第一篇：合同英語特色介紹

上海市建筑業(yè)勞動合同

（推薦文本2008版 —— 適用于無固定期限）

甲方（用人單位）名稱：

法定代表人：

注冊地址：

聯(lián)系電話：

辦公地址：

聯(lián)系電話：

乙方（勞動者）姓名：

身份證號：

身份證住址：

聯(lián)系電話：

在滬住址：

根據(jù)《中華人民共和國勞動合同法》和國家有關(guān)規(guī)定，甲乙雙方遵循合法、公平、平等自愿、協(xié)商一致、誠實信用的原則，訂立本勞動合同。

一．勞動合同的類別、期限和試用期

1.合同類別：無固定期限，自_____年____月____日起。

2.試用期：自_____年____月____日起，至_____年____月____日止。

二．工作崗位、職務(wù)、工作地點和工作時間

1.乙方工作崗位：____________，擔任職務(wù)：____________。

2.工作地點：______________________________________________。

3.在符合規(guī)定的條件下，或經(jīng)雙方協(xié)商一致后，甲方可對乙方的工作崗位、職務(wù)及工作地點進行調(diào)整。雙方應(yīng)對調(diào)整情況進行書面確認，作為本合同附件。

4.甲方根據(jù)國家有關(guān)工時方面的規(guī)定，結(jié)合甲方的生產(chǎn)需要，合理安排乙方的工作時間，并確保乙方平均每周至少休息1天。

三．勞動報酬和支付方式

1.甲方根據(jù)本單位的工資分配制度，確定乙方正常工作時間的基本工資執(zhí)行第___項：

①月工資：______元/月。

②日工資：____元/日，待工工資：____元/日。雙方未約定待工工資的，待工日執(zhí)行日工資標準。

其中試用期基本工資為：① _________元/月。② ____元/日，待工工資：____元/日。

2.甲方根據(jù)本單位的工資分配制度，可另行書面約定績效工資的計算方法和支付方式，作為本合同附件。甲方應(yīng)對乙方的工作進行考核，并按 1

時支付乙方的績效工資。

3.甲方安排乙方加班的，按照國家有關(guān)規(guī)定向乙方支付加班費。

4.甲方按月結(jié)算乙方工資，并在下一個月___日前以貨幣形式支付，由乙方簽字確認。工資發(fā)放清單由甲方存檔保管。

5.甲方根據(jù)乙方的工作年限、工作表現(xiàn)、崗位變化、職務(wù)變化等情況，適時調(diào)整乙方的工資，調(diào)整情況應(yīng)得到乙方的確認，并作為本合同的附件。

6.甲方確保乙方的勞動報酬不低于國家有關(guān)最低工資標準的規(guī)定和集體合同規(guī)定的標準。

四．甲方的權(quán)利和義務(wù)

1.甲方依法制定完善的規(guī)章制度，實施對乙方的管理。甲方應(yīng)當將有關(guān)規(guī)章制度告知乙方。

2.甲方和工會組織或職工代表簽訂的集體合同，適用于乙方。

3.甲方為乙方提供符合規(guī)定的勞動防護用品和其他勞動條件，并按照國家建筑施工安全生產(chǎn)的規(guī)定，在施工現(xiàn)場采取必要的安全措施，為乙方創(chuàng)造安全工作的環(huán)境。

4.甲方按照國家有關(guān)規(guī)定對女職工和未成年工實行特殊勞動保護。

5.甲方按規(guī)定為乙方創(chuàng)造崗位培訓(xùn)的條件，對乙方進行安全生產(chǎn)、職業(yè)技能、遵紀守法、道德文明等方面的教育。乙方參加甲方安排的培訓(xùn)活動視同出勤，甲方不得克扣乙方的基本工資。

6.甲方為乙方繳納法定的社會保險，甲方確保乙方在本合同有效期內(nèi)不漏保。

7.甲方根據(jù)有關(guān)規(guī)定為乙方進入施工現(xiàn)場工作創(chuàng)造必要條件，辦理好各項手續(xù)。

8.甲方對乙方的出勤、工作、違紀等情況做好記錄，作為獎罰乙方的依據(jù)。

五．乙方的權(quán)利和義務(wù)

1.乙方應(yīng)當自覺遵守有關(guān)法律、法規(guī)和甲方依法制定的規(guī)章制度，嚴格遵守安全操作規(guī)程，服從甲方的管理，按時完成規(guī)定的工作數(shù)量，達到規(guī)定的質(zhì)量標準。

2.乙方應(yīng)當積極參加甲方安排的崗位培訓(xùn)活動，不斷提高各方面素質(zhì)。

3.乙方對甲方管理人員違章指揮、強令冒險作業(yè)的，有權(quán)拒絕工作。乙方對危害生命安全和身體健康的勞動條件，有權(quán)對甲方提出批評、檢舉和控告。

六．勞動合同的解除和終止

1.終止本合同，應(yīng)當符合法律、法規(guī)的相關(guān)規(guī)定。

2.雙方協(xié)商一致，可以解除本合同。甲乙雙方單方面解除本合同，應(yīng)當符合法律、法規(guī)的相關(guān)規(guī)定。

3.解除、終止勞動合同時，甲方應(yīng)當出具解除、終止勞動合同的證明書。

4.合同解除或終止時，甲方應(yīng)當結(jié)清乙方的工資。符合經(jīng)濟補償條件的，甲方應(yīng)當按規(guī)定向乙方支付經(jīng)濟補償金。

七．勞動爭議處理

甲乙雙方在履行本勞動合同時發(fā)生爭議的，可先協(xié)商解決；不愿協(xié)商或者協(xié)商不成的，可在規(guī)定的時限內(nèi)向當?shù)兀üぷ鞯攸c或者甲方工商注冊地）勞動爭議仲裁委員會申請仲裁。對仲裁裁決不服的，可以自收到仲裁裁決書之日起十五日內(nèi)向當?shù)厝嗣穹ㄔ禾崞鹪V訟。

八．其他約定

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

九．其它

1.本合同與國家法律法規(guī)及有關(guān)規(guī)定相違背的內(nèi)容，依照國家法律法規(guī)及有關(guān)規(guī)定執(zhí)行。

2.本合同及附件均一式2份，甲乙雙方各執(zhí)1份。自甲乙雙方簽字、蓋章之日起生效。

甲方（蓋章）：乙方（簽字）：

法定代表人或者

委托代理人簽字：

簽約日期：年月日

第二篇：英語暑期課程特色介紹

暑期英語課程特色介紹

1.英語奧林匹克基礎(chǔ)班（四至九年級尖子學(xué)生）

使用教材：新概念英語&下一年級的奧林匹克英語

新概念：為孩子拓寬詞匯積累，訓(xùn)練聽說技能，提高讀寫水平和聽說讀寫能力 下一年級的奧林匹克英語：系統(tǒng)的語法教材，攻克語法難關(guān)。一方面鞏固上一年學(xué)過的基礎(chǔ)知識，提升能力;另一方面提前為下一學(xué)期的重難點知識作鋪墊，降低新學(xué)期的難度，使整個知識系統(tǒng)更加完整。讓他們在激烈的升學(xué)競爭中獨占鰲頭！

2.中學(xué)英語課程同步培優(yōu)班（七年級至高中各年級學(xué)生）

使用教材：語法銜接教材&看圖填詞，寫作和完形填空等難點題型的專項訓(xùn)練集 語法銜接教材：系統(tǒng)的語法教材，攻克語法難關(guān)。一方面鞏固上一年學(xué)過的基礎(chǔ)知識，提升能力;另一方面提前為下一學(xué)期的重難點知識作鋪墊，降低新學(xué)期的難度，使整個知識系統(tǒng)更加完整。

看圖填詞和寫作和完型填空等難點題型的專項訓(xùn)練：針對英語練習(xí)和考試中存在的難點題型，提供科學(xué)的方法指導(dǎo)和答題訓(xùn)練。3.英語小升初銜接班和六年級英語綜合班（六年級學(xué)生）

使用教材：小升初英語銜接教材

以各重點中學(xué)歷屆考試真題為藍本，針對小學(xué)與初中教材脫節(jié)、知識內(nèi)容跳躍較大的現(xiàn)實，為學(xué)生提供知識過渡橋梁和階梯，實現(xiàn)知識有效對接；查漏補缺，幫助學(xué)生輕松應(yīng)對重點中學(xué)的選拔和分班考試，實現(xiàn)他們的名校夢。

4.英語九升高銜接班（九年級學(xué)生）

使用教材：新概念&九升高英語銜接教材

九升高銜接班對初中知識進行一個總復(fù)習(xí)的同時，根據(jù)高中英語學(xué)習(xí)的特點，重點針對語法、閱讀、寫作等三方面進行講解與訓(xùn)練。同時輔以口語訓(xùn)練，探索高一課程的新深度，從而全面理解把握高中階段學(xué)習(xí)技巧和精髓。以幫助學(xué)生盡早為高中的學(xué)習(xí)做好心理和學(xué)習(xí)方式上銜接的準備。

6.五年級綜合班：（五年級學(xué)生）

使用教材：小升初英語銜接教材（六年級上冊開始逐步補充《英語招生卷》）

提前有系統(tǒng)、有規(guī)劃地整理小學(xué)的系統(tǒng)的英語知識點，接觸六年級校內(nèi)知識，幫助學(xué)生快速地進入到六年級的學(xué)習(xí)狀態(tài)中；針對小學(xué)與初中教材脫節(jié)、知識內(nèi)容跳躍較大的現(xiàn)實，為學(xué)生提供知識過渡橋梁和階梯，實現(xiàn)知識有效對接?；A(chǔ)鞏固后，以各重點中學(xué)歷屆考試真題為藍本，查漏補缺幫助學(xué)生輕松應(yīng)對重點中學(xué)的選拔和分班考試

第三篇：特色介紹

大家好，我是三（7）的劉凡楚，下面讓我來介紹一下我們的數(shù)學(xué)特色作業(yè)吧。

這項作業(yè)是按單元進行歸類整理的，里面有成長驛站，拓展園，智慧園地，科學(xué)家的故事，豐富的內(nèi)容為書本知識和我們生活實際架起了一座橋梁，通過這樣的作業(yè)設(shè)計，使我們體會到數(shù)學(xué)是從生活中來，又回到生活中去，讓我們體驗了數(shù)學(xué)知識就在身邊，生活中充滿了數(shù)學(xué)。

第四篇：九年級英語備課組特色及亮點介紹

厚積薄發(fā) 搏擊長空

九年級英語備課組特色建設(shè)

一、我們的團隊

我們九年級備課組共有6名教師，其中中學(xué)高級教師一人，中學(xué)一級教師5人；區(qū)學(xué)科帶頭人2人，武漢市優(yōu)秀青年教師1人；每位教師的教學(xué)教研成果累累，這是一個銳意進取，團結(jié)奮發(fā)的團隊。

二、我們的成長

輸入：理論學(xué)習(xí)是我們不變的主題，教育名著教育經(jīng)典是我們的精神食糧。

輸出：勤上區(qū)級、校級公開課，共同分析問題，分享成果。

反思：學(xué)會做醫(yī)生，在工作狀態(tài)研究，在研究狀態(tài)下工作，注意教學(xué)案例研究，提高反思

能力。

引進來：請市、區(qū)教研員走進課堂，指導(dǎo)教學(xué)，提高教師業(yè)務(wù)能力。

走出去：觀摩省、市、區(qū)級的公開課，在聽課中反思，在反思中成長。

三、我們的教學(xué)

1.專項突破：以中考為導(dǎo)向，進行專項技能的訓(xùn)練，讓學(xué)生順利渡過學(xué)習(xí)的高原期。

2.考法指導(dǎo)：中考在即，針對學(xué)生的考試中的非智力因素的失分現(xiàn)象和心理因素丟分的現(xiàn)象

定期對學(xué)生進行考法和心理指導(dǎo)。

3.答疑時間：每天讓學(xué)生將自己的疑問寫在問題本上，對于不同目標級別的學(xué)生安排不同的時間分塊輔導(dǎo)，逐一答疑。

4.隨即檢查：學(xué)生每人身上備有一張詞匯單，每天隨機檢查學(xué)生的詞匯過關(guān)情況，讓他們時

刻準備著單詞的攻關(guān)。

四、我們的教研

1.三模課：開展以隨堂課、公開課、研究課等相結(jié)合的課堂教研活動。同事之間相互聽隨

堂課，共同研討常態(tài)教學(xué)的實效性。組內(nèi)的研究課，教師之間共同探討，共同

提高對教材的駕馭能力，在評課時，大家反對唱“贊美詩”，提出中肯的意見。

公開課中大家群策群力，發(fā)揮集體智慧，個人鉆研和集體智慧得以充分地發(fā)揮。

2.集體備課：備課組長先預(yù)設(shè)，討論內(nèi)容為較難把握的知識點和中考中常考的知識點，另

外我們特別加強了巧記單詞的研究，教師的教研能力都得到了不同程度的提

高。

第五篇：涉外合同的英語語言特色

摘要

實務(wù)中有不少涉外經(jīng)濟合同糾紛是因各方對合同文字的理解不一而引起的,究其原因,主要是起草者對合同語言的特殊性缺乏應(yīng)有的了解,結(jié)果導(dǎo)致合同語言的模糊性和不確定性。本文從詞法、句法及應(yīng)用等三個層面對英文經(jīng)貿(mào)合同語言的特殊性及其變化規(guī)律進行探討,以期能有助于對此類合同的閱讀和起草。

關(guān)鍵詞：涉外合同；語言特征；閱讀和起草

中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

ABSTRACT In practice, the occurrence of inconsistency in interpretation of the contract English has resulted in a good few cases of disputes.In essence, it is largely due to the draftsman's failure to have a deep-in understanding of the underlying features of the contract language, which might lead to the ambiguities and uncertainties of the contract wording.This paper tries to analyze the linguistic features of English business contracts at the morphological, syntactical and discourse levels respectively with a view to rendering a help in the reading and drafting the contracts.Keywords：contract English;language features;reading anddrafting

中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

Contents 1.Introduction......................................................................................................................1 2.Literature review..............................................................................................................2 2.1 Study of contract..............................................................................................................2 2.2 Study of legal English......................................................................................................3 2.3 Study of contract English.................................................................................................3 2.4 The study of the stylistic features of contract English in China......................................4 3.The language features of contract English.....................................................................6 3.1 The lexical features..........................................................................................................6 3.1.1 Formal words................................................................................................................6 3.1.2 Archaic Words...............................................................................................................7 3.1.3 Synonyms......................................................................................................................8 3.1.4 Abbreviations................................................................................................................8 3.2 The syntax features..........................................................................................................9 3.2.1 Active voice...................................................................................................................9 3.2.2 Present tense................................................................................................................10 3.2.3 Shall+verb...................................................................................................................10 3.3 The sentential features....................................................................................................11 3.3.1 Declarative sentences..................................................................................................11 3.3.2 Long sentences............................................................................................................12 3.3.3 Conditional clauses.....................................................................................................13 4.Implications....................................................................................................................15 4.1 Implication for reading contract English.......................................................................15 4.2 Implication for drafting contract....................................................................................16 5.Conclusion.......................................................................................................................17 Acknowledgements.............................................................................錯誤！未定義書簽。References...........................................................................................................................18

中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

1.Introduction

Language is much more than merely a means of communication.It is also a way of signaling, consciously or unconsciously, that we come from a particular area, or belong to a certain social group.[1]51 Every field of expertise develops its own language features.[2]36 The language of English used in contracts, or contract English, is an important branch of legal English.Legal English means the language of the law of England, America, and some other countries whose official language is English.These common law system countries have a history about several hundred years to express law in English.Legal English is a type of legal language with overlap of linguistics and the science of law.[3]6

With China's carrying out the policy to promote reform and opening to the outside world, the establishment of market economy, the rapid development of our communication with foreign countries and China's entry to the WTO, there are more and more opportunities for us to communicate with those countries whose official language is English.When communicating with individuals, legal persons or other organizations from the English speaking countries, we often need to sign English contracts with them.Contract plays an important role in international economic and trade activities, as all achievements thereof will be finally embodied in it.How to correctly draft and understand contract language is of great importance to individuals and business organizations.There are a few books and papers dedicated to general principles of stylistic features of English for law, but none addresses questions of contract English in sufficient detail to be of significant practical use to the English contract learners in China.My dissertation attempts to present a comparatively detailed analysis of stylistic features of contract English with the expectation to better help contract learners or businessmen understand and draft English contract.中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

2.Literature review 2.1 Study of contract

Contract English, like English as a whole, is not static.It has undergone and is still undergoing enormous changes.The definition of contracts given by Karla C.Shippey[4]155: A Commercial Contract, in simplest terms, is merely an agreement made by two or more parties for the purpose of transacting business.In the eye of scholars the word contract is used in common speech, which simply refers to a writing containing terms on which the parties have agreed.Contract is often used in a more technical sense to mean “a promise, or a set of promises for the breach of which the law gives a remedy, or the performance of which the law in some way recognizes a duty.” Put quite simply, a contract is an agreement which the courts will enforce.[5]5

A contract, in the simplest definition, is a promise enforceable by law.The promise may be to do something or to refrain from doing something.The making of a contract requires the mutual assent of two or more persons, one of them ordinarily making an offer and another accepting.If one of the parties fails to keep the promise, the other is entitled to legal recourse against him.The law of contracts has to do with such questions as whether a contract exists, what the meaning of it is, whether a contract has been broken, and what compensation is due the injured party.[6]6 Many contracts use the word agreement in the title.In some contexts the two words, contract and agreement, are synonyms and can be used interchangeably.While contract and agreement may both be used to mean a formal and legally enforceable arrangement, agreement may also refer to an informal arrangement not supported by consideration, such as an agreement between friends to play tennis on Saturday morning.So an agreement is really the main ingredient of a contract.But it is not every agreement that becomes a contract.To be a contract, that agreement must be enforceable in taw.中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

2.2 Study of legal English

When we move into the domain of legal English, we must consider another continuum, the so-called general English.What precisely is general English is difficult to define.The concept is often left unspecified and regarded as an implicit norm, apparently based on intuitive knowledge of what is common use.[7]12 Special English, of which legal English is one example, is often understood as being in some significant respects deviant from general English.That's to say, legal English is based on the general English with its own stylistic features.More recently, some linguists have begun to analyze certain language varieties in terms of sublanguages.One definition of this term is a “l(fā)anguage used in a body of texts dealing with a circumscribed subject area in which the authors of the documents share a common vocabulary and common habits of word usage，The term carries with it the idea that the sublanguage is a subset, or part, of the language as a whole.Some characteristics that have been attributed to sublanguages include: they have a limited subject matter;(2)they contain lexical, syntactic, and semantic restrictions;(3)they allow ”deviant“ rules of grammar that are not acceptable in the standard language;and(4)certain constructions are unusually frequent.[1]142-143 Most of these features seem to apply to legal English so we can also say that legal English is a sublanguage of English.2.3 Study of contract English

Generally speaking, contract English is an important branch of legal English, which is the language of the contract of England, America, and some other countries whose official language is English.Since English is universally accepted as a commercial language, it is a usual practice in our foreign trade to conclude contracts in both English and Chinese languages;that is first to draft a contract in one language and then to render it into the other.There are a number of worthwhile guides to forensic linguistics in general, given their broad scope they are of great help to the English contract learners.Lord Mansfield[8]3, one of the most famous English judges, once observed that ”most of the

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disputes in the world arise from words“.He told us the significance of language.If one can command contract English quite well, it may be easier for him to read the English contract.It is highly possible that he could study and understand English contracts better than those who know little about contract English.A contract refers to an agreement establishing, modifying and terminating the civil rights and obligations between subjects of equal footing.The language for contract is different from that for basic English or literature.In the Five Clocks, the American linguist Martin Joos[9]36 advances the five stylistic varieties in English: the Frozen Style, the Formal Style, the Consultative Style, the Casual Style and the Intimate Style.The style of Contract English can be considered as the first one, which is the Frozen Style because the language habits of the profession cause lawyers(contract drafters)to frequently choose one means of expression over other possibilities.There are a few books and papers dedicated to general principles of stylistic features of English for law, such as the field's main journal, Forensic Linguistics[8], books as Investigating English Style written by David Crystal[10] , The Elements of Legal Style written by Bryan, A.Garner[11], so on and so forth.2.4 The study of the stylistic features of contract English in China

For many years, the study of the stylistic features of contract English is limited.In our country, there are few books or articles talking about the language of contract.However,with China's carrying out the policy to promote reform and opening to the outside world and China's entry the WTO, there are more and more opportunities for us to communicate with those countries whose official language is English.When communicating with people or other organizations from the English speaking countries, we often need to sign English contracts with them.English contracts are becoming more and more important in our daily life.And people began to do more study on contract English.The language of contracts is not easy to understand.Wu Weiping [12] points out, “Most people know it difficult reading legal documents(in a narrow sense).In fact non-legal documents like contracts, trade brands are also difficult to read.” Due to the importance of contracts and difficulty of contractual language, more and more people have been turning their attention to them.Many school students, especially those majoring in business English are learning English of contracts and at the same time many scholars take profound interest in the study it.Many books and articles are

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published and provide assistance in students’ learning of the variety of English.Chen Jingying[13] describes the syntax features of the contract English.Hu Genshen[14] points out that many Latinate words are adopted in every possible case to replace synonyms of ordinary English to display formality and preciseness.Besides, Liao Yin[6] says that in business contracts, complicated prepositional phrases are often used insteadof ordinary ones.For example, the participants in the joint ventures shall commence discussion with regard to the extension of the period of existence of the venture and in the event of their agreeing upon such extension, they shall record such agreement in a written document signed by all of them not later than three years prior to the expiry of the current period.According to Fu Weiliang[15]，long sentences in English business contracts can define the rights and obligations of the concerned parties in an exact way, thus avoiding any possible misunderstanding and ambiguity.中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

3.The language features of contract English English is now established as the leading international language.Legal English, as everybody knows, is playing a significant part in our Chinese people's life.With the development of the technology and economy and with the deepening of the policy of opening door to the outside world, frequent foreign exchanges and business transactions are increasing day by day between China and foreign countries.Inter-personal and inter-entity relations involved have to be defined and bound by contracts.In the business field, the staff concerned is required to execute the contract to cooperate with the foreign transactions.Thus, we can succeed in building our country into a prosperous one.One of the keys to the better command of contract is to acquire a deep and comprehensive realization of its stylistic features.Based on studies done by home and abroad researchers, the following part is trying to present a relatively comprehensive analyisis on the stylistic features of contract English.3.1 The lexical features

The goal of contract English is not the beautiful language, but the precise logic and professional statements, as well as clearly and rational thinking.The lexicon of contract English contracts is characterized by precision, formality and clarity.This part, based on the analysis of typical examples, attempts to explore English contracts from the aspects of formal words, archaic words, synonyms and abbreviations.3.1.1 Formal words

Formal words also called as literary words or learned words, mainly appearing in formal writings, such as theoretical works, formal addresses and legal documents.Compared with general English, contract English is very formal.There are a lot of formal words, which are rarely used in general English, but used in contract.Here we list just a small sampling:

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Formal Words

Informal Words Purchase

Buy Modify/alter

Change Terminate

End Proceed

Go Render

Make Commence

Start/begin Approximately

About Demonstrate

Show Notify

Tell

[16]322

In the following three sentences, commence, terminate, at the commence of, upon the completion of, with regard to, in the event of, prior to mean respectively: begin, end, at the beginning of, at the end of, about, in case of, before.The former words are more formal than the latter ones, which make the contract sound formal.(1)The Agreement shall commence on this day and automatically terminate upon the bankruptcy or insolvency of either of the parties hereto.(2)Party A shall pay to Party B forty per cent of the total price for work, i.e., two hundred and eighty thousand(280,000.00)U.S.dollars only at the commence of construction work of Party A's plant;and sixty per cent of the total price for work, i.e., four hundred and twenty thousand(420,000.00)U.S dollars only upon the completion of the work.(3)The participants in the Joint Venture shall commence discussion with regard to the extension of the period of existence of the Venture and in the event of their agreeing upon such extension, they shall record such agreement in written document signed by, all of them not later than three years prior to the expiry of the current Period.3.1.2 Archaic Words

Contract English has long been featured by a prominent archaic trait: words composed by ”here“, ”there“ and ”where“ followed by one or several propositions.In these words, ”here“ means ”this“, ”there“ equals ”that“, while ”where“ refers to ”what“ or ”which“.For example: Archaic words

Modern meaning

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Hereafter

After this Hereby

By means of this/By that means Hereof

Of this Hereinafter

Later in this contract Thereafter

After that Thereinafter

In that part of contract Whereof

Of which Whereby

By what;by which[16]365-366 Look at the following sentence: The parties to the contract shall, in accordance with the principle of good faith, execute the rights and perform the obligations hereof.[17]42.The contract is not defensible and is in danger of leaks without ”hereof “.The word ”hereof “l(fā)eads to economy of expression since it replaces the longer phrase ”of the contract“ in the example to modify and limit ”rights and obligations“.3.1.3 Synonyms

Using synonyms in legal English occurs very often.The purpose of this kind of use is not only to respect the tradition, but also to seek exactitude and completion of meaning.As it has been mentioned by many linguists, legal English adheres much to tradition.There are many more such synonymous pairs: terms and conditions, settle claims and debts, import duty and tax, customs and usages, missing and disappeared person, willful and malicious injury, elderly and aged, able covenants, libel and slander, goods and chattels, etc.For examples:(1)They declared the contract null and void.(2)The packing and wrapping expenses shall be borne by the buyer.3.1.4 Abbreviations

When draftsmen draft contract, they use lots of abbreviations in order to make full use of simple, quick and efficient method to rush at the commerce opportunity.Therefore, the use of abbreviations is becoming wilder and wilder and the scope is

中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

larger and larger.We can find abbreviations in everywhere such as politics, economy, trade, law, transportation, insurance for the sake of expressing more conveniently.Generally speaking, abbreviations are capitalized.In drafting contract, abbreviations prove to be helpful for spelling but at the same time cause the trouble in understanding.Abbreviations are typical features of business contract.In our samples, we have many:(1)The price shall be based on CIF basis.(CIF= Cost, Insurance, Freight)(2)In case by M/T or T/T.(M/T=metric ton)(T/T= telegraphic transfer)(3)On FOB-basis.(FOB= free on board)(4)W.P.A.(WRA= with particular average)(5)L/C.(L/C= letter of credit)

3.2 The syntax features 3.2.1 Active voice We can easily find that active voice is the dominance in foreign contract.In foreign contract, active voice is a very striking feature.Because contract is an agreement, enforceable by law between two or more people or groups.Foreign contract also serves to concentrate the minds of the parties in deciding a number of important things, such as who bears a particular risk, who should insure against that risk, who should perform some tasks and who should do other tasks, and so on.[16]235 It is required that the language has logical clarity and precise reasoning so as to be understood by the public.In order to achieve the conciseness, the business contract is generally expressed in a straightful way with lots of active voice.Active voice involves the speakers as 'private person' with their own thoughts, feelings and experiences, and not as 'public persons'.Active voice denotes the sense of unaffectedness, unequivocality, directness and powerfulness.For examples:(1)The sellers shall send together with the shipment one copy each of the above-mentioned documents.(2)Sellers agree to sell the undenmentioned goods on terms and conditions stipulated Below.(3)Whereas Party A agrees to sell to Party B products.(4)The ”effective date“ as used herein shall mean the date determined under Article 10

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hereof.Compared with the active voice, passive voice is not used as frequently as active voice.Passive voice is primarily non-personal or factual, it doesn't involve the speakers as 'private persons'.The emphasis is on the facts and events and not on the speaker's involvement in them.3.2.2 Present tense

In English, there are only two tenses: simple past and simple present.We commonly assume that the tense of a verb tells us when the action it refers to takes, took, or will take place.Present-tense implies a lack of distance between the narrator and the events.It is not true that the English present tense exclusively, even refers to events which are actually happening at the time of speaking or writing.The simple present tense is the most predominant tense of the 12 traditional verb tenses in business contract.This tense is used frequently in contract drafting.It is noticeable that the simple present tense is mainly utilized to denote the concept of ”timeless“ and ”generalizations“.[18]56 General statements suit for any particular time frame.In business contract, the present tense indicates that the law is always speaking.Many examples can be found in the samples:(1)The sellers shall present the following documents to the paying bank for negotiation.(2)Party B guarantees that the machines and equipment are unused.(3)Party B desires to obtain such technical data.(4)The terms and conditions of this contract are breached by either party.3.2.3 Shall+verb

The word, shall, typically expresses the future.Traditionally, it is used only in the first person(I shall and we shall).A contract is a legal document that defines the rights and liabilities of the parties concerned.”Shall“ confers a duty to do an affirmative act.It implies a type of legal right or duty rather than the future tense or the modal meaning of volition.[19]22

Commonly, the modal ”shall+verb“ is used to express obligations, which serves to detail the obligations of one or more parties to a contract.In Chinese, 應(yīng)該or 得is

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often used in defining the rights and liabilities,while in English ”shall+verb“ is often used.Of course there are other words such as should or will also have a similar meaning.However, shall is more compulsive and emphasized and means a legal liability.If one fails to fulfill something, it will result in a legal enforcement and remedy.Business contract tends to use the structure ”shall+verb“ more frequently.Like the following examples: 1)The persons employed Party A shall be responsible to the Manager of Party A.甲方雇傭的一切人員都必須向甲方的經(jīng)理負責。

2)Party A shall, at most favorable prices, supply Party B with spare parts of the leased equipment.甲方應(yīng)以最優(yōu)惠的價格向乙方供應(yīng)所租設(shè)備的備件。

3)This Contract shall become effective upon and from the date on which it is signed.本合同簽字之日起開始生效。

4)The Seller shall have the right to increase the price of the goods specified in this contract at any time.賣方有權(quán)隨時提高本合同的貨物價格。

3.3 The sentential features 3.3.1 Declarative sentences

In terms of function, all sentences can be divided into four groups :(a)Declarative sentences: to make a statement, to state a factual event.(b)Interrogative sentences: to ask a question.(c)Imperative sentences: to give commands or instructions.(d)Exclamatory sentences: to show strong feelings towards something.[20]56

As we know, contract relates to agreements or promises it should be objective and show no personal emotions.Thus declarative sentences are used to make statements, give explanation and make judgments.They make up the most part of the total.In English contracts there is no necessity for inquiry, therefore interrogative and imperative sentences are seldom found.For examples:(1)This Agreement is made and entered into by and between ABC Co.and XYZ Co..(2)The L/C shall be valid until the 15th day after the shipment.中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

(3)The Seller shall deliver the goods before July 31,1997.(4)The period of Lease is two years beginning from the date the Lessee accepts the

equipment on examination.3.3.2 Long sentences

Long sentences with complex structures can express complicated opinions.A mild variation in sentence length shows the writer's emotional state of mind and his objective way of narrating.[20] In contract, sentences trend to be extremely long.When people reading a contract, it's not easy for them to find many short sentences.There are two advantages to use long sentences in contract: First, the long sentences can make the contract more formal and logical.Second, long sentences with some adverbial or attributive clauses can be used to define the rights and obligations of the Parties.Therefore, a large number of information has been compressed into a single sentence, which accounts for its length and grammatical complexity.Look at the following sentence: In case that one or both parties are impossible to perform the duties provided herein on account of force majeure, the party(or Parties)in contingency shall inform the other party(or each other)of the case immediately and may, provided the case is duly verified by the competent-authorities, delay in performance of or not perform the relevant duties hereunder and may be partially or entirely exempted from the liability for breach of this agreement.[1]57

This sentence has 76 words, accounting for its length and grammatical complexity,it express a huge amount of information.At the very beginning, it is an adverbial clause introduced by in case that.The predicate of the principal clause is composed of three coordinate parts: shall inform...，and may...delay...or not perform…and may be...exempted from....In the adverbial clause, the past participle phrase provided herein is the attribute used to modify the duties.In the clause, the prepositional phrase on account of force majeure is used to express the cause.In addition, the second predicate followed by a conditional clause introduced by provided.All that is mentioned above proves that the long, complex sentence can express complicated meaning logically.[1]57-58

In contract, there are also short sentences which can express the idea precisely and clearly.So the combination of long and short sentences makes the language of

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contract vivid and full of change.3.3.3 Conditional clauses

Contracts are written documents indicating the agreement between the parties on their rights and obligations.Usually, there are various conditions when carry out these rights and obligations.Only these conditions are met can the rights and obligations be carried out.So many conditional clauses are used in contracts.There are usually four kinds of conditional clauses:(a)Condition of supposition: This type of clauses usually led by ”if“, ”should“, ”in case/in case of', “in the event of/that” to expressthe supposed conditions on which each party to the contract can enjoy the rights or should perform the obligations.The emphasis here for these kinds of sentences is on the main clause.If any products or any part of the products is not in compliance with the standards of quality as the result of the inspection, the Manufacturer shall supply the buyer free of charge with replacement for all parts not complying with the standards of quality.[16]394

經(jīng)檢驗，發(fā)現(xiàn)產(chǎn)品的任何部分的質(zhì)量不合格，制造商必須免費更換所有質(zhì)貨物。

(b)Condition of prerequisite: This type of conditional clauses is usually led by “provided(that)” to indicate a kind of possibility.When translating such clauses into Chinese version, “provided(that)” is usually translated into “如果.........”.They express the specific condition whose existence is a precondition on which each party to a contract may carry out some activity.Thus the emphasis for these kinds of sentences is on the subordinate clauses which are more important.Looking the following sentence:

The Seller, provided that Buyer so agrees, may retain the whole or part of the said incomplete equipment, fabricated or unfabricated parts, work in process, and other material referred to in paragraph(D)of this Article the amount to be paid by the Buyer shall be reduced by a sum equal to the value of the property so retained.[16]403

如果買方同意，賣方可以部分或全部地保留上述未完成的設(shè)備、已加工好或未加工好的零件以及正在進行的工作和本條(D)款所述的其他材料，這將因此使買方少支付這部分貨物的費用。

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(c)Condition of exception: This type of conditional clauses are usually led by “except”, “with the exception that”, “in the absence of” and “unless”.They express that one party to a contract can be free from the restriction of some articles or clauses of the contract under some special conditions.From pragmatic viewpoint, such conditional clauses usually can complement the provisions and imply disjunctive meaning.Except for reason of force majure, the plant shall operate for more than 10 days in a month.[16]412

除因人力不可抗拒之原因外，工廠每月開工應(yīng)多于10天。

(d)Condition of fact: clauses of this type are usually led by whereas, in consideration of and subject to to express some conditions that already exist.中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

4.Implications

4.1 Implication for reading contract English

When reading the English contracts, many people feel that it is very difficult for them to understand completely.If they can know something about the language features of contract English, the following difficulties can be overcome.(1)Difficulty in reading the long English contract

Compared with Chinese contract, English contract is longer.English speaking countries are common law countries.In these countries the statutory laws are not as many as in China.In order to avoid the disputes or have the disputes satisfactorily solved in future, the rights and obligations of Parties are written in much greater detail in contract in common law countries than those in China, which makes the contract very long.The following two points can help people overcome the difficulty in reading long English contract:(i)To divide the contract into parts

When a long contract is divided into small parts, which will be comparatively easy to read and understand.As a complete and valid contract, in general, there are three components: the head, the body, and the tail.When we read a contract, it's very important for us to recognize the head and the tail because the body of the contract is located between the head and the tail, and the head and the tail of a contract, with their obvious characteristics, are very easy to find.(ii)To read the body of the contract clause by clause.The body of a contract is broken into sections, each of which may in turn consist of one or more subsection.Furthermore, one can subdivide the text of any section or

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subsection into “enumerated clauses.” Subdividing the body of a contract, taking the form of sentences as clause, makes it neat, much easier to read.In this way, we can read the contract step by step.(2)Difficulty in reading the long and complex sentences

The sentences in an English contract are very long and complex, some of which are written in several lines even several pages.To deal with this problem, there is no way out, just to analyze the components of the sentence patiently, to know the functions of different components, and to find where the principal clause is, where the subordinate clause is and what kind of subordinate clause it is, etc.(3)Difficulty in interpreting the archaic words

There are a great number of archaic words in contract.These archaic words, such as whereas, hereby, thereto, in witness whereof are very difficult to interpret even after we look them up in the dictionary.When we see this kind of words in contract, we should know that the use of these archaic words can avoid the repetition of something which has been mentioned above or before and makes the description more precisely.The detail information can refer to 3.1.2 of the thesis.4.2 Implication for drafting contract

In Davidson's book Precedents and Forms in Conveyancing, [21]70 he lists five principles in drafting contract.The forth one is “The ordinary and accustomed forms of documents and technical language should be used”.And “Legal language should be precise and accurate.Every phrase should have a clear meaning and all the phrases should be so connected as not to give rise to ambiguity.Aim at accuracy.Omit superfluous phrases.Give correct references and adhere strictly to the rules of grammar as by the use of apt words.” is the fifth one.[22]129-130

In Contract Law, Tay Swee Kian and Tang See Chim mentioned the two problems should be solved in drafting contract:

One is the use of long uncommon words or long sentences in contract.The other is the use of too many archaic words.They say, “Such archaic word or expressions as whereby，hereinafter that are not customarily used in everyday life should be replaced by words in current use.It is not wise to have too many of them.” [22]129-130

From my point of view, the long sentences, archaic words and technical terms are the features of contract English, without them the contract English is not different

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from the general English.Short sentences cannot always be used in legal documents because technical legal expressions may sometimes have to be used in preference to short sentences and the archaic words, if carefully but not superfluously used, can be an aid to exact expression.5.Conclusion

The language of legal English is generally complicated and technical, and, therefore, difficult for the people to understand.Contracts have no exception.The idea of making legal language easier to read and understand is not new.The lexicon features of business contracts can be summarized as adoption of formal words, usage of archaic words and synonyms.The syntax features of business contracts can be summarized as adoption of declarative sentences, long sentences, passive voice, and present tense.China, as a member country of the WTO, is playing an increasingly important role in international business.It is almost certain that the study of business contracts will become an important topic in China.In this thesis, apart from elaborating on the language features of English business contracts from the lexicon and syntax levels, the author proposes the criteria for understanding and drafting of English business contracts.中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn

References

[1] TIERSMA M.Legal language[M].Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.[2] GIBBONS J.Forensic Linguistics[M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2003.[3] Garner A.The Elements of Legal Style[M].Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.[4] KARLA S.A Short Course in International Contracts [M].California: World Trade Press, 2002.[5] MELLINKOFF D.The language of the law[M].Boston: Little Brown, 1963.[6] 廖英.合同與合同英語[M].杭州: 浙江大學(xué)出版社, 2004.[7] HILTUNEN R.Chapters on Legal English[M].Tiedakatemia: Academic, 1990.[8] GIBBONS J.Forensic Linguistics[M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2003.[9] JOOS M.The Five Clocks[M].London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1961.[10] CRYSTAL D.Investigating English Style[M].London: Sweet&Maxwell Limited, 1997.[11] GARNER A.The Elements of Legal Style[M].Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.[12] 吳偉平.語言與法律[M].上海: 上海外語教育出版社, 2002.[13] 陳靜英.外經(jīng)貿(mào)合同的語言特點及篇章結(jié)構(gòu)[[J].成都大學(xué)學(xué)報, 1998(2): 74.[14] 胡庚申.合同英語[M].天津: 天津科技翻譯出版公司, 2002.[15] 傅偉良.對外經(jīng)濟合同英文寫作課程建設(shè)研究與實踐[M].北京第二外國語學(xué)院學(xué)報, 1999(5): 57-62.[16] 胡庚申.國際商務(wù)合同起草與翻譯[M].北京: 外文出版社, 2004.[17] 傅偉良.對外經(jīng)濟合同英文寫作[M].北京: 石油工業(yè)出版社, 2000.[18] SIMON D, JONATHAN M.Contracts, Co-operation, and Competition: studies in economics, management, and law[M].London: Oxford University Press, 1997.[19] ADAMS A.Legal Usage in Drafting Corporate Agreements [M].Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001.[20] 李蕾.外經(jīng)貿(mào)合同的語言特點及篇章結(jié)構(gòu)[J].外經(jīng)貿(mào)合同語言特點及篇章成都大學(xué)學(xué)報（社科版）, 1998.[21] CHARLES D.Precedents and Forms in Conveyancing[M].London: W.Maxwell, 1876.[22] 葛亞軍.合同英語手冊[M].天津: 天津科技翻譯出版公司, 2002.中國最大的論文知識平臺004km.cn