()1.Psycholinguistics studies language in relation to society.Language varies from region to region, from class to class.()2.The whole process of our talking is a chain of events: production of speech sounds → perception of speech sounds → speech sounds traveling in the air.()3.Out of the glottis, the air stream goes through the pharynx, the area of the throat between the larynx and the uvula.()4.Consonants can be described in terms of places of articulation, manners of articulation, and vibrating.()5.Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called hierarchical classes.()6.Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in perspectives.()7.Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in allophones.()8.The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.()9.Distinctive features in one language must be distinctive in another.()10.Nasalization of English vowels is also rule-governed.Ⅲ.Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given:(10 points)1.Every syllable has a n , which is usually a vowel.2.Native speakers of any language intuitively know what s put together.can be 3.Some sequences are not possible in English.The impossible sequences are systematic g.4.Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called s f.5.Some morphemes like water, desire constitute words by themselves.They are f m_ when they are components of words.6.D forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.7.The ideational function(sometimes also referred to as experiential function)is realized by the t system of language.term.It is based on the 8.Associative meaning is actually an u associationist theory of psychology.9.Synonyms of different r in different spheres.are words similar in meaning but used 10.The deixis that replaces the initial expression is called a initial expression called antecedent.and the Ⅳ.Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Hit Met Car Tool Football

Ⅴ.Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes.(5 points)1.2.Psychology Unpalatable 3.4.5.Holiday Grandmother Morphemic

Ⅵ.Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions:(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.voiceless labiodental fricative low front vowel palatal glide voiced interdental fricative voiceless alveolar fricative

Ⅶ.Write the semantic feature shared by the given words.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Spanner, hammer, saw, pliers, jack Rose, lotus, lilac, orchid, chrysanthemum Walk, run, jump, hop, skip Pencil, pen, chalk, rubber, ruler Cheerful, excited, drunk, sober, dizzy

Ⅷ.Try to explain the following terms as clearly as you can：(15 ： points)(1)segmental phonemes

(2)free variations

(3)assimilation rule

Ⅸ.Draw a deep structure diagram to show how the surface structure can be derived by transformational rules：(10 ： points)Behave yourself!

Ⅹ.What are the main types of utterances suggested by Searle?(15 points)

Ⅺ.What are the main components of the Standard Theory? How does each of them work in the whole process of generating and transforming sentences?(10 points)

綜合測試題

（九）I.Indicate the following statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets.(30 points)

()1.Arbitrariness is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.()2.Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.()3.If the relationship between speech sounds and meanings were motivated, the words in different languages that stand for the same thing would sound the same or similar.()4.According to Halliday, the ideational function is the function of language that people use as medium to get along in a community.()5.In modern linguistics, focus is on diachronic study of language, rather than on synchronic study of language.()6.All vowels are voiced.()7.The initial vowel in economics can be either [i:] or [e].The two vowels are in free variation.()8.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.()9.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain only one morpheme.()10.The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the compounds.()11.The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.()12.Chinese is an agglutinating language.()13.Not all vowels are voiced.()14.If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.()15.The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.()16.Pragmatics is concerned with conventional meaning.()17.The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.()18.Words which have the same spelling but different meanings are called polysemes.()19.A syllabus is an official document that authoritatively determines the content and principles of teaching and learning.()20.Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.II.For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s)they share:(5 points)

Example: [s] [f] [p] [h] voiceless

1.[g] [z] [d]

2.[v] [h] [s]

3.[m] [p] [b] [f] [v]

4.[t] [d] [n] [l] [s] [z]

5.[i:] [i] [u] [u:]

III.Identify the difference between a greenhouse and a green house, and the difference between a sleeping car and a sleeping baby.(10 points)

IV.What is deixis? Please give examples to show the different types of deixis.V.Explain the ambiguity in the following two sentences:(10 points)a)

Those who went there quickly made a fortune.b)c)d)e)Flying planes can be dangerous.They can fish.The design is full of big squares and circles.I saw the couple in the cafeteria.VI.What maxim of the cooperative principle is violated by B? And what is the implicature?(5 points)

A: Don’t you think the hostess was abnormal? B: What another cup of coffee?

VII.What’s wrong with the following two sentences: 1)Bring this here.2)Take that there.Please give an explanation in English.(10 points)VIII.Answer the following questions:(30 points)

a)What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?

b)c)Give an example to show the components of metaphors.How do you distinguish homonyms from polysemes?

綜合測試題

（十）I.Multiple Choice(30 points)1.________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A.Duality

B.Arbitrariness

C.Creativity

D.Displacement 2.Which of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated by M.A.K.Halliday?

A.Ideational function

B.Interpersonal function C.Textual function.D.Logical function 3.The study of speech sounds is called ________.A.Phonetics

B.Articulatory phonetics

C.Phonology

D.Acoustic Phonetics 4.Every syllable has a(n)_______, which is usually a vowel.A.onset

B.nucleus

C.coda

D.rhyme 5.Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features? A.Stress

B.Intonation

C.Tone

D.Syllable 6.________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.A.Morphology

B.Syntax

C.Lexicon

D.Morpheme 7.Both pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.A.collocative

B.social

C.affective

D.reflected 8.______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.A.Adjacency pairs

B.Turn-talking C.Preferred second parts

D.Insertion sequences

9.British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.A.functional

B.social

C.regional

D.Standard 10.______ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.A.Metalanguage

B.Interlanguage

C.Sign

D.Esperanto 11.In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.A.telegraphic

B.two-word

C.holophrastic

D.babbling 12.______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to ―varieties according to use.‖ A.Register

B.Field

C.Mode

D.Tenor 13._____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A.Clipping

B.Blending

C.Eponym

D.Conversion 14.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain _____ morphemes.A.one

B.two

C.three

D.four 15.Sip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.A.minimal pairs

B.minimal sets

C.allophones

D.phomes 16.Pragmatics analysis is concerned with ______.A.sentence meaning

B.utterance meaning C.listener meaning

D.speaker meaning 17.Analysis of ______ necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context.A.intentional meaning

B.conventional meaning C.syntactic meaning

D.semantic meaning 18.______ is, fundamentally speaking, logic-oriented.A.Sperber and Wilson’s principle of Relevance B.Leech’s theory of Politeness Principle C.Grice’s theory of Cooperative Principle D.Horn’s Q-principle and R-principle

19.Krashen’s Monitor Theory belongs to ______.A.teaching theories

B.environmentalist theories C.functionalist theories

D.nativist theories 20.The sentence ―My father has deceased to join the heavenly choir.‖ is of ____ A.the formal style

B.the frozen style C.the casual style

D.the intimate style

II.Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(5 points)Example: vowel front high [i:] 1.bilabial nasal 2.voiced labiovelar glide 3.back high lax 4.literal liquid 5.voiced bilabial stop

III.Explain the ambiguity in the following two sentences:(10 points)1.This is a beautiful girl’s dress.2.Tom hates his boss and so do I.3.They finally decided on the boat.4.Can you see the man with a pair of binoculars?

IV.Give the words in American English equivalent in meaning to the ones given from British English:(10 points)

a.lorry

b.lift

c.pavement

d.tin

e.sweets

V.What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B? What is the implicature?(5 points)

A: The dress is lovely, isn’t it? B: The material is nice.VI.Draw tree diagrams for the following sentence:(5 points)The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.VII.How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each of them mean?(10 points)

Column I

a.The White House b.a redcoat c.a bluebird

d.a lighthouse keeper Column II a white house

b.a red coat

c.a blue bird

d.a light housekeeper VIII.Explain the relation between bank1(the side of a river)and bank2(the financial institute).(5 points)

IX.Answer the following questions(30 points): 1.What are the features of metaphors?

2.How do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?

3.What is reference and what is sense? How are they related?

各章習(xí)題答案 第一章習(xí)題答案

I.II.III.1.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.3.Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Arbitrariness is one of the features of human language.Language contains two subsystems: sounds and meanings.Arbitrariness refers to the relationship between these two subsystems is arbitrary.4.The general roles language plays are termed metafunctions.According to Halliday, language plays three metafunctions simultaneously.They are the ideational metafunction, the Interpersonal metafunction and the textual metafunction.IV.1.Many philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man.Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures because it have the following features, which are not found in animal communication system such as creativity or productivity, duality, arbitrariness, displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability and reflexivity.2.Spoken language is given prior to written language in modern linguistics for a number of reasons:(1)Speech is historically prior to writing in any culture where writing exists;1-5 T F F T T 1-5 a c a a b 6-10 6-10 FTTTF cbdac(2)Spoken language is used for a much wider range of purposes in communication;(3)Spoken language is structurally more complex than written language;(4)Spoken language is acquired earlier than written language.3.Modern linguistics has the following features, which is distinguished from the linguistics of previous:(1)Priority is given to spoken language;(2)Focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language;(3)Modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;(4)Modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.Modern linguistics strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general.第二章習(xí)題答案

I.II.1—5 TFTTF 1—5 b d a c a bilabial voiced stop alveolar nasal stop III.1.[ b ] 2.[ n ] 3.[ w ] bilabial glide 4.[ v ] voiced labiodental fricative 5.[ t ] voiceless alveolar stop 6.[ i:] high front tense vowel 7.[? ] voiceless interdental 8.[u:] high back tense vowel 9.[? ] low front vowel 10 [?:] central tense vowel

IV.1.[b p m] 2.[d n] 3.[?] 4.[m] 5.[ ?: ?] 6.[s z] 7.[u: u] 8.[θ] 9.[j] 10 [ ]

V.1.voiceless alveolar 2.voiced stop 3.voiced fricatives 4.palatals 5.voiced bilabial 6.voiced velar 7.back tense vowels 8.back round vowels 9.front high vowels 10.sibilants VI.1.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.2.Voicing refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.3.The unite of representation used to transcribe the speech sounds is called segment.4.Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.VII.Manners of articulation refer to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.According to manners of articulation, consonants are classified into stops, nasals, fricatives, affricates, liquids, and gildes

第三章習(xí)題答案

I.1-5 T F F T T

II.1-5 b b c c d 6-10 c b d b d

III.1.Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.2.Two words that differ by only one sound in the same position are called minimal pairs.3.If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.4.The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.The most widely found suprasegmental features are stress, intonation and tone.IV.1.Devoice a voiced consonant when it occurs after a voiceless consonant.2.A voiceless consonant becomes voiced when it occurs between two vowels.3.Voiceless stops are aspirated when they occur initially in a stressed syllable 4.vowels become nasalized when they occur before nasals.V.―hotdog‖ is a compound word and the stress is on the ―hot‖.A hotdog is a long cooked sausage.―hot dog‖ is a noun phrase and the stress is on ―dog‖.A hot dog refers to a dog that is hot.VI Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.Phonetics and phonology are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but they two differ in perspectives.Phonetics, particularly articulatory phonetics, focuses on how speech sounds are produced, what phonetic features they have, and how to transcribe them.In phonetics, sound segments are assumed to be invariable;variations are overlooked.Phonology focuses on the following three fundamental question: What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds make up the list of ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?

第四章習(xí)題答案

Ⅰ.1.lexicon 2.orthography 3.morphology 4.morpheme 5.suppletives 6.free morphemes 7.bound morphemes 8.allomorphs 9.derivation 10.Clipping Ⅱ.1.b 2.c 3.b 4.c 5.d 6.b 7.a 8.c 9.c 10.c

Ⅲ.1.Compounding Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is another common way to form words.The over-whelming majority of English combination of words from two of the three classes—nouns, verb, and adjective, and adjectives, and they fall into the three classes, as shown below: Noun Verb Adjective Noun Verb Adjective bookshelf pickpocket greenhouse brainwash sleepwalk whitewash headstrong catchall bittersweet In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.Thus, greenhouse is a noun, whitewash is a verb.The leftmost morpheme takes the primary stress is on the word.Thus, a greenhouse is distinguished from a green house, in which the stress is on the house.The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.A greenbottle is not a type of bottle;it is a kind of fly.And a sugar-daddy is not a sugar-coated father, but a woman’s lover who is both generous and too old for her.2.Conversion Conversion is one of word-formation process in English.It is done when a word changes its class without any change of its form.Typical cases of conversion include noun→verb, adjective→verb, verb→noun and adjective →noun.Sometimes, conversion can also be observed when an auxiliary verb, an adverb or a conjunction is used as a noun or a verb.e.g.Besides the usual household routine, she oversees the garden and beehives, bakes bread, cans and freezes, drives the kids to their music lessons, practices with them, takes organ lessons on her own, dose research and typing for me, writes an article herself now and then, tends the flower beds, stacks a little wood and delivers the eggs.His palms were sweating.He needed a towel to dry his grip.Their livelihood is involved, and the motor, for all its unpleasant smell, has helped increase the fisherman’s catch so that he can now afford to do away with the far worse outdoor toilet.Just before Christmas last year, my work took me to the office of a woman executive o This book is a must for student of history.The word is full of excuses, so don’t but me so many buts.They downed a few beers and began to sing loudly.第五章習(xí)題答案

Ⅰ.1.immediate constituent analysis.2.Syntax 3.syntactic category 4.subcategorization 5.circumstance 6.modalization modulaton

Ⅱ.NP Pro They(a)S VP V can NP N fish.NP Pro They(b)S VP Aux can V fish.Ⅲ.1.Cigars that people smoke can be nauseating it is nauseating to smoke cigars.2.It was on the plane that they made the decision.Ⅳ.1.modality(modalization)2.molarity 3.modality(modulation)4.polarity Ⅴ.1.material 2.relational 3.mental 4.behavioral 5.verbal 6.existential

第六章習(xí)題答案

Ⅰ.1.Semantics 2.Affective meaning 3.Synonyms 4.registers 5.antonyms 6.Gradable antonyms 7.Homonyms 8.polyseme 9.Hyponymy, superordinates 10.componential analysis

Ⅱ.1.b 2.a 3.c 4.d 5.b 6.c 7.a 8.b 9.c 10.d

Ⅲ.1.The two differ in register.2.The two are different in formality, the latter informal.3.The two are different in formality, the latter informal.4.The two are dialectal synonyms.5.The two are different in formality, the latter informal.6.The two differ in affective meaning, the former commendatory, the latter derogatory.7.The two differ in collocation Ⅳ.1.G 2.C 3.C 4.R 5.R 6.R Ⅴ.1.F 2.T 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F

第七章習(xí)題答案 I.1.a)Pre-invitation b)Pre-request c)Pre-announcement 2.a)(Quality)The speaker is absolutely incorrect.b)c)d)(Quantity)The addressee does not know or finds it impossible to answer this question, since the question is too general.(Relation)The addressee does not think the hero acts well in the film.(Manner)The addressee thinks Regan is not the president people like very much, though he is not a feudist.3.a)I ,mine(person deixis);last Sunday(time deixis)b)c)in 1968(time deixis)d)e)These(discourse/text deixis)f)in the following chapter(discourse/text deixis)

4.Then is a distal expression which applies to both past and future time relative to the time of speaking.Then in Sentence a)refers to the past time;then in Sentence b)the future time.5.John said, ―I am planning to be here this evening.‖ Indirect speech: John said that he was planning to be there in that evening.From the direct speech to the indirect speech, the deictic elements have to be shifted from the proximal to the distal with the shifting of the context.II.1.Exclusive use of we:(Students to the teacher)Shall we go now? Here we refers to the speakers(students), not including the hearer(teacher).Inclusive use of we:(Student A to Student B)Shall we go now? Here we refers both the speaker and the hearer(Student A and Student B.2.Let us may be exclusive or inclusive, while let’s is inclusive.They should correspond to different types of tag question: Exclusive: Let us go to school, will you? Inclusive: Let us go to school, shall we? Let’s go to school, shall we?

3.Anaphoric reference: Mr.Smith sent me the book.I like it.Cataphoric reference: I could not believe it.My wallet was stolen by one of my close friends.4.A speech act consists of three dimensions: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.If your teacher says, ―I have run out of chalk‖ in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about is perlocutionary(one of the students will go and get some chalk).5.Direct speech act: Close the door, please.(An imperative performs the function of command.)Indirect speech act: It’s cold here.(A declarative performs the function of request of closing the door.)6.A: Can I go out now, daddy?(Q1)B: Have you finished your assignment?(Q2)A: Yes.(A2)B: Yes.(A1)The middle pair(Q2-A2)is an insertion sequence.7.Dialogue with preferred second part: A: Can you help me? B: Sure.Dialogue with dis-preferred second part.A: Come over for some coffee later.B: Oh---eh---I’d love to---but you see---I---I’m supposed to get this finished---you know.Dis-preferred second parts are marked by more time and more language.III.Relevance is a relative notion.It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.The greater the contextual effect, the greater the relevance.Processing effort is a negative factor: the greater the processing effort, the lower the relevance.IV.1.Indirect illocutions tend to be more polite,(a)because they increase the degree of optimality, and(b)because the more indirect an illocution is, the more diminished and tentative its force tends to be.2.The sentence is wrong.The right one might be either ―I am here.‖ Or ―I was there.‖ ―Am‖ is a proximal deictic element, while ―there‖ is a distal place deixis.They contradict with each other.第八章習(xí)題答案

I.1-5 A C B B D

II.6-10 A A D C D 11-16 A C D C B B 1.Linguistic competence accounts for a speaker's knowledge of his language.Communicative competence accounts for both the tacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it.According to Hymes, there are four parameters that underlie a speaker's communicative competence, namely the ability to judge: 2)Whether(and to what degree)something is formally possible;3)Whether(and to what degree)something is feasible;4)Whether(and to what degree)something is appropriate;5)Whether(and to what degree)something is in fact done.2.The hypothesis has been interpreted in two ways.One is known as determinism.In this view our language determines our thinking.This strong version has been rejected as it runs counter to the fact that peoples of different cultural backgrounds can understand each other.The other interpretation, known as relativism, holds that culture affects the way we think through language, especially in our classification of the experienced world.3.The term pidgin is the label for the code used by people who speak different languages.A pidgin is not the native language of any group.It is confined to very limited communicative purposes, such as trade.Pidgins are mixed languages that are simplified syntactically and lexically.A creole is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.Creloes are not confined to certain functions of language nor reduced in syntax and lexis.4.The term dialect denotes a wider notion than the term accent.A dialect is a variety of a language that is distinctive from varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.The term accent is used for less drastic differences which are restricted to variation in pronunciation.第九章習(xí)題答案

I.1)2)3)4)interference overgeneralization simplification cross-association II.1.The practice of error analysis is divided into identifying, describing and explaining.Identifying errors is the first step of error analysis.To identify errors we have to compare the sentences produced by the learner with the corresponding sentences native speakers are likely to produce to express the same meanings.Describing errors, the second step of error analysis, is categorizing errors grammatically.Once errors are identified, they can be classified into categories.Explaining errors, the final step, is the task of tracing the source of errors.This task is more psychological than linguistic in essence.In terms of sources, errors are divided into interlingual errors and intralingual errors, based on whether they are caused by L1.2.Krashen’s Monitor Model consists of five hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning Distinction, Natural Order, Monitor, Input, and Affective Filter.3.The Acquisition-Learning Distinction is the cornerstone of Krashen’s theory.―Acquisition‖ occurs subconsciously as a result of participation in natural L2 communication.―Learning‖ is the result of conscious study of the formal system of the language.It is assumed that the two kinds of knowledge are stored in different areas of the LAD and thus play different roles in linguistic performance.― Acquired‖ knowledge serves as the source for automatic production of speech, whereas ―learnt‖ knowledge is available for use only in monitoring linguistic production.4.According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensible input.They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order.That is to say, language is acquired by people’s comprehension of input that is slightly beyond their current level.People understand input containing i+1 because the situation, context, facial expressions, gestures, etC.will provide clues for comprehension.5.The acculturation theory originated in the late 1970s and was put forward by J.Schumann and R.Anderson.By acculturation they meant that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture.It involves not only the social adaptation but also psychological adaptation.Schumann thinks that second language acquisition is one of the aspects of acculturation and the relation between acculturation and the second language acquisition is that the degree of the former will control the degree of the latter.Normally successful acculturation will bring about successful second language acquisition while poor second language acculturation will produce poor second language acquisition.第十章習(xí)題答案

I.1-5 C D A B C II.1.The contribution in terms of applications to language teaching is easier to understand.The products of linguistic descriptions provide the input to syllabus design and material construction.It is hard to imagine that languages can ever be taught and learned as a component of education without reference to the out come of linguistic descriptions.The metalanguage, created by linguists in their analysis of the sound system, the lexicogrammar and the meaning of a language, makes it possible to talk about what to teach in language teaching.Pedagogic grammars and dictionaries are used by teachers and students as reference books.Indeed, it is hardly possible to define the content of teaching without linguistic descriptions.2.The implications of linguistics to foreign language teaching are less obvious but not less important.The insights gained by linguists into the nature of language and language learning may enlighten language-teaching professionals in thinking about what to teach and how to teach.Language teaching decisions have to be made at several levels---designing the content, determining the approach, selecting techniques and procedures, and assessing the effectiveness of teaching and learning.At the preparatory level the decisions are made by specialists.To make wise decisions, they need to draw information from linguistics and other relevant disciplines.They need to evaluate linguistic theories and see what implication a certain theory has for language teaching.At the operation level, the language teacher is faced with an abundance of variables.The teacher’s understanding of the nature of language and the process of language learning influences his/her thinking about what to teach and how to teach.Whether one is aware of it or not, a view pf language and language learning underlies one’s decisions about teaching.3.Syllabus is designed with reference to: 1)the social aim for teaching the language;2)information about the group of learners(their purpose, age, etC.);3)the amount of time allocated in the curriculum;4)theories of language and language acquisition.Linguistically, there are two fundamental questions in constructing a syllabus: What elements should be included? On what principle should they be sequenced?

4.The structural syllabus assumed that the elements should be defined with reference to certain formal items of linguistic description and that the sentence should be the basic teaching unit.It was supposed that if learners could accumulate knowledge of the underlying system of the language, they would be able to use the language in communication when occasions arise.The core component of a syllabus based on such theoretical assumptions is naturally sentence patterns, which are sequenced according to structural complexity.5.The structural syllabus has its advantage and defect.Its advantage is that it is, to some extent, economical.Learning a limited set of rules can lead to production of a very large number of sentences.Its serious defect lies in the fact that sentences are units of linguistic analysis but not of natural language use.Although learners may be able to construct grammatical sentences, they are often at a loss in real situations, wondering what is appropriate to say.6.In the early 1970s, the theory of communicative competence was proposed by Dll Hymes.Functional linguists and pragmatists began to exert a stronger influence in the study of language.Since then communicative views of language teaching have been the foundation of syllabus design.The central question for proponents of a communicative syllabus was: ―What does the learner need / want to do with the target language?‖ Syllabi began to appear in which content was specified, not only in terms of the grammatical element, but also in terms of the functional items students would need to master in order to communicate successfully.The starting point in designing a communicative syllabus is the analysis of learner’s needs.7.In communicative language teaching, the teacher needs to fulfill at least the roles of communicator, a model, a designer, an organizer, and a counselor.The teacher communicates with the students in the target language.His / her proficiency in the language is absolutely a pre-requisite in fulfilling the role of communicator.At the same time, he /she sets the students a model in using the target language.The teacher is also a designer of the tasks and activities that engage the students, and he / she is an organizer of there.Finally, h / she diagnoses students’ errors and problems in the process of learning and gives advice accordingly.8.The value of linguistics in the professional development of language teachers lies in these aspects: to increase the teacher’s understanding of the nature of language;to develop the teacher’s awareness of the complexity of language and language learning;to sensitize the teacher in identifying errors and diagnosing their sources;to help the teacher to monitor his / her own use of the target language.9.The grammar-translation method, the direct method, the reading method, the audiolingual method, the audiovisional method, total physical response, the silent way, the communicative approach and so on.綜合測試題答案

綜合測試題（綜合測試題

（一）答案

I.1-5 TFFTT 6-10 TTFFT II.1-5 a d b c c III.1-5 g e h j i

IV.1.affricates 4.voiced alveolars

V.6-10 c b a b b 6-10 a f b d c 2.nasals 3.voiceless fricatives 5.high vowels

Words analyzed troublesome stepmother psycholinguistics understatement

antidisestablishmentarianism

the number morphemes 2 2 4 3 7

of

free morphemes trouble mother lingui state establish

VI.1.(1)The duck is so hot that it can not be eaten.(2)The duck is so hot that it can not eat something.2.(1)The friends who are visiting can be boring.(2)To visit friends can be boring.VII.1.Derivation is one type of word formation.It forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.The majority of English suffixes change the part of speech when added to a free morpheme or a word, and most prefixes don not.2.Learner factors are the factors that are involved in second language acquisition.They generally include learners’ motivation, age and learning strategy.VII.1.―Redcoat is a compound word, while ―red coad‖ is a noun phrase.The stress of the word, redcoat, is on red, but the stress of the noun phrase, red coat, is on coat.Redcoat refers to British soldiers and a red coat means a coat whose color is red.2.Modern linguistics has the following features, which is distinguished from the linguistics of previous:(1)Priority is given to spoken language.(2)Focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language.(3)Modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature.Linguists endeavour to state objectively the regularities of a language.They aim at finding out how a language is spoken;they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken.(4)Modern linguistics is theoretically than pedagogically oriented.Modern linguistics strive to construct theories of language that can

account for language in general.3.Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts by Austin.A speech act consists of three dimensions:(1)The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called locutionary act.(2)The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed illocutionary act.(3)The act of bringing about an effect is known as perlocutionary act.Of these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intended

by the speaker.綜合測試題（綜合測試題

（二）答案

I.1-5 F F T T T 6-10 T T F T T II.1-5 b d b c c 6-10 d b b a c III.1.maxims 2.Motivation 3.locutionary illocutionary perlocutionary 4.mapping 5.clipping 6.allomorphs 7.acquisition 8.dialect IV.1-5 i f a g h 6-10 e d b c V 1.[l] liquid/nasals 2.[v] labiodental/bilabials 3.[dз] affricate/fricatives 4.[u] back/front 5.[?:] middle/low V.(a)(b)S S NP VP NP VP Pro V NP Pro VP NP NP PP V NP P N Past

participle Pro N P N Pro N

Past participle

He found his book on Wall Street.He found his book on Wall Street.VI.1.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2.Semantics is defined as the study of meaning, and pragmatics is defined as the study of meaning in context.VII.1.Creativity is one of the features of human language.It refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.The grammatical rules and the words of a language are finite, but the sentences are infinite.Every speaker uses langue creatively.2.In sociolinguistics, taboo refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of or association with particular objects, actions, or persons.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.Taboo and euphemism are actually two sides of the same coin.Taboos are usually expressed by their euphemistic expressions in our daily life.3.The general roles language plays are called metafunctions by Hallidy.There are three metafunctions:(1)Ideational function----we use language to talk about our experience of the world, including our inner world, to describe events, states and the entities involved;(2)Interpersonal function----we use language to interact with others, to establish and maintain relations with them, to please them, to anger them, and influence their behavior, to get their help or sympathy.(3)Textual function----language as a system organizes messages in a unified manner so that chunks of messages fit logically with others around them and with the wider context in which the talking or writing takes place.綜合測試題（綜合測試題

（三）答案

I.1-5 F T T T F 6-10 T T F F T II.1-5 c d a c b 6-10 c a c a c

III.1-5 g e a h i 6-10 cdfb IV.1[f v] 2[θ ?] 3 [u: u ɑ:] 4[i: i u: u] 5[ dз]

V.1-6 cafdeb VI.1.Arbitrariness is one of the features of human language.Language contains two subsystems: sounds and meanings.Arbitrariness refers to the relationship between these two subsystems is arbitrary.2.Voicing refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.It is one of phonetic distinctive features that can distinguish meaning.According to voicing, consonants are classified into voiced consonants and voiceless consonants.VII.(a)(b)S S NP VP NP VP Pro V NP Pro Aux V N They can fish.They can fish.VIII.1.A greenhouse is a compound word and the stress is on the green, while a here house is a noun phrase and its stress is on house.A greenhouse refers to a building with sides and roof of glass, used for growing plants that need protection from the weather.A green house refers to a house whose color is green.2.Conversion is one types of English word formation.It is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.This happens more frequently between nouns and verbs.For example, to butter the bread, butter is converted from a noun into a verb.Look in take a look is a noun converted from a verb.3.Target domain and source domain are the components of metaphors.That is to say all metaphors are composed of two domains.They allow us to understand one domain of experiences in terms of another.The domain to be conceptualized is called target domain while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source domain.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguistics as mapping.The source domain s concrete and familiar.The target domain is abstract and novel.綜合測試題（綜合測試題

（四）答案

1-5 FTTTT 6-10 FT T F T 1-5 d a c c c 6-10 d a d a b 1-6 d b f c a e 1.[+Human] [+Male] 2.[+Animal] [+Male] 3.[+Plant] 4.[+Abstract] 5.[Instrument] [+Traffic] V.1.[θ] voiceless interdental prictive 2.[i:] front high tense vowel 3.[m] bilabial nasal 4.[v] voiced labioldental fricative 5.[p] pvoiceless bilabial stop V.1.(1)She can not tolerate/endure/stand /put up with a child.(2)She is not able to give birth to a baby.(3)She can not carry/take a child.2.(1)He hates old men and all the women.(2)He hates both old men and old women.VII.I.II.III.IV.1.Compounding is one type of word formation.It combines free morphemes to form new words.The over-whelming majority of English compounds are the combination words from two of the three classes---nouns, verbs, and adjectives.In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.For examples, greenhouse is a noun, and whitewash is a verb.2.If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.Free variations of pronunciation of the same word usually occur in different dialects, which is quite common in most of the languages in the world.For example, British people usually pronounce the word economics as [ˊik?n miks] and American people say [ˊ ek?namiks].VIII.1.Semantics and pragmatics both are concerned with the study of meaning, but they study meanings from different perspectives.Generally peaking, semantics is defined as the study of meaning, and pragmatics is defined as the study of meaning in context.The meanings communicated through language are of two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings.The former is studied in semantics and the latter in pragmatics.So semantics concentrates on meanings that come from linguistic knowledge, while pragmatics concentrates on meanings that people mean by their utterances rather that what they words, phrases and sentences mean by themselves.In other words, semantics is concerned with linguistic meaning, while pragmatic analysis is concerned with speaker meaning.2.Communicative competence is the most general term to account for both the tacit knowledge of langage and the ability to use it.According to Hymes(1972), there are four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence:(1)Whether(and to what degree)something is formally possible;(2)Whether(and to what degree)something is feasible;(3)Whether(and to what degree)something is appropriate;(4)Whether(and to what degree)something is in fact done.3.The three types of antonyms in English are gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms and reversal antonyms.Gradable antonyms are pairs of words opposite to each other, but the positive of one word does not necessarily imply the negative of the other, or vice versa.For example, a person who is not rich is not necessary poor.Complementary antonyms are words opposite to each other and the positive of one implies the negative of the other.For examples, dead and alive, male and female.Reversal antonyms are words that denote the same relation or process from one or the other direction.For examples, push and pull, come and go.綜合測試題（綜合測試題

（五）答案

Ⅰ.1-5 T T F F F Ⅱ.1.2.3.4.5.6-10 TFFFT [f] voiceless labiodental fricative [r] alveolar retroflex liquid [η] velar nasal [k] voiceless velar stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative Ⅲ.1.Could good 2.Might night 3.Led red 4.Best vest 5.Boss moss

Ⅳ.⑴.ColumnⅠ: inflection ColumnⅡ: derivation ColumnⅢ: compounding ⑵.In a)and b)the words are formed by suffixation;in c)and d), by prefixation

Ⅴ.1.Polarity 2.Modality(modalization)3.Modality(modulation)4.Polarity 5.Modality(modulation)

Ⅵ.boil: +FAT, +WATER, +POT fry: +FAT, +POT, +SIEVE steam: +WATER, +POT stew: +POT, +WATER, +FAT bake: +OVEV, +FAT

Ⅶ.a).The professor’s appointment was shocking.i.It was shocking that the professor was appointed.ii.The appointment made by the professor was shocking.b).The design has big squares and circles.i.The squares and circles in the design are big.ii.There are circles and big squares in the design.c).The governor is a dirty street fighter.i.The governor fights against dirty streets.ii.The governor fights unfairly in the streets.iii.The governor is a dirty individual who fights in the streets.Ⅷ.The maxim of agreement is observed.The implicature is that B doesn’t think the dress is lovely but B doesn’t want to contradict A.Ⅸ.a).The magician used the wand to touch the child

a).NP Det N V S VP NP PP

Det N

P NP Det N

The magician touched the child with the wand.b).The magician touched the child who was carrying the wand.b).NP Det N V S VP NP Det N P PP NP Det N

The magician touched the child with the wand.Ⅹ.1.Intonation and stress generally occur simultaneously in utterance.When intonation contour falls on a syllable, the nucleus is stressed and the vowel is naturally lengthened a bit.In the meantime, there is a little pause after the syllable.This simultaneous functioning of the features serves to highlight the information focus, or to eliminate ambiguity(double interpretations of the same phrase or sentence).Every component of a sentence contains some information.It may or may not be highlighted in speech, depending on the speaker’s intention and the situation.Intonation contour can indicate the information focus of the sentence.2.The study of speech sounds is called Phonetics.It includes articulatory phonetics, which focuses on the production of sounds;acoustic phonetics, which analyses the physical properties of speech sounds and auditory phonetics, which focuses on perceptive mechanism of speech sounds.Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in perspectives.Phonetics is a part of phonology and provides the means for describing speech sounds;phonology is concerned with the ways in which these speech sounds form systems and patterns in human language.Phonetics is static, phonology is dynamic.綜合測試題（綜合測試題

（六）答案

Ⅰ.1-5 FTTTT 11-15 T T T F T Ⅱ.6-10 F T F F T 16-20 F F T T F 1.retro + act + ive 2.be + friend + ed 3.tele + vise 4.margin 5.en + dear + ment Ⅲ.Identify morphological elements a)3 b)1 c)4 d)2 e)6 Ⅳ.a)S → NP VP b)NP → Art Adj N PP c)NP → Art Adj N d)NP → Art N PP e)NP → Art N f)VP → V NP PP g)VP → V PP h)VP → V i)VP → V S’ j)PP → P NP Ⅴ.a).The man found the letter.S NP Art The N’ N men V found VP NP Art the N’ N letter

b).The students put the books in the classroom.S NP VP Art The

N’ N students

V put

NP Art the N’ N books

PP P in Art the NP N’ N

classroom

Ⅵ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅶ 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.Ⅷ..1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.Ⅸ ⑴ MALE LIQUID SPORT ABSTRACT TREE Furniture ………… dining table tree ……………… weeping willow pet…………………Persian cat color……………… navy blue book ………………thesaurus fine art …………… oil painting worker …………… bus driver word ……………… link verb science …………… organic chemistry beverage……………orange juice C S C S C C C C C S

Dialect 1: Suffix [me] to any vowel-initial word.Dialect 2: Suffix [he] to any vowel-initial word.Dialect 3: Suffix [e] to any vowel-initial word.⑵ phonetic transcriptions honest 1.[an?stme] 2.[an?sthe] 3.[an?ste] admire 1.[?dmajrme] 2.[?dmajrhe] 3.[?dmajre]

illegal Ⅹ.1.1.[ilig?lme]

2.[ilig?lhe]

3.[ilig?le]

Function of phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds that form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to made up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to produce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate context, to know what is or is not a sound in one’s language, and to know that different phonetic strings may represent the same morpheme.In discourse or text, deixis is used to keep track of who or what is being talked about more than once.The speaker /writer will use deixis to maintain reference, as in the following sentence: In the picture, a boy and a girl are planting a tree.She is holding it, and he is shoveling earth around it.She, he, it refer to already introduced referents, a girl, a boy, a tree.The reference of a deixis to a preceding expression is technically termed anaphoric reference.The deixis that replaces the initial expression is called anaphor, and the initial expression called antecedent.The reversal of the antecedent-anaphor pattern is known as cataphora, Next sentence is an example of cataphoric reference.: I could hardly believe it.The student didn’t pass the exam.2.綜合測試題（綜合測試題

（七）答案

Ⅰ.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.Ⅱ.⑴ [ei](2)[l](3)[u](4)[b](5)[?] Ⅲ.u + +

Ⅳ..(1)When two different words are identical in every way except for one phoneme which occurs in the same place, they are said to form a minimal pair.Pill and bill form a minimal pair in English.(2)The difference between pill and bill is signaled or shown by the fact that the initial sound of the first world is and the initial sound of the second word is.The sounds of the two words are identical except for the initial consonants.and are ,therefore, able to distinguish or contrast words in and are, therefore, able to distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning.They are distinctive sounds in English.Any such speech sound segments that can ? + ou + + i + u: + + + language acquision babbling identifying Semantics derogatoy Dialectal synonym tautology target Place distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning are called phonemes.Ⅴ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅵ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅶ.1.She speaks good Japanese Pit Sake Chunk Chunk Take fit shake junk junk cake [w] labiovelar glide [d3 ] voiced palatal affricate [j] palatal glide [h] voiceless glottal fricative [i:] tense high front vowel

S NP Pron Aux T She Pres VP V NP Adj N

speak good Japanese

2.The problem would be solved by them.S NP2 Det N T Aux M VP V PP P NP1 Pron

Past Pref(be-en)The

Ⅷ.The surface structures of the two sentences seem to be the same, but the grammatical relationships in the deep structures of the two sentences are quite different.In the first sentence Girls want very much to please others.whereas in the second sentence, Someone finds it easy to please girls.Ⅸ.homonyms: ear/ear bank/bank homophones: the rest of the others

Ⅹ 1.[?]and [ ts ] are in complementary distribution.2.[t] occurs before back vowel [ a ],[ o ] and front vowel [ e] [?] is before front vowel [i] [ts] occurs before back vowel [u] 3../t/ is the phoneme.[t] [?] and [ts] are allophones.4../tatami/ /tukue/ /tutumu/ /tomodati/ /tetudau/ /tizu/ /uti/ /tita/ /kata/ /tegami/ /ato/ /tatemono/ /otoko/ /deguti/ /te/ /hiti/ /natu/ /turi/ Ⅺ Affixes in many language like English, may be classified into derivational and inflectional morphemes according to their linguistic nature.A derivational morpheme is an affix which is used to form a derivative, as re-in reread.It may change the class specification of the words to which they are added.For example, read +-able → readable(verb → adjective).There are also some derivational morphemes that do not cause a change in class status.For instance, the prefixes in-in im-+ possible → impossible(adjective → adjective).All derivational morphemes are bound and they must be attached to bases.An inflectional morpheme usually refers to an affix which is suffixed to stem rather than to a base.It dose not help to form a new word or change the class status of the word to which it is suffixed.It only serves as a grammatical marker showing grammatical meaning(or meanings)in sentences.All inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes indicating grammatical categories, such as tense, number, person, gender, case, aspect, mood, voice, and so on.Look at the following sentence, in which person, number, tense and aspect are marked by different inflectional morphemes, respectively.(a)I learn English.(b)She learns English.(c)He learned English.(d)They are learning English.In sentence(b)the –s at the end of the verb is an ―agreement‖ marker, indicating that the subject of the verb is the ―third-person‖, ―singular‖, ―present tense‖.The –ed in(c)and the –ing in(d)are inflectional morphemes required by the syntactic rules of English to show ―tense‖ and ―aspect‖, respectively.bear/bear problem solve by them

綜合測試題（綜合測試題

（八）答案

Ⅰ.1-5 A B B C C 6-10 B C B B C Ⅱ.1-5 F F T F F 6-10 T F T F T

Ⅲ.1.nucleus 2.sounds 3.gaps 4.suprasegmental features 5.free morphemes 6.Derivation 7.transitivity 8.umbrella 9.registers 10.anaphora

Ⅳ.1.[i] lax high front vowel 2.[e] mid front vowel 3.[a:] low back vowel 4.[u:] tense high back vowel 5.[u] lax back high vowel Ⅴ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅵ..1.2.3.4.5.Ⅶ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅷ..1)Vowels and consonants are thought of as the segmental phonemes, of which utterances are composed.They may go one after another in sequences of speech sounds.Segmental phonemes are used to form syllables, morphemes, words and utterances.INSTRUMENT FLOWER MOTION STATIONERY STATE [f] [?] [j] [?] [s] psycho + logy un + palat + able holi + day grand + mother morph + em + ic 2)Two different forms, though different in pronunciation, may be identical in meaning.Some speakers in a dialect of English pronounce the word economics in one way and some speakers in another dialect in another way.The different pronunciation of economics is free variations.3)Assimilation in language is a common phonetic process in which two phonemes, usually adjacent to each other, become identical or similar, or acquire common characteristic, due to the influence of one upon the other when they occur in the sequential speech sounds.If the change affects the adjacent sounds the process is called contiguous or juxtapositional assimilation, e.g./z/ in news become [s] in newspaper.It is also composed of regressive assimilation, total, partial, assimilation, etc.Ⅸ.Apply the reflexive transformation rule and imperative transformation rule to form the following tree: S NP Φ V VP NP pron behave yourself

Ⅹ.Illocutionary acts may be various in form and function.Based on the nature of the illocutionary force or effect, Searle suggested the following five types of utterances: 1)Representative, which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition, such as asserting, concluding e.g.―I think it is raining.‖ 2)Directives, which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something, such as requesting, questioning, e.g.― I beg you to give me some advice.‖ 3)Commissives, which commit the speaker to some future action of undertaking some future promise, such as promising, offering, threatening, e.g.―I’ll beat you if you don’t behave yourself.‖ 4)Expressives, which express a psychological state, such as thanking, apologizing, welcoming, congratulating, e.g.―I apologize to you for my late reply to you last letter.‖ 5)Declarations, which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions, such as declaring war, christening, firing from employment, e.g.As soon as the employer says to the employee ―you’re friend!‖, the latter immediately loses his job.Ⅺ..Some sentences may be just grammatically well-formed, but semantically they may be not acceptable or anomalous.For example, The colorless green ideas sleep furiously.By the Standard Theory the semantic component contains the rules that specify the semantic features of lexical items, which are necessary for the choice of appropriate lexical items from lexicon.Lexical items or words must be chosen and fitted in according to the selectional restriction rules.Chomsky and his followers have made quite a few revisions and amendments of their original theories and of the Standard Theory.Extended Standard Theory, Revised Extended Standard Theory, Governing and Binding Theory are

all the revised theories.綜合測試題（綜合測試題

（九）答案

I.1－5 F T T F F 6－10 T T T F F 11－15 T F F T T 16－20 F T F T T II.1.voiced 2.fricative 3.labial 4.alveolar 5.high, vowel

III.1)The stress of greenhouse is on green while that of green house is on house.Greenhouse is a compound word;green house is a noun phrase.A greenhouse refers to a building with sides and roof of glass, used for growing plants that need protection from the weather, while a green house refers to a house whose color is green.2)The stress of sleeping car is on sleeping while that of sleeping boy is on boy.A sleeping car means a car in which one can sleep.A sleeping boy means a boy who is sleeping.IV.Deixis means ―pointing‖ via language.Person Deixis: we, I, him, it… Place Deixis: here, there… Time Deixis: now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow, next week, last year, in three days… Discourse Deixis: in the previous section, in the next chapter, in the rest of this paper, in conclusion, this, that…

V.a)Those who quickly went there made a fortune.Those who went there made a fortune quickly.a)The planes which are flying can be dangerous.It’s dangerous to fly planes.b)They put fish into cans.They are able to fish.c)The design is full of big squares and big circles.The design is full of circles and big squares.d)I saw the couple who were in the cafeteria.In the cafeteria I saw the couple.VI.The maxim of relation is violated.The implicature is that B doesn’t want to gossip about the hostess.VII.The two sentences are both wrong.―This,‖ ―here,‖ ―that,‖ and ―there‖ are all deixis.―This‖ and ―here‖ are proximal deixis, while ―that‖ and ―there‖ are distal deixis.―Bring‖ means to carry something to the speaker;―take‖ means to carry something away from the speaker.The deixis in both sentences contradict with the two verbs.The correct sentences should be: 1)Bring that here.2)Take this there.VIII.a)The advantages of this approach to meaning analysis are obvious.Firstly, it is a breakthrough in the formal representation of meaning.Once formally represented, meaning components can be seen.Secondly, it reveals the impreciseness of the terminology in the traditional approach to meaning analysis.The limitations of componential analysis are also apparent.It cannot be applied to the analysis of all lexicons, but merely to words within the same semantic field.It is controversial whether semantic features are universal primes of word meanings in all languages.b)Metaphor is the mapping from the source domain to the target domain.The domain to be conceptualized is called target domain, while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source domain.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as mapping.For example, neck is a part of human body, while the neck in the compound bottleneck is metaphorically used.The properties of human neck(source domain)have been transferred to the neck of the bottle(target domain).c)Homonyms are words which have the same form, but different meanings.Words which have the same spelling but different meanings are called homographs, such as bow(v.)and bow(n., a weapon).Words which have the same pronunciation but different meanings are called homophones.Flour/flower, pale/pail, whole/hole are all homophones.Homonyms are listed as separate entries in a dictionary, because lexicographers see them as unrelated in sense.A polyseme is a word which has several related senses.Lexicographers make the distinction between homonyms and polysemes based on the intuition of native speakers as well as the etymology or history of words.綜合測試

（十）I.1－5 C D A B D 6－10 A A B C B 11－15 C A D B B 16－20 D A C D B II.a)[m] b)[w] c)[u] d)[l] e)[b] III.1.This is a dress for beautiful girls.This is a beautiful dress for girls.2.Tom hates his boss and I hate his boss too.Tom hates his boss and I hate my boss too.3.They finally made a decision on the boat.They finally chose the boat.4.Can you see the man who is carrying a pair of binoculars? Can you see the man through a pair of binoculars? IV.a.truck b.elevator C.sidewalk d.can e.candy V.(Relation)The addressee does not think the dress is beautiful.VI.S NP Det N PP Prep NP Det N V Prep VP PP NP Det N VII.a)The Whit House is a proper noun, which is the estate of the American government.A white house refers to a house which is painted white.b)A redcoat refers to a British soldier who is in red coat.A red coat means a coat whose color is red.c)A bluebird refers to a kind of bird.A blue bird means a bird whose feathers are blue.d)A lighthouse keeper refers a keeper who keeps lighthouse.A light housekeeper means a housekeeper who is light.VIII.The relation between bank1 and bank2 is homonymy.IX.1.Metaphors have three main features: systematicity, creation of similarities, and imaginative rationality.Metaphors are systematic precisely because they are conceptual in nature.Metaphor can create similarities between the two domains involved.This runs counter to the traditional view which holds that similarities are inherent in the entities themselves.But cognitive linguists hold that the similarities relevant to metaphors are experiential rather than objective.Metaphors are characterized by imaginative rationality.They unite reasoning and imagination.Metaphors as a form of reasoning by analogy involve categorization, entailment and inference.By metaphors we understand one kind of thing in terms of another kind of thing.2.The term variety is the label given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a particular field.A variety is characterized by the basic lexicon, phonology, syntax shared by members of the group.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional(geographical)dialects, sociolects(social dialects)and registers(functional varieties).The standard variety is the form of a language used by the government and communication media, taught in schools and universities and is the main or only written form.A regional dialect is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area.Sociolects are forms of a language that characterize the speech of different social classes.Register is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to ―varieties according to use.‖ 3.Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.London refers to or denotes the capital of Great Britain.The word dog denotes a kind of domestic animal.The referential theory, the simplest theory of meaning, claims that meaning is reference.Words stand not only in relation to the world but also to human mind.So in addition to reference, there is another dimension of word meaning called sense.For example, when you hear the expression dog, you will naturally reflect on its features in addition to the kind of animal as the referent of the expression.Sense is mental representation, the association with something in the speaker/hearer's mind.Words like dragon, but, of and phrases like a round triangle have sense, but no referent.Words like dog, horse, car and gun have both referent and sense.

第三篇：語言學(xué)概論答案

電大漢本語言學(xué)概論作業(yè)形考答案1導(dǎo)言、第一章、第二章

一、名詞解釋

1、歷時語言學(xué)——就各種語言的歷史事實(shí)用比較的方法去研究它的“親屬”關(guān)系和歷史發(fā)展的，叫歷時語言學(xué)。

2、語言——語言是一種社會現(xiàn)象，是人類最重要的交際工具和進(jìn)行思維的工具。就語言本身的結(jié)構(gòu)來說，語言是由詞匯和語法構(gòu)成的系統(tǒng)。

3、符號——符號是用來代表事物的一種形式，詞這樣的符號是聲音和意義相結(jié)合的統(tǒng)一體。任何符號都是由聲音和意義兩方面構(gòu)成的。

4、語言的二層性——語言是一種分層裝置，其底層是一套音位；上層是音義結(jié)合的符號和符號的序列，這一層又分為若干級，第一級是語素，第二級是由語素構(gòu)成的詞，第三級是由詞構(gòu)成的句子。

5、社會現(xiàn)象——語言是一種社會現(xiàn)象和人類社會有緊密的聯(lián)系。所謂“社會”，就是指生活在一個共同的地域中，說同一種語言，有共同的風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣和文化傳統(tǒng)的人類共同體。語言對于社會全體成員來說是統(tǒng)一的、共同的；另一方面，語言在人們的使用中可以有不同的變異、不同的風(fēng)格。

二、填空

1、結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)包括布拉格學(xué)派、哥本哈根學(xué)派、美國描寫語言學(xué)三個學(xué)派。

2、歷史比較語言學(xué)是在19世紀(jì)逐步發(fā)展和完善的，它是語言學(xué)走上獨(dú)立發(fā)展道路的標(biāo)志。

3、人的大腦分左右兩半球，大腦的左半球控制語言活動，右半球掌管不需要語言的感性直觀思維。

4、一個符號，如果沒有意義，就失去了存在的必要，如果沒有聲音，我們就無法感知，符號也就失去了存在的物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)。

5、用什么樣的語音形式代表什么樣的意義，完全是由使用這種語言的社會成員約定俗成。

6、語言符號具有任意性和線條性特點(diǎn)。

7、語言的底層是一套音位，上層是符號和符號的序列，可以分為若干級，第一級是語素，第二級是詞，第三級是句子。

8、語言系統(tǒng)中的所有符號，既可以同別的符號組合，又可以被別的符號替換，符號之間的這兩種關(guān)系是組合和聚合。

9、組合是指符號與符號相互之間在功能上的聯(lián)系，聚合是指符號在性質(zhì)上的歸類。

三、判斷正誤（正確的打鉤，錯誤的打叉）

1、文字是人類最重要的交際工具。（×）

2、地主階級和農(nóng)民階級之間沒有共同語言，這說明語言是有階級性的。（×）

3、在現(xiàn)代社會，文字比語言更加重要。（×）

4、現(xiàn)代社會，溝通的方式很多，語言的重要性日漸削弱。（×）

5、語言是思維的工具，沒有語言，人類就無法思維。

（√）

6、語言和思維互相依存，共同發(fā)展。

（√）

7、任何一種符號，都是由內(nèi)容和意義兩個方面構(gòu)成的。

（×）

8、從本質(zhì)上看，語言其實(shí)是一種符號系統(tǒng)。

（√）

9、人類選擇語音而不是色彩、手勢作為語言符號的形式，是因?yàn)檎Z音比較好（×）

10、語言符號的約定俗成是指語音形式和意義內(nèi)容的結(jié)合是社會成員共同約定認(rèn)同的。（√）

四、問答題

1、語言的作用是什么？同社會有什么樣的聯(lián)系？

語言是表達(dá)思想、進(jìn)行交際的工具，是人類最重要的交際工具。語言是一種社會現(xiàn)象和人類社會有緊密的聯(lián)系。所謂“社會”，就是指生活一個共同的地域中，說同一種語言，有共同的風(fēng)俗習(xí)慣和文化傳統(tǒng)的人類共同體，即一般所說的部落、部旅和民族。每一個社會都必須有自己的語言，因?yàn)?，語言是組成社會的一個不可缺少的因素。人與人之間的聯(lián)系得靠語言來維持。有了語言，生活在社會中的人才能共同生產(chǎn)、共同生活、共同斗爭，協(xié)調(diào)在同自然力的斗爭中，在生產(chǎn)物質(zhì)資料的斗爭中的共同行動。沒有語言，人與人之間的聯(lián)系就會中斷，社會就會解體。語言對于社會全體成員來說是統(tǒng)一的，共同的，但在人們的使用中可以有不同的變異、不同的風(fēng)格。

2、怎樣理解語言是一種特殊的社會現(xiàn)象？語言有沒有階級性？為什么？

答：語言是一種特殊的社會現(xiàn)象，是人類最重要的交際工具。這首先可以從語音與語義的結(jié)合關(guān)系以及世界語言的多樣性來加以說明。語言都是由語音和語義結(jié)合而成的，但相同的意義，在不同的語言中就能用不同的聲音來表達(dá)；在同一語言中也有用相同的聲音來表達(dá)不同的意義的情形；可見，語音與語義怎樣結(jié)合成特定的語言成分決定于一定社會集體的意志，決定于“約定俗成”的社會習(xí)慣。

其次，從語言與社會相互依存的關(guān)系中也可以說明語言是社會現(xiàn)象。一方面，語言依存于社會，語言是隨著人類社會的產(chǎn)生而產(chǎn)生的，只有人類才有語言。另一方面，社會不能沒有語言，語言是人類區(qū)別于其它動物的一個重要標(biāo)志。作為交際工具的語言是全民的，沒有階級性。第一，從語言的創(chuàng)造者和語言的服務(wù)對象來看，語言是在許多時代中為全民所創(chuàng)造出來和豐富起來的。人類出現(xiàn)時語言就同時產(chǎn)生了，那時的人類社會不分階級，語言只能是全民所創(chuàng)造并為全民服務(wù)的。第二，從語言本身的情況來看，不同階級可能創(chuàng)造并運(yùn)用一些自己的專門的詞和語，形成所謂階級習(xí)慣語，但是階級習(xí)慣語并不就是語言，它沒有自己的語法結(jié)構(gòu)和基本詞匯。

3、什么是語言符號的任意性？從哪些地方看出來語言具有任意性？

答：語言符號的任意性是指語言符號的音與義的結(jié)合是任意的，由社會約定俗成。不同語言可以用不同的音來表示相同的事物（如漢語的“shū”和英語的“book”），也可以用相同的、類似的音來表示不同的事物（如：漢語的“哀”和英語的“I”）。這些都是符號任意性的表現(xiàn)。

4、語言是自然現(xiàn)象還是社會現(xiàn)象？為什么？

答：語言是社會現(xiàn)象，它不是自然現(xiàn)象，也不是個人現(xiàn)象。①語言是社會現(xiàn)象和人類社會有著十分緊密的聯(lián)系，語言隨社會的產(chǎn)生而產(chǎn)生，隨社會的發(fā)展而發(fā)展，隨社會的分化統(tǒng)一而分化統(tǒng)一，可見，語言絕不是自然現(xiàn)象。②從語言的音義關(guān)系可以看出語言不是自然現(xiàn)象，而是由一定的社會集團(tuán)約定俗成的；如果語言是自然現(xiàn)象，是天生的，世界上的語言就應(yīng)該是一樣的，如果沒有區(qū)別，而實(shí)際上世界上不但有各種各樣的語言，還有眾多的方言。

5、什么是組合關(guān)系？什么是聚合關(guān)系？它們對于語言運(yùn)用有什么樣的意義？ 答：語言符號中每個符號都處在既可以和別的符號組合，又可以被別的符號替換這樣兩種關(guān)系中。符號和符號組合起來的關(guān)系稱為符號的組合關(guān)系。語言符號的組合方式處于一個前后相續(xù)的鏈條狀，在鏈條的某一環(huán)節(jié)上能夠互相替換的符號具有某種相同的作用，它的自然地聚集成群，它的彼此的關(guān)系叫做聚合關(guān)系。

組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系是語言系統(tǒng)中的兩種根本關(guān)系。不但語言符號（詞、語素）處在這兩種關(guān)系之中，而且構(gòu)造符號的音位和意義也都處在這兩種關(guān)系之中。

組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系是組成語言系統(tǒng)的一個綱，是我們觀察、分析、歸納錯綜復(fù)雜的語言現(xiàn)象的一把總鑰匙。

6、語言符號的系統(tǒng)性體現(xiàn)在哪些方面？

答：語言符號不是互不相干的一盤散沙，而是有組織、有條理的系統(tǒng)。語言符號的系統(tǒng)性體現(xiàn)在語言是一種分層裝置，這種裝置靠組合和替換來運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)。語言的底層是一套音位，上層是音義結(jié)合的符號和符號的序列，這一層又分若干級。第一級是語素，第二級是由語素構(gòu)成的詞，第三級是由詞構(gòu)成的句子。詞和句子都是符號的序列。語言這個分層裝置的運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)是組合和替換，即符號的組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系。作業(yè)形考答案2 第三章 語音

一、名詞解釋

1、音素：是人類語言從音質(zhì)角度劃分出來的最小的語音單位。

2、元音：發(fā)音時氣流不受阻的音叫元音，如漢語拼音方案中的字母a、e、o、i、u、ü。

3、輔音：發(fā)音時氣流受阻的音叫輔音，漢語拼音方案字母中除a、e、o、i、u、ü之外的其它字母代表的音屬于輔音。

4、自由變體：音位的自由變體就是能出現(xiàn)在同樣的語言環(huán)境之中而不能區(qū)別意義的兩個或兩個以上的音。

5、發(fā)音部位：指發(fā)輔音時氣流受阻的部位。

二、填空

1、語音的發(fā)音、傳遞、感知三個環(huán)節(jié)，分別對應(yīng)于語音的生理、物理、心理三個方面的屬性。

2、語音同其它聲音一樣，也具有音高、音重、音長和音質(zhì)四個要素。

3、人類的發(fā)音器官可分為動力（肺）、發(fā)音體（聲帶）、共鳴腔（口、鼻、咽腔）三大部分。

4、在發(fā)音器官中，唇、舌頭、軟腭、小舌、聲帶等是能夠活動的，叫做主動發(fā)音器官。

5、根據(jù)發(fā)音特點(diǎn)，音素可以分為元音和輔音兩類，例如漢語音節(jié)中的聲母，主要就是由輔音充當(dāng)?shù)摹?/p>

6、每個元音的音質(zhì)是由舌位的高低、前后、嘴唇的圓展三個方面的因素決定的。

三、單項(xiàng)選擇題

1、從自然屬性角度劃分出來的最小語音單位是（C）。A、元音

B、輔音

C、音素

D、音位

2、漢語拼音方案是以（C）字母為基礎(chǔ)制訂的。A、英語

B、法語

C、拉丁

D、希臘

3、漢語拼音中的ü、c、h，國際音標(biāo)分別寫作（B）。A、u c h

B、y ts‘ x

C、u ch h

D、x y k

4、下列說法，（A）是正確的。

A、音高具有區(qū)別意義的作用B、婦女的聲帶比男子要厚 C、漢語中音長具有區(qū)別意義的作用D、漢語“天”、“空”兩個音節(jié)的音高不同

5、下列說法，只有（D）正確。

A、振幅越大，聲音就越弱

B、振幅越大，聲音就越長 C、頻率越多，聲音就越低

D、頻率越多，聲音就越高

6、對發(fā)音器官功能的描述，（B）是正確的。

A、聲帶在發(fā)音中的作用是次要的B、舌頭的活動，起了調(diào)節(jié)共鳴器形狀的作用 C、口腔中最為靈活的部位是上腭D、聲帶、舌頭等是被動發(fā)音器官

7、關(guān)于元音和輔音的區(qū)別的描述，（C）是正確的。

A、元音發(fā)音時間短暫，輔音發(fā)音時間較長B、輔音發(fā)音響亮，元音發(fā)音不響亮

C、發(fā)輔音氣流受阻，發(fā)元音氣流不受阻D、發(fā)元音和輔音發(fā)音器官的各個部位均衡緊張

8、下列漢語拼音和國際音標(biāo)對應(yīng)正確的一組是（C）。

A、ē—[e]

B、j—[y]

C、h—[x]

D、b—[b]

9、下列發(fā)音方法完全相同的一組輔音是（D）。A、[t]—[d]

B、[b]—[p]

C、[s]—[z]

D、[t]—[k]

10、下列各組元音區(qū)別的描述，（A）是錯誤的。

A、i和y的區(qū)別是舌位前后不同B、u和o的區(qū)別是舌位高低不同 C、a和ā的區(qū)別是舌位前后不同D、i和a的區(qū)別是舌位高低不同

11、下列各組輔音，區(qū)別特征為清濁對立的一組是（D）。A、[x]—[h]

B、[t]—[k]

C、[s]—[f]

D、[z]—[s]

12、下列說法，（A）是正確的。

A、音位具有區(qū)別意義的作用

B、音素具有區(qū)別意義的作用 C、聲母具有區(qū)別意義的作用

D、韻母具有區(qū)別意義的作用

13、我們在念“老虎”時，通常要把“老”念成陽平，這種變化叫做（B）。A、同化

B、異化

C、弱化

D、脫落

四、分析題

1、根據(jù)發(fā)音特點(diǎn)描述，在下圖中用相應(yīng)的國際音標(biāo)標(biāo)出來（書P60）（1）舌面后半低不圓唇元音；a（2）舌面前半高不圓唇元音；e（3）舌面前低不圓唇元音；a（4）舌面后高圓唇元音；u（5）舌面前高圓唇元音；y（6）舌面后半高不圓唇元音。R

2、分析下列輔音的發(fā)音特點(diǎn)

①[k]舌面后，清，不送氣，塞音②[x]舌面后，清擦音 ③[b]雙唇，濁，塞音④[ts‘]舌尖后，清，送氣，塞擦音

3、說明下面各組音素的區(qū)別特征

①[p]—[p‘]不送氣—送氣②[s]—[z]清—濁

③[tc]—[tc‘]不送氣—送氣④[y]—[i]圓唇—不圓唇

4、用嚴(yán)式國際音標(biāo)給下面的漢字注音（聲調(diào)不作要求）。①我們的生活充滿陽光

[wo][men][te][seh][xuo][tson][man][jah][kuh] ②積極參加網(wǎng)上學(xué)習(xí)

[tGi][tGi][ts’an][tGia][wah][sah][Güe][Gi]

六、問答題

1、聽別人說話，在沒有看見人的情況下，為什么我們能聽出是男子說話還是婦女說話？是大人說話還是小孩說話來呢？請結(jié)合語音知識加以說明。

答：這是由于男子和婦女、大人和兒童的音高不同造成的。音高就是聲音的高低，它取決于音波的頻率。頻率大聲音就高，頻率小聲音就低。語音的高低和人的聲帶的長短、厚薄松緊有關(guān)。一般說來，婦女和兒童的聲帶短而薄，所以說話時聲音高一些，男子的聲帶長而厚，所以說話的聲音低一些。這樣，我們就根據(jù)聲音的高低可以在沒有看見人的情況下，聽出是男子還是女子，是大人還是小孩說話了。

2、音高在漢語中具有區(qū)別意義的作用，請舉例說明。答：漢語的聲調(diào)有區(qū)別詞的語音形式的作用。它是由音的高低變化表現(xiàn)出來的。同一個音節(jié)，聲調(diào)不同，詞或語素的語音形式就不同，因而意義也不同。例如：“媽、麻、馬、罵”的音音、輔音和它的組合的順序是一樣的，都是/ma/，只是由于音高變化不同才使它們成為語音形式不同，意義迥異的四個語音單位?？梢娨舾咦兓a(chǎn)生了調(diào)位的不同，有區(qū)別意義的作用。

3、舉例說明什么是對立？什么是互補(bǔ)？ 答：音素如果有區(qū)別詞的語音形式的作用，在漢語中是對立的，人們會把它們認(rèn)為是完全不同的兩個語音單位，叫音素的對立。例如：不送氣的[p]和送氣的[p‘]，在漢語里有區(qū)別詞的語音形式的作用，比方“標(biāo)”[piau]和[p‘iau]“飄”在語音上的不同僅僅在于前者是不送氣的[p]，后者是送氣的[p‘]，但卻構(gòu)成了完全不同的兩個語素。

音素如果僅僅是在出現(xiàn)的位置和環(huán)境互相補(bǔ)充，彼此處于互補(bǔ)的關(guān)系，而不是對立的關(guān)系，即它們沒有區(qū)別詞的語音形式的作用，叫音素的互補(bǔ)。如漢語中“哀”、“安”、“啊”、“熬”、“昂”五個詞的語音形式用漢語拼音方案寫為：ai、an、a、ao、ang，如果仔細(xì)比較，“哀”、“安”中的a是前[a]，“啊”中的a是中[a]，“熬”、“昂”中的a是后[a]，這三個音位的a由于沒有區(qū)別詞的語音形式的作用，只是在音節(jié)中的位置不同，構(gòu)成音素的互補(bǔ)關(guān)系。

4、漢語音節(jié)ban、da、guang中的a，是三個不同的音素，但卻是一個音位，為什么？ 答：這是因?yàn)閎au、da、guang中的三個[a]、[A]、[a]是處于互補(bǔ)關(guān)系中的相似音素，它們彼此不對立，即不起區(qū)別詞的語音形式的作用，我們可以把它們歸并為一個音位。這種處于互補(bǔ)關(guān)系中的各個音素被看成同一個音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一個音位的不同的變異形式，語音學(xué)上稱為音位變體。這里的[a]、[A]、[a]三個音位變體的出現(xiàn)條件是前后有無無音、輔音這種語言環(huán)境的制約，叫做音位的條件變體。作業(yè)形考答案3 第四章

一、概念解釋

1、詞類——詞類是按照詞在結(jié)構(gòu)中所能起的作用，即詞的句法功能分出的類。

2、直接成分——構(gòu)成句子的每一層中直接組合起來構(gòu)成一個更大的語法單位的兩個組成成分叫做直接成分。

3、語法形式——是相對于語法意義而言的，是表達(dá)語法意義的外部形式標(biāo)志。

4、復(fù)合詞——由詞根語素按一定的規(guī)則組合起來構(gòu)成的合成詞，稱為復(fù)合詞。

5、語法范疇——就是語法意義的類，是由詞的變化形式所表示的意義方面的聚合。

二、填空

1、語法規(guī)則是大家說話的時候必須遵守的習(xí)慣，不是語言學(xué)家規(guī)定的。

2、語法的組合規(guī)則和聚合規(guī)則構(gòu)成一種語言的語法規(guī)則。

3、句子按其語氣可以分為陳述、疑問、祈使、感嘆等不同的類型，例如“什么書他都喜歡看”是陳述句。

4、從意義和作用看，詞可以分為實(shí)詞和虛詞兩大類。

5、語法研究通常以詞為界，詞以上的規(guī)則叫句法，詞以下的規(guī)則叫詞法。

6、根據(jù)在詞中的不同作用，一般把語素分成詞根、詞綴、詞尾三類，例如“學(xué)習(xí)”中的兩個語素是詞根，“being”中的ing是詞尾，“reader”中的er是詞綴。

7、詞尾的主要作用是改變一個詞的形式，但不能構(gòu)成新詞。

8、根據(jù)語素在詞中的不同作用，把詞根和詞綴叫作構(gòu)詞語素，把詞尾叫作變詞語素。

9、由詞根語素按一定的規(guī)則組合起來構(gòu)成的詞，稱為復(fù)合詞。由詞根語素和詞綴組合起來構(gòu)成的詞稱為派生詞，其構(gòu)詞規(guī)則又叫作派生構(gòu)詞法，或叫附加法。

10、主謂結(jié)構(gòu)、述賓結(jié)構(gòu)、述補(bǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)、偏正結(jié)構(gòu)、聯(lián)合結(jié)構(gòu)是語言里最基本的結(jié)構(gòu)格式。

11、直接組合起來構(gòu)成一個更大的語法單位的兩個組成成分叫做直接組成成分。

12、從語法結(jié)構(gòu)角度分類，一般把世界上的語言分為孤立語、粘著語、屈折語、復(fù)綜語四種類型，漢語屬于孤立語。

13、孤立語的主要特點(diǎn)是缺乏詞形變化；屈折語的主要特點(diǎn)是有豐富的詞形變化。

三、單項(xiàng)選擇

1、下列說法正確的是（B）。A、語法的組合規(guī)則是潛在的B、語法的聚合規(guī)則是潛在的

C、語法的組合規(guī)則存在于書面語言中D、語法的聚合規(guī)則存在于書面語言中

2、下列說法不正確的一項(xiàng)是（B）。

A、組合規(guī)則為句子的生成提供了無數(shù)的可能B、聚合規(guī)則為句子的生成提供了無數(shù)的可能 C、我們?nèi)粘Ｊ褂谜Z言離不開語法規(guī)則D、語法規(guī)則是人人都必須遵守的

3、（C）在語言中處于樞紐地位，一般把它作為分析語法結(jié)構(gòu)的最重要的語法單位。A、句子

B、詞組

C、詞

D、語素

4、對英語單詞“workers”的分析，（A）是正確的。

A、work是詞干B、er是詞尾C、s是詞綴，嚴(yán)格說是后綴 D、語素Work和er都是構(gòu)詞語素

5、下列各組詞中全都屬于復(fù)合詞的一組是（B）。

A、領(lǐng)導(dǎo)

大街

reader

B、國家

月球

railway C、老師

刷子

unlike

D、考慮

作家

classmate

6、下列說法（C）是正確的。A、“離開、環(huán)境、比擬、協(xié)議”都是派生詞B、“study、look、think、door”都是派生詞 C、“變化、廣義、扒手、左手”都是復(fù)合詞D、“留心、傷心、老鼠、impossible”都是合成詞

7、下列語言單位中全都屬于述賓結(jié)構(gòu)的一組是（C）。

A、太陽紅

月兒明

I read the bookB、吃干凈

放在一邊

the sun rises C、看電影

種莊稼

to play footballD、金色的年華

紅五月

to leave a good memory

8、下列語言單位（B）的結(jié)構(gòu)與“我的故鄉(xiāng)”相同。A、休息幾天

太可笑

B、the red sun a red flag C、to waken me to tell her

D、祖國富強(qiáng) 人民幸福

9、下列詞組只有（D）沒有歧義。

A、兩個朋友送的花瓶

B、發(fā)現(xiàn)了敵人的哨兵 C、看打球的小女孩

D、折斷了獵人的槍

10、英語動詞“be”有多種變化形式，下列句子中，只有（B）使用正確。A、He be good child.B、I am a teacher.C、They is peasant.D、You was workers.11、俄語、漢語、日語三種語言所屬的語法結(jié)構(gòu)類型按次序是（D）。A、粘著語—屈折語—孤立語

B、屈折語—粘著語—孤立語 C、孤立語—屈折語—粘著語

D、屈折語—孤立語—粘著語

12、下列句子符合英語法規(guī)則的是（D）。

A、He am a studentes.B、She is a students.C、I were a student.D、You are a student.13、英語名詞后面加上詞尾s或es，這種變化屬于語法范疇中的（B）變化。A、性

B、數(shù)

C、格

D、體

14、與“春光明媚”結(jié)構(gòu)相同的組合是（C）。A、陽光的溫暖

B、馬上開始

C、The sun rise.D、Worker and peasant.15、英語動詞的詞形變化一般有5種，但動詞be的變化形式有（A）。A、8種

B、4種

C、7種

D、6種

16、“John is reading the newspaper”變成被動語態(tài)是（D）。A、The newspaper is reading by John.B、The newspaper is by John reading.C、The newspaper is being read by John.D、The newspaper is being readed by John.17、下列句子沒有多義的是（B）。

A、他在甲板上寫字

B、他在黑板上寫字 C、他在屋頂上寫字

D、他在地上寫字

18、下列句子有歧義的一句是（B）。

A、那里的茶花很多

B、那里的杜鵑很多C、那里的月季很多

D、那里的玫瑰很多

19、英語“He writes a letter”中動詞writes中的s表示的語法意義是（C）。A、性

B、數(shù)

C、人稱

D、格 20、下列說法正確的一項(xiàng)是（A）。

A、一般把詞尾叫做變詞語素B、語法意義是反映語法形式的 C、語法范疇中的“格”即語法格式D、漢語屬于屈折語

四、分析題

1、列表分析下列語素 例

詞

詞根

詞

綴

詞尾

前綴

中綴

后綴

蓮

子

蓮 ,子

輪

子

輪

子

科學(xué)性

科子

性

Dislike Like dis

unhappinesses happy un

ness es

2、用層次分析法分析下列句法結(jié)構(gòu)

（2）a.非 常 熱 愛 祖 國 和 人 民 的英 雄

|___________||_______________________|

述

賓

|___||_______||________________||______|

偏

正

偏

正

|_______||________|

聯(lián)

合

b.非 常 熱 愛 祖 國 和 人 民 的 英 雄

|_____________________________||_____|

偏

正

|___________||_________________|

述

賓

|_____||_____||_______||________|

偏

正

聯(lián)

合3、用變換方法區(qū)分下列句法多義的句子

（1）發(fā)現(xiàn)了敵人的哨兵

變換1：他發(fā)現(xiàn)了敵人的哨兵。揭示“敵人的哨兵”是“發(fā)現(xiàn)”的賓語。變換2：敵人的哨兵發(fā)現(xiàn)了他。揭示“他”是“發(fā)現(xiàn)”的賓語。這說明謂語“發(fā)現(xiàn)”可以兼兩種結(jié)構(gòu)意義，所以有歧義。（2）關(guān)心的是廣大群眾。

變換1：他關(guān)心的是廣大群眾。揭示“廣大群眾”是“關(guān)心”的受事。變換2：關(guān)心他的是廣大群眾。揭示“他”是“關(guān)心”的受事。這說述賓結(jié)構(gòu)“關(guān)心”可以兼兩種結(jié)構(gòu)意義，所以有歧義。

4、指出下列合成詞的具體的構(gòu)造方式 中肯

自衛(wèi)

表態(tài)

金黃 聯(lián)合偏正

述賓

偏正

5、指出下列句子中劃線部分的詞形變化所表示的語法范疇和語法意義（1）He has many things to do.has：人稱、數(shù)、時。第三人稱，單數(shù)，一般現(xiàn)在時。things：復(fù)數(shù)，名詞前面用“many”，此處要用復(fù)數(shù)，加“s”。（2）Laowang gives me a book.give：人稱數(shù)、時數(shù)；me：賓格。

“give”表示的語法范疇是由于人稱的變化，“Lao wang”是第三人稱，動詞“give”表示一般現(xiàn)在時的第三人稱單數(shù)，在“give”后加“s”表示?！癿e”表示名詞用作賓語時用賓格。

五、問答題

1、舉例說明什么是詞綴、詞尾，并簡要說明詞綴和詞尾的區(qū)別。

答：根據(jù)語素在詞中的不同作用可把它分成詞根、詞綴、詞尾三類。詞綴是只能粘附在詞根上構(gòu)成新詞的語素，它本身不能單獨(dú)構(gòu)成詞。如漢語“第一”、“第二”中的“第”，“作者”、“編者”中的者，“小王”、“小李”中的“小”。詞尾是加在詞的末尾，只改變一個詞的形式，而不能構(gòu)成新詞的成分。如英語的“book”加上“s”以后成為“books”，walk加-s、-ing、-ed之后而成為walks、walking、walked，這些都只是同一個詞的不同形式，而不是不同的詞。詞綴和詞尾的主要區(qū)別在于能否構(gòu)成新詞。

2、形態(tài)變化有那幾種情況？舉例說明。

答：形態(tài)變化名詞有數(shù)的詞形變化，如英語的單數(shù)、復(fù)數(shù)，“report”指這個報(bào)告，“reports”指這些報(bào)告。動詞有時態(tài)的變化，在人稱、數(shù)上也要與主語一致，如動詞“give”有“give”（原形），gives（第三人稱單數(shù)），gave（過去時），given（過去分詞），giving（現(xiàn)在分詞）的變化；大部分形容詞和副詞有級的變化。這些都是一般所說的劃分詞類的形態(tài)原則。

3、舉例說明什么是級，以及級的構(gòu)成方式。

答：語言是一種層級結(jié)構(gòu)，每一層分為若干級。第一級是語素，第二級是由語素構(gòu)成的詞，第三級是由詞構(gòu)成的句子。從語素到句子的各類語法單位構(gòu)成一個像階梯般的層級系統(tǒng)，上一級單位由下一級單位按一定的規(guī)劃組合而成。例如“火”這個詞由“火”一個語素構(gòu)成?！芭笥选边@個詞由“朋”和“友”兩個語素構(gòu)成?！拔铱磿边@句話由“我”、“看”、“書”三個詞構(gòu)成。

4、“紅太陽”和“太陽紅”的語法意義有什么差別？形成這些差別的語法手段是什么？ 答：“紅太陽”是偏正結(jié)構(gòu)，語法意義是“紅的太陽”；“太陽紅”是主謂結(jié)構(gòu)，語法意義是陳述“太陽”是“紅”色的。形成這兩種語法意義的差別的語法手段是“詞序”的不同，從而形成了不同的結(jié)構(gòu)關(guān)系。作業(yè)形考答案4 第五章~第九章

一、填空

1、一般性、模糊性 和 全民性是詞義概括性的三個重要表現(xiàn)形式。

2、同義詞的“同”主要指 理性意義 相同或相似，不同之處主要有詞的搭配習(xí)慣、詞義的附加色彩 和 風(fēng)格色彩 等方面。

3、絕對反義詞的意義所概括反映的都是同類現(xiàn)象中的兩個對立的方面。

4、詞語的組合一方面受到 語法規(guī)則 的支配，另一方面要受到語義條件的限制。

5、文字的作用主要是突破了有聲語言的 時間 和 空間局限，使出口即逝的語言能夠傳于異地，留于異時。

6、文字的發(fā)展經(jīng)歷了 表意、表意兼表音 和 表音 三個階段。

7、從語言譜系來分類，漢語屬于 漢藏 語系，英語屬于 印歐語系。

8、詞匯的變化主要體現(xiàn)在 新詞的產(chǎn)生和舊詞的消亡、詞語的替換和詞義的演變 三個方面。

二、判斷正誤

1、基本詞具有很強(qiáng)的構(gòu)詞能力，而像“我、他、啊、嗎、從”這類詞都沒有能產(chǎn)性特點(diǎn)，所以不是基本詞。（×）

2、詞義不是對客觀現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象的反映，例如像“天堂、地獄、玉皇大帝、夜叉”這類詞的意義，并不是客觀現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象。（×）

3、“天、地、水、人”這些詞只有一個音節(jié)，都是單義詞。（√）

4、“小鞋”本義指“號碼較小的鞋子”，派生義指“故意給別人的刁難”，這是隱喻。（√）

5、“鐵窗”本義指“安有鐵柵欄”的窗戶，派生義指“監(jiān)獄”，這是隱喻。（√）

6、所有的漢字都與語素相對應(yīng)，都有一定的意義。

（√）

7、從我國的社會政治經(jīng)濟(jì)和文化的發(fā)展水平看，漢字必須立即改成拼音文字，才能適應(yīng)社會發(fā)展變化的需要。（×）

8、口語是在書面語的基礎(chǔ)上產(chǎn)生的，促進(jìn)了書面語的發(fā)展。（×）

9、語言發(fā)展的根本原因是語言中的各種因素相互影響。（√）

10、語言的發(fā)展變化是逐漸發(fā)生的，沒有突變。

（√）

11、行業(yè)用語不能被全民語言吸收而發(fā)展成為日常交際用語。（√）

12、借詞不同于意譯詞。

（√）

13、一種語言與另一種語言融合，主要取決于操這種語言的民族是否居于統(tǒng)治地位。（×）

14、任何規(guī)則都是有例外的，如英語名詞的復(fù)數(shù)形式是在后面加上s，但man、knife的復(fù)數(shù)卻不能加s，而是內(nèi)部元音或輔音發(fā)生變化。（√）

三、單項(xiàng)選擇題

1、下列每組詞全都屬于基本詞匯的是（C）。

A、丈夫、妻子、兄弟、令堂

B、若干、屹立、篇章、父母 C、make，look，do，get

D、電視、開發(fā)、能力、學(xué)派

2、“上帝”“天堂”“妖怪”“神仙”等詞的詞義是（D）。A、不反映現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象

B、反映現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象

C、沒有現(xiàn)實(shí)根據(jù)

D、對現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象的歪曲反映

3、“兵”的最初意義是（B）。

A、士兵

B、武器

C、戰(zhàn)爭

D、軍事

4、下列各組詞中，屬于等義詞的一組是（C）。

A、成果—后果

B、many—muchC、替代—代替

D、頭顱—腦瓜子

5、下列反義詞之間屬于非此即彼的一組是（D）。

A、白—黑

B、大—小

C、高—低

D、生—死

6、就下列詞語來看，只有（B）組中的漢字全都能獨(dú)立地表示語素。A、山峰

音樂

事理

委員B、沙發(fā)

吉它

卡片

羅馬 C、葡萄

玻璃

枇杷

紗門D、蜘蛛

竊窕

逍遙

逃遁

7、下列文字中屬于音節(jié)文字的是（A）。

A、日文字母

B、英文字母

C、俄文字母

D、法文字母

8、下列文字中屬于音位字母的是（B）。

A、日文字母

B、英文字母

C、漢字

D、阿拉伯字母

9、從造字方法考察，文字的發(fā)展經(jīng)歷了（D）三個階段。A、表意—表音—表意兼表音

B、表音—表意兼表音—表意 C、表義兼表音—表意—表音

D、表意—表意兼表音—表音

10、漢字是現(xiàn)行文字中的一種典型的（C）文字。A、表音

B、表意

C、意音

D、音節(jié)

11、從偏旁和字音字義的聯(lián)系情況看，下列各組漢字只有（A）是形聲字。A、趕

媽

想

視

B、趙

看

部

路 C、漢

地

使

爨

D、廟

春

雞

嘆

12、語言發(fā)展變化的基本條件是（C）。

A、自然的發(fā)展變化

B、語言內(nèi)部的因素 C、社會的發(fā)展變化

D、個人生活經(jīng)歷的變化

13、在一種語言內(nèi)部劃分地域方言時的依據(jù)主要是（D）。A、語法

B、詞匯

C、詞義

D、語音

14、同一語系中的語言可根據(jù)它們親屬關(guān)系的親疏遠(yuǎn)近依次分為（A）。A、語族

語支

語群

B、語族

語群

語支 C、語群

語族

語支

D、語支

語族

語群

15、下列都屬于漢語中借詞的是（C）。

A、雷達(dá)

足球

沙發(fā)椅

B、卡車

電話

哈巴狗 C、納粹

吉他

吉普車

D、沙龍

朝廷

艾滋病

16、下列各組詞只有（C）是意譯詞。

A、雷達(dá)

馬達(dá)

咖啡

B、啤酒

苜蓿

哈密 C、西裝

籃球

胡瓜

D、檳榔

浪漫

坦克

17、柴門霍夫所創(chuàng)造的世界語是（C）。

A、世界共同語

B、洋涇浜C、國際輔助語

D、克里奧耳語

18、古漢語聲母中有[b][d][g][p][t][k]，現(xiàn)已合流了，這條語音規(guī)律叫做（C）。A、腭化規(guī)律

B、清音濁化規(guī)律 C、濁音清化規(guī)律

D、濁音送氣化規(guī)律

19、英語名詞的復(fù)數(shù)形式一般是加上詞尾s或es表示，但（A）組詞不能這樣類推。A、knife man leaf woman

B、chair pen book friend C、pound bag sort weekday D、hero pig room source 20、在社會變動較大或政治斗爭激烈的時期，語言中變化最大的是（C）。A、語音

B、詞義

C、詞匯

D、語法

四、綜合分析題

1、分析下列同義詞的主要差別 A、批評—批判

詞義輕重不同 B、發(fā)揮—發(fā)揚(yáng)

搭配對象不同

C、犧牲—死亡—完蛋

語體色彩不同 D、成果—結(jié)果—后果

語體色彩不同

A、批評：①指出優(yōu)點(diǎn)和缺點(diǎn)，評論好壞；②專指對錯誤和缺點(diǎn)提出意見 批判：①對錯誤的思想、言論或行為做系統(tǒng)的分析，加以否定；②批評“批判”的詞義比“批評”大，“批判”程度較重，“批評”較輕。

B、發(fā)揮：①把內(nèi)在的性質(zhì)或能力表現(xiàn)出來，~積極性，~技術(shù)水平；②把意思或道理充分表達(dá)出來，“借題~”。

發(fā)揚(yáng)：①發(fā)展和提倡：~光大，~民主，~精神；②發(fā)揮：~火力，“發(fā)揚(yáng)”的詞義比“發(fā)揮”大。

C、風(fēng)格色新不同，“犧牲”多用于書面語和比較莊嚴(yán)的場合； “死亡”用于書面語，一般場合；“完蛋”多用于口語，含有貶義。D、詞的附加色新不同?！俺晒倍嘤糜诎x，“結(jié)果”是中性詞，“后果”多用于貶義。

2、分析下列詞語意義的演變情況

A、墨水：原意是指書寫用的黑色液體，今指各種顏色的這種液體。B、犧牲：原意指祭祀用的牲畜，今指為正義事業(yè)獻(xiàn)身。C、deer：原意指動物，今指鹿。

D、事故：原意泛指事情，今指意外的損失或?yàn)?zāi)禍，即不幸的事情。E、泰斗：原意指泰山北斗，今指德高望重或卓有成就受到尊重的人。A、詞義擴(kuò)大了。

B、詞義的轉(zhuǎn)移。由表示某類現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象改變?yōu)榱硪活惉F(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象。C、詞義的縮小。演變后的詞義比原來的詞義狹窄了。D、詞義的縮小。E、詞義的轉(zhuǎn)移。

五、問答題

1、基本詞有哪些特點(diǎn)？這些特點(diǎn)之間有什么樣的影響？

答：基本詞具有全民帶用、穩(wěn)固、具有構(gòu)詞能力三個特點(diǎn)?；驹~是人民日常都離不開的，時刻都要使用的，無論男女老少都要使用，而且基本詞從古到今十分穩(wěn)固，很少變化，很多基本詞都具有很強(qiáng)的構(gòu)詞能力。例如：“電”就是一個基本詞，它已經(jīng)使用數(shù)千年，還能構(gòu)成“電燈、電視、電話、電流、電力、電線、電解、放電、變電”等詞。

基本詞記的三個特點(diǎn)是互相聯(lián)系，互相影響，互為因果的。由于基本詞匯具有全民常用性特點(diǎn)，在使用上涉及到方方面面，涉及到不同階層，不同地域的人們運(yùn)用語言，牽一發(fā)而動全身，所以客觀上就要求基本詞匯保持相對穩(wěn)定性，不能經(jīng)常變動，以利用適用；當(dāng)新的事物現(xiàn)象出現(xiàn)，需要新詞記錄時，人們又首選現(xiàn)成的基本詞匯作為構(gòu)詞材料，使得基本詞匯又具有了很強(qiáng)的構(gòu)詞能力，這又反過來強(qiáng)化了基本詞匯的全民常用性特點(diǎn)和穩(wěn)固性特點(diǎn)。

2、什么是詞義的概括性？有哪些表現(xiàn)形式？簡要說明這些表現(xiàn)形式的內(nèi)涵。

答：詞義的概括性是指詞義對現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象的反映是概括的反映，概括是對現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象的分類，把有共同特點(diǎn)的現(xiàn)象歸在一起，給予一個名稱，使它和其他現(xiàn)象區(qū)別開來。把特殊的、復(fù)雜的東西歸成一般的、簡單的東西，是概括所完成的工作。

一般性、模糊性和全民性是詞義的概括性的三個重要表現(xiàn)形式。

一般性是指詞義概括事物時都是把特殊、復(fù)雜的東西變?yōu)橐话?、簡單的東西。

模糊性是指經(jīng)過概括而形成的一般的、簡單的東西，本身往往帶有一定的模糊性，它只有一個大致的范圍，沒有明確的界限。

全民性是指某些詞義反映階級社會中的有些事物和現(xiàn)象，這些事物和現(xiàn)象有強(qiáng)烈的階級性，但是反映這些現(xiàn)象的詞義卻是全民的，沒有階級性。

3、舉例說明什么是拼音文字、音位文字、意音文字。

答：拼音文字是用字母記錄語言中的音節(jié)或音位的文字，文字體系比較簡明，一個字的拼寫反映出語言中的一個符號的讀音，如英文包括了字母、字母順序、拼寫規(guī)則（大寫字母用法、移行規(guī)則、自左而右的書寫順序）、標(biāo)點(diǎn)等，用字母記錄音節(jié)和音位。音位文字是記錄語言中音位的文字，表示意位的文字，只需要幾十個字母就可以拼寫語言中的全部音節(jié)，進(jìn)而書寫全部的詞和句子。如世界語就是一種記錄音位的字母文字。意音文字是同時兼采表意、表音兩種方法記錄語言的文字。如漢字就是意音文字，有表意字，或借表意字充當(dāng)表音字，以及兼用表意、表音兩種方法的文字。我國傳統(tǒng)的文字學(xué)把第二種稱為假借字，第三種稱為形聲字。

4、語言發(fā)展有哪些特點(diǎn)？為什么會有這些特點(diǎn)？ 答：漸變性和不平衡性是語言發(fā)展的兩大特點(diǎn)。語言發(fā)展的漸變性特點(diǎn)是由語言的社會功能所決定的。一方面，交際要求語言保持穩(wěn)定的狀態(tài)；另一方面，隨著社會的發(fā)展，日益增長的需要又不斷地促使語言發(fā)生變化。穩(wěn)固和變化這兩個對立的要求促使語言的演變只能采取漸變的方式，不允許突變。

而不平衡性也是由于語言系統(tǒng)的各個組成部分與社會發(fā)展的聯(lián)系有很大不同造成的。語言中詞匯對社會發(fā)展的反應(yīng)最靈敏，變化比較快；而語音和語法的變化相對緩慢而穩(wěn)定。它們的變化速度是不平衡，語言發(fā)展的不平衡性又是產(chǎn)生地域方言或親屬語言的語言內(nèi)部的原因。

5、哪些因素促進(jìn)了語言的發(fā)展？主要因素是什么？簡要說明。答：①社會的發(fā)展是語言發(fā)展的基本條件和強(qiáng)大動力。②語言隨著社會的發(fā)展而發(fā)展，但是語言如何發(fā)展，是由語言系統(tǒng)內(nèi)部的各種因素的相互關(guān)系決定的。

語言是社會的交際工具。社會的交際是語言發(fā)展的最基本的條件，語言內(nèi)部各要素的相互影響是在這一條件的基礎(chǔ)上起作用的，它決定著每一語言發(fā)展的特殊的方向。

6、詞匯的發(fā)展體現(xiàn)在哪些方面？ 答：詞匯的發(fā)展體現(xiàn)在下列三個方面：新詞的產(chǎn)生和舊詞的消亡，詞語的替換，詞義的演變。

1、新詞的產(chǎn)生和舊詞的消亡。新詞的產(chǎn)生與現(xiàn)實(shí)中出現(xiàn)的新的事物有聯(lián)系。隨著工農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)和科學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展，新事物層出不窮，語言為表達(dá)這些新事物的需要而產(chǎn)生新詞；舊詞的消亡一方面是由于舊事物的消失；另一方面由詞匯系統(tǒng)的變動，認(rèn)識的變化也可以引起舊詞的消亡。

2、詞語的替換指改變某類現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象的名稱，而現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象本身并沒有發(fā)生變化。

3、詞義的演變是指詞的形式不變，而意義發(fā)生了變化。詞義的演變包括舊義的擴(kuò)大、縮小和轉(zhuǎn)移三種情況。

第四篇：概論課后答案

1．如何認(rèn)識改革開放是決定當(dāng)代中國命運(yùn)的關(guān)鍵抉擇?

改革開放是一場新的偉大革命。中國共產(chǎn)黨在20世紀(jì)70年代末做出實(shí)行改革開放的重大決策，是有其深刻的國內(nèi)和國際兩方面的背景。從國內(nèi)的情況看，“文化大革命”十年內(nèi)亂，使黨、國家和人民遭到嚴(yán)重挫折和損失，面對嚴(yán)重的困難，我們的出路只能是通過改革開放。從國際環(huán)境看，我國經(jīng)濟(jì)實(shí)力、科技實(shí)力與國際先進(jìn)水平的差距明顯拉大，面臨著巨大的國際競爭壓力，我們的出路也只能是通過改革開放。鄧小平正是在科學(xué)分析國內(nèi)國際發(fā)展的大勢，準(zhǔn)確把握時代主題和人民愿望的基礎(chǔ)上，做出把黨和國家工作中心轉(zhuǎn)移到經(jīng)濟(jì)建設(shè)上來、實(shí)行改革開放的歷史性抉擇。

第一，改革開放是黨在新的時代條件下帶領(lǐng)人民進(jìn)行的新的偉大革命，它不是對原有經(jīng)濟(jì)體制的細(xì)枝末節(jié)的修補(bǔ)，而是對原有經(jīng)濟(jì)體制的根本性變革。它要從根本上改變束縛我國生產(chǎn)力發(fā)展的經(jīng)濟(jì)體制，建立充滿生機(jī)和活力的社會主義新經(jīng)濟(jì)體制，同時相應(yīng)地改革政治體制和其他方面的體制。改革開放的舊的，就是要解放和發(fā)展社會生產(chǎn)力，實(shí)現(xiàn)國家現(xiàn)代化，讓中國人民富裕起來，振興偉大的中華民族；就是要推動我國社會主義制度自我完善和發(fā)展，賦予社會主義新的生機(jī)活力，建設(shè)和發(fā)展中國特色社會主義；就是要在引領(lǐng)當(dāng)代中國發(fā)展進(jìn)步中加強(qiáng)和改進(jìn)黨的建設(shè)，保持和發(fā)展黨的先進(jìn)性，確保黨始終走在時代前列。

第二，改革開放是一場革命，但它不是一個階級推翻另一個階級意義上的革命，不是也不允許否定和拋棄我們已經(jīng)建立起來的社會主義基本制度。因此，改革開放既是我們黨領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的一場新的偉大革命，又是社會主義制度的自我完善和發(fā)展。社會主義的基本制度不能改變，具體制度必須創(chuàng)新。改革是要鞏固社會主義制度，在社會主義制度下發(fā)展生產(chǎn)力。鄧小平多次指出，歷史反復(fù)告訴我們，只有社會主義才能救中國、只有社會主義才能發(fā)展中國，改革必須堅(jiān)持社會主義方向。

第三，改革開放是建設(shè)中國特色社會主義的全新探索，沒有現(xiàn)成的模式可以照搬。因此，改革開放的進(jìn)程不可能一帆風(fēng)順，也不可能一蹴而就，在改革開放中出現(xiàn)的各種問題是前進(jìn)中的問題，只能通過深化改革開放來解決。

事實(shí)雄辯地證明，改革開放是決定當(dāng)代中國命運(yùn)的關(guān)鍵抉擇，是發(fā)展中國特色社會主義、實(shí)現(xiàn)中華民族偉大復(fù)興的必由之路；只有社會主義才能救中國，只有改革開放才能發(fā)展中國、發(fā)展社會主義、發(fā)展馬克思主義。

4．如何正確處理改革、發(fā)展、穩(wěn)定之間的關(guān)系?

發(fā)展是硬道理，中國解決所有問題的關(guān)鍵要靠自己的發(fā)展。改革是經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會發(fā)展的強(qiáng)大動力，是社會主義制度的自我完善和發(fā)展，它的決定性作用不僅在于解決當(dāng)前經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會發(fā)展中的一些重大問題，推進(jìn)社會生產(chǎn)力的解放和發(fā)展，還要為我國經(jīng)濟(jì)的持續(xù)發(fā)展和國家的長治久安打下堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)。穩(wěn)定是發(fā)展和改革的前提，發(fā)展和改革必須要有穩(wěn)定的政治和社會環(huán)境。沒有穩(wěn)定的政治和社會環(huán)境，一切無從談起。

中國目前正處于從總體小康向全面小康過渡的階段，這是發(fā)展的關(guān)鍵時期，也是改革的攻堅(jiān)階段。在這一時期處理改革、發(fā)展、穩(wěn)定關(guān)系構(gòu)任務(wù)極其艱巨。因此，要以科學(xué)發(fā)展觀為指導(dǎo)，遵循改革開放以來黨在處理改革、發(fā)展、穩(wěn)定關(guān)系方面積累起來的經(jīng)驗(yàn)和主要原則。

第一，保持改革、發(fā)展和穩(wěn)定在動態(tài)中的相互協(xié)調(diào)和相互促進(jìn)。穩(wěn)定是前提，做到在政治和社會穩(wěn)定中推進(jìn)改革和發(fā)展，在改革和發(fā)展的推進(jìn)中實(shí)現(xiàn)政治和社會的長期穩(wěn)定。

第二，把改革的力度、發(fā)展的速度和社會可以承受的程度統(tǒng)一起來。改革和發(fā)展要始終注意適應(yīng)國情和社會的承受能力，要統(tǒng)籌安排改革和發(fā)展的舉措，以保持穩(wěn)定，促進(jìn)改革和發(fā)展。

第三，把不斷改善人民生活作為處理改革發(fā)展穩(wěn)定關(guān)系的重要結(jié)合點(diǎn)。人民群眾是改革發(fā)展的主體和動力，是穩(wěn)定的力量源泉和深厚基礎(chǔ)。改善人民生活，讓人民共享改革和發(fā)展的成果，是我們致力于發(fā)展、積極推進(jìn)改革、堅(jiān)持維護(hù)穩(wěn)定的共同目的。所以，要做到把不斷改善人民生活，讓人民共享改革和發(fā)展的成果，作為處理改革發(fā)展穩(wěn)定關(guān)系的重要結(jié)合點(diǎn)。

第八章思考習(xí)題與參考答案

1．鄧小平關(guān)于社會主義市場經(jīng)濟(jì)理論的主要內(nèi)涵是什么?

早在改革開放初期，鄧小平就已經(jīng)提出了市場經(jīng)濟(jì)與社會主義的關(guān)系問題。1992年他在視察南方的談話中明確指出：“計(jì)劃多一點(diǎn)還是市場多一點(diǎn)，不是社會主義與資本主義的本質(zhì)區(qū)別。計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)不等于社會主義，資本主義也有計(jì)劃；市場經(jīng)濟(jì)不等于資本主義，社會主義也有市場。計(jì)劃和市場都是經(jīng)濟(jì)手段?！编囆∑降倪@一精辟論述，從根本上解除了傳統(tǒng)的思想束縛。

鄧小平是社會主義市場經(jīng)濟(jì)理論的創(chuàng)立者，他關(guān)于社會主義市場經(jīng)濟(jì)的理論具有豐富的內(nèi)涵，概括如下：第一，突破了過去公認(rèn)的計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)和市場經(jīng)濟(jì)是代表社會主義和資本主義兩種經(jīng)濟(jì)制度本質(zhì)屬性的觀念，認(rèn)為它們都是經(jīng)濟(jì)手段。這一新的認(rèn)識，為社會主義市場經(jīng)濟(jì)理論的創(chuàng)立奠定了理論前提。第二，計(jì)劃與市場作為調(diào)節(jié)經(jīng)濟(jì)的兩種手段，它們對經(jīng)濟(jì)活動的調(diào)節(jié)各有自己的優(yōu)勢和長處，在社會化大生產(chǎn)和存在著復(fù)雜經(jīng)濟(jì)關(guān)系的條件下，市場經(jīng)濟(jì)對促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展具有更強(qiáng)的適應(yīng)性、更顯著的優(yōu)勢和較高的效率。但兩者都有自身的不足和缺陷，如計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)不能有效解決效率和激勵問題，市場經(jīng)濟(jì)的自發(fā)性、盲目性會引發(fā)惡性競爭、短期行為、道德缺失等。第三，市場經(jīng)濟(jì)作為資源配置的一種方式本身不具有制度屬性，但是，它與社會主義相結(jié)合而形成的經(jīng)濟(jì)體制則必須體現(xiàn)社會主義基本制度的特征。把發(fā)展市場經(jīng)濟(jì)與堅(jiān)持社會主義基本制度有機(jī)結(jié)合起來，既可以充分發(fā)揮社會主義制度的優(yōu)越性，又可以充分利用市場經(jīng)濟(jì)對發(fā)展生產(chǎn)力的作用。

5．結(jié)合現(xiàn)階段個人收入分配制度和按勞分配的理論，對現(xiàn)實(shí)經(jīng)濟(jì)生活中個人收入出現(xiàn)差距的現(xiàn)象進(jìn)行分析。

社會主義初級階段的基本經(jīng)濟(jì)制度決定了與此相聯(lián)系的個人收入分配實(shí)行的是按勞分配為主體、多種分配方式并存的制度。社會主義初級階段個人收入分配制度，必須堅(jiān)持按勞分配的主體地位。按勞分配以外的多種分配方式，其實(shí)質(zhì)就是按對生產(chǎn)要素的占有狀況進(jìn)行分配。

一是要正確看待收入分配差距。一方面正確認(rèn)識收入分配差距，我們不能脫離對生產(chǎn)的影響來孤立地看待和評價(jià)收入分配格局是否公平。由于社會上個人的生產(chǎn)要素和能力的不同，所起的作用和所做的貢獻(xiàn)大小也不同，把貢獻(xiàn)大小與收入分配聯(lián)系起來。除了按勞分配以外，應(yīng)該鼓勵按生產(chǎn)要素進(jìn)行分配，在效率優(yōu)先，兼顧公平的分配原則下，按貢獻(xiàn)大小進(jìn)行分配。如果不講貢獻(xiàn)大小，而是只講平均分配，那就不可能達(dá)到共同富裕的目標(biāo)，而只會仍然是共同貧窮。今天我們收入差距一定程度上的拉大從某種意義上說是一種社會的進(jìn)步，因?yàn)閺囊徊糠秩讼雀黄饋聿⒆罱K達(dá)到共同富裕必須經(jīng)過一個過程。保證收入公平的原則應(yīng)該是保證人人有平等競爭的機(jī)會，因而解決當(dāng)前中國收入差距拉大問題決不能采取劫富濟(jì)貧的辦法，而是要在加快經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展，積極地從事“財(cái)富創(chuàng)造”的同時，給低收入者更多的能力和機(jī)會，給他們以平等競爭的機(jī)會。

另一方面要警惕社會分配領(lǐng)域中收入差距的過分?jǐn)U大，甚至兩極分化的現(xiàn)象，避免可能引發(fā)的社會問題?？偟膩碚f，當(dāng)前中國收入分配差距拉大的原因是多方面的，并非都是合理的制度安排的結(jié)果，其中也存在許多不合理和非法的因素。其一，初次分配過程中存在許多不平等的競爭，如最為突出的各種形式的行業(yè)壟斷的存在；其二，收入分配再分配的手段和功能嚴(yán)重不足，例如對高收入調(diào)節(jié)不力，對低收入階層缺乏有效保護(hù)；其三，灰色收入、黑色收入以及腐敗等非法收入問題突出，打擊力度遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不夠；其四，由于地域差別的存在，東部地區(qū)比西部地區(qū)收入高，地區(qū)收入差距拉大。應(yīng)該說，中國收入分配差距的出現(xiàn)是國民經(jīng)濟(jì)整體發(fā)展和提高的結(jié)果，是構(gòu)建現(xiàn)代市場經(jīng)濟(jì)體制的結(jié)果，是社會主義初級階段的必然結(jié)果，同時也是社會不公正現(xiàn)象的結(jié)果。從整體上看，中國的收入分配差距是社會范疇問題，其本質(zhì)是勞動者先富和后富的關(guān)系，不是階級對立的結(jié)果，經(jīng)濟(jì)因素即生產(chǎn)力發(fā)展水平起決定的作用。

二是合理調(diào)節(jié)收入分配差距。形成現(xiàn)在收入分配不合理的格局，原因是多方面的，因此，利用稅收、財(cái)政等手段，調(diào)節(jié)地區(qū)、行業(yè)、部門的收入差距，縮小東、中、西部的收入差別，也必須綜合治理。

第一，要深化收入分配制度的改革，從源頭上解決好初次分配問題；第二，堅(jiān)持效率優(yōu)先、兼顧公平的原則，強(qiáng)化國家對收入分配的宏觀調(diào)控功能；第三，要關(guān)注社會弱勢群體，千方百計(jì)擴(kuò)大就業(yè)，解決由失業(yè)導(dǎo)致的貧困問題；第四，要嚴(yán)厲打擊貪污腐敗、權(quán)錢交易等各種非法攫取社會財(cái)富的行為；第五，要以共同富裕為目標(biāo)，擴(kuò)大中等收入者的比重，提高低收入者的收入水平。

總之，合理調(diào)節(jié)收入分配差距，發(fā)展經(jīng)濟(jì)是根本途徑，“三個有利于”體現(xiàn)得越充分，消除貧富差距過大的社會條件就越具備，就越能增強(qiáng)利用稅收、財(cái)政等手段調(diào)節(jié)收入分配的功能。我們既不能搞平均主義，也要防止出現(xiàn)兩極分化，既要讓一部分人先富起來，又要最終實(shí)現(xiàn)共同富裕。

6．為什么要強(qiáng)調(diào)促進(jìn)國民經(jīng)濟(jì)又好又快發(fā)展?如何理解提高自主創(chuàng)新能力、建設(shè)創(chuàng)新型國家，是國家發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略的核心?

改革開放以來，我們實(shí)施現(xiàn)代化建設(shè)“三步走”戰(zhàn)略，推動我國以世界上少有的速度持續(xù)快速發(fā)展起來，經(jīng)濟(jì)總量大幅躍升，人民生活從溫飽不足發(fā)展到總體小康。在經(jīng)濟(jì)快速發(fā)展的實(shí)踐過程中，對經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展質(zhì)量和效益的認(rèn)識也不斷深化，越來越感到國民經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展要速度“快”，而且還要質(zhì)量和效益“好”。

提出國民經(jīng)濟(jì)又好又快發(fā)展，是以改革開放以來我國經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展取得的舉世矚目的重大成就為前提的。正是這些成就和變化，為我們走向“又好又快”發(fā)展這一新的歷史起點(diǎn)提供了堅(jiān)實(shí)的物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)、必要的市場供求格局和重要的體制性基礎(chǔ)，使我們有條件提出又好又快發(fā)展的理念。提出國民經(jīng)濟(jì)又好又快發(fā)展，也是進(jìn)一步發(fā)展的迫切要求。我國國民經(jīng)濟(jì)的進(jìn)一步發(fā)展對提高質(zhì)量和效益、節(jié)約資源和保護(hù)環(huán)境、實(shí)現(xiàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會協(xié)調(diào)的要求，相對說來比經(jīng)濟(jì)增長的數(shù)量和速度更加突出。因此，無論是從現(xiàn)實(shí)出發(fā)還是從未來著眼，都要求我們必須“好”字當(dāng)前，堅(jiān)持“好”中求“快”，努力實(shí)現(xiàn)“又好又快發(fā)展”。

提出國民經(jīng)濟(jì)又好又快發(fā)展，并不意味著發(fā)展速度問題無足輕重。改革開放以來我國的面貌雖然得到了很大的變化，但是，社會主義初級階段的基本國情沒有變，人民日益增長的物質(zhì)文化需要同落后的社會生產(chǎn)之間的主要矛盾沒有變。我國現(xiàn)在仍然是一個發(fā)展中國家，人均水平還很低，完成現(xiàn)代化的任務(wù)依然十分艱巨。因此速度問題仍然十分重要。問題在于進(jìn)一步發(fā)展所要求的經(jīng)濟(jì)增長速度應(yīng)當(dāng)是在結(jié)構(gòu)優(yōu)化、效益提高、節(jié)約資源、保護(hù)環(huán)境基礎(chǔ)上的速度，是增長的質(zhì)量和競爭力不斷提升、能夠穩(wěn)定持續(xù)發(fā)展的速度，是重大關(guān)系比較協(xié)調(diào)、人民得到實(shí)惠比較多的速度。

創(chuàng)新是一個民族進(jìn)步的靈魂，是一個國家興旺發(fā)達(dá)的不竭動力。當(dāng)今世界，新科技革命迅猛發(fā)展，不斷引發(fā)新的創(chuàng)新浪潮，科技成果轉(zhuǎn)化和產(chǎn)業(yè)更新?lián)Q代的周期越來越短，科技作為第一生產(chǎn)力的地位和作用越來越突出?？茖W(xué)技術(shù)特別是戰(zhàn)略高技術(shù)正日益成為經(jīng)濟(jì)社會發(fā)展的決定性力量，成為綜合國力競爭的焦點(diǎn)面對世界科技發(fā)展的大勢，面對日趨激烈的國際競爭，我們必須把科學(xué)技術(shù)真正置于優(yōu)先發(fā)展的戰(zhàn)略地位，加快自主創(chuàng)新步伐，增強(qiáng)國家核心競爭力，帶動我國社會生產(chǎn)力實(shí)現(xiàn)質(zhì)的飛躍，努力在激烈的國際競爭中贏得和保持發(fā)展的主動權(quán)。

提高自主創(chuàng)新能力，建設(shè)創(chuàng)新型國家，不僅是提高我國國際競爭力的客觀需要，而且也是貫徹落實(shí)科學(xué)發(fā)展觀、全面建設(shè)小康社會的重大舉措，是解決我國當(dāng)前發(fā)展面臨的突出矛盾和問題的緊迫要求。只有通過大力推進(jìn)科技進(jìn)步和創(chuàng)新，增強(qiáng)自主創(chuàng)新能力，推動我國經(jīng)濟(jì)增長從資源

依賴型轉(zhuǎn)向創(chuàng)新驅(qū)動型，才能繼續(xù)保持經(jīng)濟(jì)平穩(wěn)較快和可持續(xù)增長，實(shí)現(xiàn)又好又快發(fā)展。

第九章思考習(xí)題與參考答案

1．如何正確理解堅(jiān)持黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、人民當(dāng)家作主和依法治國的有機(jī)統(tǒng)一?

(1)發(fā)展社會主義民主政治，建設(shè)社會主義政治文明，是全面建設(shè)小康社會的重要目標(biāo)，也是構(gòu)建社會主義和諧社會的根本保證。發(fā)展社會主義民主政治，最根本的是要把堅(jiān)持黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、人民當(dāng)家作主和依法治國有機(jī)統(tǒng)一起來。黨的十七大報(bào)告進(jìn)一步強(qiáng)調(diào)：“要堅(jiān)持中國特色社會主義政治發(fā)展道路，堅(jiān)持黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、人民當(dāng)家作主、依法治國有機(jī)統(tǒng)一，堅(jiān)持和完善人民代表大會制度、中國共產(chǎn)黨領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的多黨合作和政治協(xié)商制度、民族區(qū)域自治制度以及基層群眾自治制度，不斷推進(jìn)社會主義政治制度自我完善和發(fā)展?！边@是我們黨以鄧小平理論和“三個代表”重要思想為指導(dǎo)，總結(jié)執(zhí)政經(jīng)驗(yàn)，對于社會主義政治建設(shè)所做出的規(guī)律性認(rèn)識，是推進(jìn)政治文明建設(shè)必須遵循的基本方針。

(2)第一，中國共產(chǎn)黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)是人民當(dāng)家作主和依法治國的根本保證。在我國這樣一個發(fā)展中大國，離開了共產(chǎn)黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)，就不可能把全國人民的力量和意志凝聚起來，發(fā)展社會主義民主也就無從談起。發(fā)展社會主義民主政治，建設(shè)社會主義政治文明，核心在于堅(jiān)持黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)。第二，人民當(dāng)家作主是社會主義民主政治的本質(zhì)和核心要求，是社會主義政治文明建設(shè)的根本出發(fā)點(diǎn)和歸宿。社會主義民主政治的本質(zhì)是人民當(dāng)家作主。共產(chǎn)黨執(zhí)政就是領(lǐng)導(dǎo)和支持人民當(dāng)家作主。健全民主和法制，全面落實(shí)依法治國基本方略，切實(shí)尊重和保障人民的政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)和文化權(quán)益，是社會主義民主政治建設(shè)的根本要求，也是我們黨執(zhí)政的根本目的和可靠基礎(chǔ)。發(fā)揚(yáng)人民民主，又是加強(qiáng)和改善黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的有效途徑。黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式和執(zhí)政方式集中反映在黨與國家以及人民群眾關(guān)系的具體形式上。黨只有領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人民創(chuàng)造各種有效的當(dāng)家作主的民主形式，堅(jiān)持依法治國，才能充分實(shí)現(xiàn)人民當(dāng)家作主的權(quán)利，鞏固和發(fā)展黨的執(zhí)政地位。第三，依法治國是黨領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人民治理國家的基本方略。依法治國與人民民主、黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)是緊密聯(lián)系、相輔相成、相互促進(jìn)的。依法治國不僅從制度上、法律上保證人民當(dāng)家作主，而且也從制度上、法律上保證黨的執(zhí)政地位。我國的憲法和法律是黨的主張和人民意志相統(tǒng)一的體現(xiàn)。人民在黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，依照憲法和法律治理國家，管理社會事務(wù)和經(jīng)濟(jì)文化事業(yè)，保障自己當(dāng)家作主的各項(xiàng)民主權(quán)利，這是依法治國的實(shí)質(zhì)。依法治國的過程，實(shí)際上就是在黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，維護(hù)人民主人翁地位的過程，保證人民實(shí)現(xiàn)當(dāng)家作主的過程。黨領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人民通過國家權(quán)力機(jī)關(guān)制定憲法和各項(xiàng)法律，又在憲法和法律范圍內(nèi)活動，嚴(yán)格依法辦事，保證法律的實(shí)施，從而使黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、人民當(dāng)家作主和依法治國有機(jī)統(tǒng)一起來。

(3)總之，黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)、人民當(dāng)家作主和依法治國統(tǒng)一于建設(shè)中國特色社會主義民主政治的偉大實(shí)踐之中，決不能把它們分割開來或?qū)α⑵饋怼?/p>

6．依法治國的含義是什么?實(shí)行依法治國的重要意義何在?

(1)依法治國就是廣大人民群眾在黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，依照憲法和法律規(guī)定：通過各種途徑和形式管理國家事務(wù)，管理經(jīng)濟(jì)文化事業(yè)，管理社會事務(wù)，保證國家各項(xiàng)工作都依法進(jìn)行，逐步實(shí)現(xiàn)社會主義民主的制度化：法律化，使這種制度和法律不因領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人的改變而改變，不因領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人看法和注意力的改變而改變。

(2)深刻理解依法治國的科學(xué)內(nèi)涵，應(yīng)注意把握：依法治國的主體是黨領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下的人民群眾，也就是黨領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人民實(shí)行依法治國。依法治國的客體是國家事務(wù)、經(jīng)濟(jì)文化事業(yè)和社會事務(wù)。依法治國就是要保證對所有這些事業(yè)、事務(wù)的管理工作都要依法進(jìn)行。依法治國所依的法，最重要的是憲法和法律。我國憲法和法律體現(xiàn)了黨的主張和人民利益、人民意志的統(tǒng)一。

(3)依法治國是社會文明進(jìn)步的顯著標(biāo)志，是國家長治久安的重要保障，是建設(shè)中國特色社會主義經(jīng)濟(jì)、政治、文化，構(gòu)建和諧社會的必然要求。第一，依法治國是中國共產(chǎn)黨執(zhí)政方式的重大轉(zhuǎn)變，有利于加強(qiáng)和改善黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)。依法治國同堅(jiān)持和改善黨的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)是完全一致的。第二，依法治國是發(fā)展社會主義民主、實(shí)現(xiàn)人民當(dāng)家作主的根本保證。民主與法治相互依賴，相互促進(jìn)，密不可分。社會主義民主是社會主義法治的基礎(chǔ)，社會主義法治是社會主義民主的保障。第三，依法治國是發(fā)展社會主義市場經(jīng)濟(jì)和擴(kuò)大對外開放的客觀需要。第四，依法治國是國家長治久安的重要保障。

第十章思考習(xí)題與參考答案

5.怎樣理解中國特色社會主義文化建設(shè)的根本任務(wù)和主要內(nèi)容?

(1)中國特色社會主義文化建設(shè)的根本任務(wù)，就是以馬克思列寧主義、毛澤東思想、鄧小平理論和“三個代表”重要思想為指導(dǎo)，全面貫徹科學(xué)發(fā)展觀，著力培育有理想、有道德、有文化、有紀(jì)律的公民，切實(shí)提高全民族的思想道德素質(zhì)和科學(xué)文化素質(zhì)。

(2)中國特色社會主義文化建設(shè)的主要內(nèi)容包括思想道德建設(shè)和教育科學(xué)文化建設(shè)兩方面。

(3)思想道德建設(shè)，解決的是整個中華民族的精神支柱和精神動力問題。加強(qiáng)思想道德建設(shè)，是建設(shè)社會主義核心價(jià)值體系的必然要求，是中國特色社會主義文化建設(shè)的重要內(nèi)容和中心環(huán)節(jié)。加強(qiáng)思想道德建設(shè)，就是要加快建立和完善社會主義思想道德體系、著力培育文明道德風(fēng)尚、把先進(jìn)性要求同廣泛性要求結(jié)合起來、進(jìn)一步加強(qiáng)和改進(jìn)思想政治工作。

(4)教育和科學(xué)是中國特色社會主義文化建設(shè)的重要內(nèi)容，對于提高民族素質(zhì)、提高社會文明程度、促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和社會全面進(jìn)步具有重要作用。要堅(jiān)持科學(xué)技術(shù)是第一生產(chǎn)力，加強(qiáng)科學(xué)普及，提高全社會的科學(xué)素質(zhì)，尤其要繁榮哲學(xué)社會科學(xué)。要把教育擺在優(yōu)先發(fā)展的位置，辦好讓人民群眾滿意的教育。同時，要深化文化體制改革，解放和發(fā)展文化生產(chǎn)力，大力發(fā)展文化事業(yè)和文化產(chǎn)業(yè)，堅(jiān)持經(jīng)濟(jì)效益和社會效益的統(tǒng)一。、

第五篇：語言學(xué)概論練習(xí)題(有答案)

語言學(xué)概論練習(xí)題（有答案），很棒哦~~

今天最新增加了北語歷年真題2000-2009，還有語言學(xué)、文字學(xué)專業(yè)復(fù)試完整版（04-07年），還有北大的真題，也可以作為練習(xí)和參考。但是我要聲明：里面的北語真題很全，但是電子版的資料是我在網(wǎng)上四處找到的，不是北語的資料，不能代替北語的筆記，只作為參考。

我這里有夏大的語概的練習(xí)題，寶貴之處是他有答案，而且題目出的也不錯?？梢宰鳛閺?fù)習(xí)的參考資料（但是不否認(rèn)里面有一小部分題目和北語的筆記有點(diǎn)點(diǎn)出入，大家遇到這樣的地方還要以北語筆記為準(zhǔn)）,有些題目的設(shè)置和答案做的是很不錯的，特別是思考題部分和北語的試題比較接近。這里先把第一、二章的內(nèi)容給大家。

第1-2章：思考題部分

1、漢人說的就是漢語，英國人說的就是英語，對嗎？為什么？ 注意！!

不正確。語言不是說話，不管中國人還是英國人，他們說出來的話屬于言語的一部分內(nèi)容，是具體的、個別的言語活動；而他們在說話時所遵循的確定的規(guī)則才是語言。人們所說的話是使用語言的產(chǎn)物，即運(yùn)用語言才產(chǎn)生的言語活動。因此，我們不能把人們所說的話與他們所使用的語言等同起來。

2、語言與言語的區(qū)別和聯(lián)系是什么？為什么要把語言和言語區(qū)分開來？

語言是詞匯系統(tǒng)和語法系統(tǒng)的總和，是言語活動中同一社會群體共同掌握的、有規(guī)律可循而又成系統(tǒng)的那一部分；說話就是對規(guī)則系統(tǒng)的運(yùn)用，相同的規(guī)則生成不同的句子。語言和言語的主要區(qū)別：

（1）從運(yùn)用角度來說：言語是自由的；而語言是有規(guī)則的，不自由的。

（2）從語言學(xué)角度分析：言語包括張口說話的動作（言語動作）、說話代碼（語言）以及說、寫、想的話（言語作品）；而語言是言語中較為確定的部分。

（3）從表現(xiàn)形式看：言語是個人的，有個人特點(diǎn)；而語言是社會的。（4）從哲學(xué)角度看：言語是具體的、個別的；而語言是抽象的、一般的。語言和言語的聯(lián)系：

（1）語言存在于言語之中。

（2）語言存在以說話的需要為前提。（3）言語是對語言的具體運(yùn)用，是行為和結(jié)果。

正確區(qū)分語言和言語具有重大的理論意義和實(shí)踐意義。它有助于我們從理論上認(rèn)清語言的客觀存在，從而正確地理解語言，對待語言，精確地規(guī)定語言學(xué)研究的對象。此外，區(qū)分二者，認(rèn)清它們之間的關(guān)系，對于語言教學(xué)特別是外語教學(xué)，對于研究作家運(yùn)用語言的特色，研究作品的言語風(fēng)格，提高人們運(yùn)用語言的能力等都具有重要的意義。

3、為什么說語言也是一種符號？

語言能代表或指稱現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象，它具有所有符號的一般特點(diǎn)，也有形式和意義兩個方面。

語言符號本身是由音、義的結(jié)合構(gòu)成的?！耙簟笔钦Z言符號的物質(zhì)表現(xiàn)形式，“義”是語言符號的內(nèi)容，只有音和義相結(jié)合才能指稱現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象，構(gòu)成語言的符號。語言符號的形式和意義也是密不可分的統(tǒng)一體，一定的語音形式代表一定的意義內(nèi)容，一定的意義內(nèi)容一定要用一定的語音形式表達(dá)，二者是相輔相成的，互相依賴的。

4、語言符號和一般符號有什么不同？二章 為什么使用語言符號為人們最重要的交際工具？ 語言是認(rèn)知現(xiàn)實(shí)的聽覺符號系統(tǒng)，它是所有符號中是最重要、最復(fù)雜的一種，不同于其它符號。首先，語言符號是聲音和意義的結(jié)合體，是說的和聽的，聲音是語言符號的形式；義是語言符號的內(nèi)容，只有音和義結(jié)合才能指稱現(xiàn)實(shí)現(xiàn)象，構(gòu)成語言符號。

其次，一般符號的構(gòu)成比較簡單；而語言符號卻是非常復(fù)雜的，它是有組織、有條理的，是由不同結(jié)構(gòu)單位組成的一種層級體系，可分不同的層級。

再次，一般符號只能表達(dá)有限的內(nèi)容，而且這種內(nèi)容是簡單而固定的；語言符號則可以表達(dá)豐富多彩的意義。

最后，一般符號表達(dá)的意義是固定的，不能生成新的意義；而語言符號具有以少馭多的生成機(jī)制，具有生成新的結(jié)構(gòu)的能力，語言符號能重復(fù)使用，人們根據(jù)交際需要將有限的語言符號排列組合，造出無限的句子。

5、語言符號的基本特征是什么？（1）任意性和二重性

語言符號是聲音和意義的結(jié)合體，聲音是語言符號的形式；意義是語言符號的內(nèi)容，二者不可分割。這就是語言符號的二重性。

語言符號的任意性又叫做約定性，也就是說，語言中的語音和語義的關(guān)系并不是按照一定的邏輯或者某種規(guī)范建立起來的，用什么樣的聲音去表達(dá)什么樣的意義，什么樣的意義由什么樣的聲音表達(dá)，這完全是由社會約定俗成的，音義之間沒有必然的、本質(zhì)的聯(lián)系。（2）線條性與層次性

語言符號在交際使用過程中，其聲音形式只能一個一個一次出現(xiàn)，形成線條，隨著時間的推移而延伸，在時間的線條上綿延，不能同時在空間范圍內(nèi)展開；另一方面，語言符號又不在同一平面上，而是從大到小、由高到低分屬不同的層或級，語言這種分層的裝置，使音、義以及由音義相結(jié)合而組成的符號“各就各位”，各得其所，充分體現(xiàn)了語言符號的層級性特點(diǎn)。這種靈活的彈性裝置使得人們能夠通過組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系創(chuàng)造出無限的句子。

（3）穩(wěn)定性與發(fā)展性

語言符號是社會約定俗成的，無所謂好壞，為了保證交際的順利進(jìn)行，不輕易發(fā)生變化；但從歷時角度看，穩(wěn)定性只是相對的，發(fā)展才是絕對的。語言符號音義結(jié)合的任意性決同時也決定了語言的可變性和不變性，因此語言發(fā)展的過程只能是漸變的，不能突變。

6、語言符號的任意性具體體現(xiàn)在哪些方面？既然語言符號有任意性的特點(diǎn)，為什么對于使用語言的人又具有強(qiáng)制性？

第一，語言符號的音義的結(jié)合是任意性的，由社會約定俗成的，即什么樣的語音形式表達(dá)什么樣的意義內(nèi)容，什么樣的意義內(nèi)容用什么樣的語音形式表現(xiàn)是任意的。第二，不同語言有不同的音義聯(lián)系，音義結(jié)合具有不同的特點(diǎn)。

第三，同樣的語音形式，在不同的語言中表示不同的意義，不同語言音義聯(lián)系不對。第四，同一語言的音義關(guān)系也有任意性，如方言。

語言符號的任意性原則是不可動搖的。但是任意性并不意味著語音形式完全取決于說話者的自由選擇，也不是指人們對語義內(nèi)容可以隨意理解。它只是表明，語音形式和語義內(nèi)容之間并沒有必然的聯(lián)系。而且，一個符號在語言體系中確立以后，個人是不能隨意更改的，它對使用者來說是強(qiáng)制接受的。如果不經(jīng)過重新約定而擅自更改，就會使符號失效。更何況符號本來就是約定的，只要大家認(rèn)可，就無所謂好壞，因而也就沒有故意變更的必要。我們不能借口任意性而隨意改變音義之間的結(jié)合關(guān)系。

7、談?wù)勀銓φZ言符號組合的線條性和層次性的認(rèn)識。

語言符號在交際使用過程中，其聲音形式只能一個一個一次出現(xiàn)，一個音素或一個音節(jié)發(fā)出來才能緊接著發(fā)出另一個音素或音節(jié)，形成線條，隨著時間的推移而延伸，在時間的線條上綿延，不能同時在空間范圍內(nèi)展開。這就是語言符號的線條性特點(diǎn)。

語言符號的線條性特點(diǎn)說明符號和符號的組合不是任意的，而是有條件的（受組合的結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則的制約）。這個組合過程體現(xiàn)了語言符號的層級性，如漢語中的“語素→詞→短語→句子”的層級關(guān)系?！凹t”是一個語素，也是符號，它可以和其他的符號結(jié)合，還可以組合成更大的語言單位。當(dāng)然這種組合必須遵循既定的語言規(guī)則。正由于符號在交際中可以重復(fù)使用，人們才能根據(jù)交際的需要將有限的符號排列組合，說出無限的話來。

語言系統(tǒng)的組成規(guī)則主要表現(xiàn)為結(jié)構(gòu)的層次性，就是說，語言是一種分層的裝置，可以從低到高、或者從下到上分出若干個層次，使音、義以及由音義相結(jié)合而組成的符號“各就各位”，各得其所，但每一種現(xiàn)象又不是孤立的，相互之間處于一種互相依存、彼此制約的關(guān)系之中，形成一個嚴(yán)密的系統(tǒng)。語言可以分為不同的層級單位，如語素、詞、詞組、句子，語言系統(tǒng)就是由音位、語素、詞、詞組、句子等結(jié)構(gòu)單位組成的一種層級體系。低一級的層級單位組成高一級的層級單位，最后組成語言這個復(fù)雜的系統(tǒng)。語言就是各個單位在不同的層和級上構(gòu)成的一個層級裝置。在這個層級裝置中，各個層級呈現(xiàn)出這樣的特點(diǎn)，那就是層次的單位數(shù)量逐層增多，從有限到無窮。最底層的音位系統(tǒng)，一般只有幾十個，它們?yōu)檎Z言符號準(zhǔn)備了形式的部分，音位組合與意義聯(lián)系構(gòu)成數(shù)千個語素，語素組合構(gòu)成數(shù)萬個詞，數(shù)萬個詞再組成無數(shù)的句子。

8、促使語言變化的因素主要有哪些？為什么說語言符號既是難變的又是可變的？ 促使語言變化的因素主要有：

（1）社會發(fā)展，語言發(fā)展，交際需要，音義之間相互適應(yīng)；

（2）語言在流傳過程中可能會產(chǎn)生誤差；

（3）語言在使用過程中經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)積非成是的特殊情況；（4）人們的好奇心理促使不斷地創(chuàng)造語言。

處在一定階段上的語言具有穩(wěn)定性的特點(diǎn)。穩(wěn)定性為處在某一時點(diǎn)上的語言狀態(tài)進(jìn)行靜態(tài)描寫提供了可能。但是歷史地看，語言符號乃至整個體系又是可變的。語言根本無法抵抗那些隨時促使語音形式和語義內(nèi)容之間關(guān)系發(fā)生轉(zhuǎn)移的因素。這是符號任意性的必然結(jié)果之一。語言符號的任意性在理論上又使人們在語音和語義之間有建立任何關(guān)系的自由。既然是自由的，就當(dāng)然允許變化。語音形式和語義內(nèi)容之間存在的既相互適應(yīng)又可能不適應(yīng)的矛盾，必然導(dǎo)致變化。語言的穩(wěn)定性和發(fā)展性是辨證統(tǒng)一的，為語言的共時、歷時研究提供了可能。

9、怎樣理解語言沒有階級性？

（1）首先是看語言工具的服務(wù)對象，是為特定的階級服務(wù)還是為大眾服務(wù)。

語言是人類社會統(tǒng)一使用的交際工具，一視同仁地為社會全體成員服務(wù)，不是為特定的階級或階層服務(wù)的，這可以是是語言的本質(zhì)特征。

（2）其次是結(jié)合語言自身的結(jié)構(gòu)考察，觀察語言在那一方面體現(xiàn)了階級性特征沒有。

語言的結(jié)構(gòu)本身也是沒有階級性可言的。構(gòu)成語言的語音、詞匯、語法系統(tǒng)，也是沒有階級性的。（3）再次是看語言產(chǎn)生的社會環(huán)境，語言產(chǎn)生于沒有階級的社會，社會上連階級都沒有，語言作為社會的產(chǎn)物更談不上有階級性了。

10、為什么說語言是一種社會現(xiàn)象？

（1）語言是社會的產(chǎn)物。社會的變化也給語言以極大的影響，而離開了人類社會，就無所謂語言可言了。語言同社會的關(guān)系非常密切，其產(chǎn)生、發(fā)展等都要受到社會的影響。從語言的起源來看，語言一開始就是社會的；從語言的發(fā)展來看，語言隨著社會的發(fā)展而發(fā)展。（2）語言不是自然現(xiàn)象，它與自然現(xiàn)象有根本的區(qū)別。

語言有其自然屬性的一面，但語言不是自然現(xiàn)象。語言的產(chǎn)生與發(fā)展都是同社會密切地聯(lián)系在一起的。社會的發(fā)展變化直接影響著語言的發(fā)展變化，也就是說，語言的發(fā)展變化是受制于社會的；語言是完全依賴于社會的，離不開社會的，它的發(fā)展變化也是服從社會的需要的。另一方面，從語言的音義聯(lián)系看語言不是自然現(xiàn)象，而是社會約定俗成的，沒有必然的本質(zhì)的聯(lián)系。（3）語言不是個人現(xiàn)象，與個人現(xiàn)象有區(qū)別。

個人現(xiàn)象是個人的自言自語，說聽由個人承擔(dān)，不是語言最本質(zhì)的內(nèi)容。而語言則受社會全體成員約定俗成的制約。

11、怎樣理解語言的全民性特點(diǎn)？

語言不但是社會現(xiàn)象，而且是一種特殊的社會現(xiàn)象。它既不屬于經(jīng)濟(jì)基礎(chǔ)又不屬于上層建筑，不是為特定 3 的階級服務(wù)的，而是一視同仁地為全社會服務(wù)的?？梢赃@樣說，一個社會的集體就是依賴統(tǒng)一的語言把全體成員密切地聯(lián)系在一起的，語言是聯(lián)系社會成員的橋梁和紐帶，是社會成員統(tǒng)一使用的交際工具。

12、為什么說語言是人類最重要的交際工具？（1）首先，語言是人類特有的交際工具

語言是適應(yīng)人類需要而產(chǎn)生的；語言是信息載體，傳遞信息的代碼；交際職能是語言最基本的社會職能，其他功能只是它的派生物。

（2）其次，語言是人類最重要的交際工具

人類傳遞信息，進(jìn)行交際和交流思想，除了使用語言外，還可以使用文字、體態(tài)語等副語言，在一定場合使用，這些輔助語言進(jìn)行交際的手段可以彌補(bǔ)語言的一些不足，但是這些交際工具使用范圍有限，有的僅用于特定的范圍，最重要的是，這些交際工具，都離不開語言，都是在語言的基礎(chǔ)上產(chǎn)生的，是輔助語言進(jìn)行交際的，沒有語言，這些手段的存在沒有任何意義。

因此，語言雖然不是唯一的（文字、音樂、圖畫、電報(bào)、數(shù)學(xué)符號）交際工具，但卻是最重要的交際工具。

13、任何一種語言所包含的句子的數(shù)量都是無限的，人類為什么能在有限的時間學(xué)會掌握語言呢？（1）語言是一種層級結(jié)構(gòu)，最底層的音位（幾十個）是很少的；

（2）用語素（幾千個）組成的詞（幾萬個）的數(shù)量也是有限的，而且可以重復(fù)使用，這樣就通過詞的不同組合創(chuàng)造出數(shù)量龐大的句子（無數(shù)個）來；

（3）更加重要的是詞和詞組合成為句子的規(guī)則也是有限的。

所以人們能夠在很短的時間內(nèi)利用語言這種層級結(jié)構(gòu)和語法規(guī)則，以少馭多，掌握語言，創(chuàng)造出無限的句子來。語言系統(tǒng)的這種靈活的層級裝置，為人們以少數(shù)駕馭多數(shù)奠定了結(jié)構(gòu)的基礎(chǔ)。

14、為什么說組合關(guān)系和類聚關(guān)系是語言體系中兩種最基本的關(guān)系？

在語言體系中一切成分都以關(guān)系為基礎(chǔ)，語言成分之間的關(guān)系都是在兩個不同的范圍內(nèi)展開的，這就是組合關(guān)系和類聚關(guān)系。語言的二層關(guān)系是相對于語言系統(tǒng)的整體來說的，至于這一系統(tǒng)是如何運(yùn)作，使語言具有豐富性和生動性，創(chuàng)造出無限多的句子來，所依靠的是組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系。

組合關(guān)系就是兩個或兩個以上同一性質(zhì)的結(jié)構(gòu)單位（例如音位與音位、詞與詞等等），按照線性的順序組合起來的關(guān)系。組合關(guān)系直接體現(xiàn)了語言的結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則要求。

在語言的組合結(jié)構(gòu)的某一個位置上能夠互相替換的幾個具有相同作用（組合能力）的單位符號之間的關(guān)系就是聚合關(guān)系。聚合關(guān)系其實(shí)就是具有相同功能特點(diǎn)的一群符號之間的關(guān)系，由于它們的功能相同，所以在同一結(jié)構(gòu)中可以互相替換，替換后雖然具體內(nèi)容有所改變，但功能與結(jié)構(gòu)關(guān)系沒有變化。

組合關(guān)系所側(cè)重的是符號和符號怎樣組合成為一句完整的話，聚合關(guān)系所側(cè)重的是如何替換現(xiàn)有的符號創(chuàng)造出更多的句子。組合關(guān)系和類聚關(guān)系是語言體系中兩種最基本的關(guān)系。不但所有的語言符號（符號系列）處在兩種關(guān)系中，構(gòu)成符號的各級單位也處在該關(guān)系中。同樣，語義的搭配、同義詞的選擇等也反映出語義方面的組合和類聚關(guān)系。

15、語言和思維相互聯(lián)系的主要表現(xiàn)？

（1）思維離不開語言：沒有語言，思維活動不能進(jìn)行；思維成果無法表達(dá) A、從認(rèn)知學(xué)（認(rèn)識論）角度看：語言是認(rèn)知的伙伴→固定認(rèn)識成果 B、思維的形成過程和成果都離不開語言

形成思維需要語言（詞是思維的材料，語法是思維程序）——思維必須在語言材料的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行，語言是思維的工具；思維成果需要通過語言表達(dá)記錄下來

（2）語言離不開思維

A、語言是思維的工具，在運(yùn)用中才有意義。如果沒有思維，無所謂交際。

B、語言中詞和句子的意義是思維賦予的，層級關(guān)系，組合、聚合與邏輯思維的活動模式相合。

總之，二者相互依存，各以對方的存在為前提。又相互適應(yīng)，有思維就有語言

16、語言和思維是一回事嗎？為什么？

語言和思維是不同的社會現(xiàn)象，不同科學(xué)研究的對象，其功能、范疇、規(guī)律都不相同。

4（1）概念不同：工具不等于其服務(wù)對象。思維是人腦的機(jī)能，語言是思維的工具。

（2）職能不同：思維用來認(rèn)識世界，反映規(guī)律；語言的最重要職能和目的是來溝通思想、傳遞信息

（3）構(gòu)成不同：思維由概念、判斷和推理構(gòu)成；語言由語音、詞匯、語法和語義構(gòu)成

（4）語言單位與思維形式不完全對應(yīng)：一種概念可以用多個詞語表達(dá)；判斷多用單句，但單句并非都為判斷

（5）思維是全人類共有的，而語言具有民族性。

17、地域方言和社會方言是怎樣形成的？它們的主要區(qū)別是什么？

方言是全民語言的地方變體，各方言之間并未斬?cái)嘁磺新?lián)系，他們的基本詞匯和語法構(gòu)造基本上還是相同的。

社會的發(fā)展往往造成社會內(nèi)部進(jìn)一步的分工，這樣，同一分工的人群在語言交際上就具有某一社團(tuán)的特征，產(chǎn)生了語言分支或者語言變體，這就是社會方言。社會的發(fā)展往往還伴隨著人群生活地域的擴(kuò)展或者遷移，這樣，原來是同一種語言的語言群落，由于地域的變更，某一地域的語言變體就會跟原來的語言逐漸有了差距，各地域之間的語言變體有了自己的穩(wěn)定性，就產(chǎn)生了地域方言。方言差異是語言演變不平衡性的重要體現(xiàn)，這種不平衡是指在不同語言社團(tuán)中進(jìn)展速度快慢的不同。地域方言和社會方言都是隨著社會分化而分化，是社會分化的伴隨現(xiàn)象。二者的主要區(qū)別在于：（1）范圍不同。

社會方言是適應(yīng)社會分工需要而產(chǎn)生的全民語言的分支，是全民語言的社會變體。而地域方言則是全民語言在不同地域上所產(chǎn)生的全民語言的分支，是語言發(fā)展不平衡性在地域上的反映，雖然都叫方言，但劃分的角度是不同的。（2）內(nèi)部差異不同。

域方言之間的主要差別表現(xiàn)在語音上，同時也反映在詞匯系統(tǒng)和語法系統(tǒng)方面，而社會方言的主要差別則在一般詞匯方面，語音、語法方面沒有差別。（3）發(fā)展趨勢不同。

地域方言在一定條件下可以發(fā)展為獨(dú)立的語言，或在社會高度統(tǒng)一融合情況下可能消失；社會方言沒有自己的基本詞匯、語音系統(tǒng)、語法結(jié)構(gòu)，在任何條件下都不可能發(fā)展成為獨(dú)立的語言。

18、地域方言和親屬語言的差異表現(xiàn)在哪些方面？

地域方言和親屬語言都與單一社會在地域上分化相關(guān)，都是單一語言分化而成的后代。但二者存在明顯的差異：

（1）從社會分化看，地域方言是單一社會在地域上分化不完全的結(jié)果；而親屬語言則是單一社會在地域上分化進(jìn)一步加劇而完全分化的結(jié)果。

（2）從語言分化看，地域方言是隨著共同語分化發(fā)展，逐步形成了自身的特點(diǎn)，但地域方言的新詞、語法格式等與共同語有相當(dāng)大的共同點(diǎn)；而親屬語言中的詞語、語法格式等不斷擴(kuò)大自身的特點(diǎn)，并向不同方向加速分化發(fā)展，最終形成了獨(dú)立的語言系統(tǒng)。

一種語言分化的結(jié)果是形成不同的方言還是不同的親屬語言，主要取決于社會分化的程度以及共同語是否繼續(xù)存在。