第一篇：單片機(jī)英文翻譯

單片機(jī)翻譯

本文所研究的作息時間控制系統(tǒng)是由MCS-51系列單片機(jī)AT89S51做主控部件，外圍電路用12MHZ晶體震蕩器、74LS164寄存器、復(fù)位電路、三個按鍵、四聯(lián)LED數(shù)碼管做顯示時間的器件，不需要外擴(kuò)展存儲器，就能實(shí)現(xiàn)其功能。在整個設(shè)計(jì)中，主要用的是單片機(jī)的自動控制原理，包括硬件和軟件。在硬件部分，包括繼電器，存儲器和顯示器接口芯片；軟件部分，主要是主程序設(shè)計(jì)。將軟、硬件有機(jī)地結(jié)合在一起，使得系統(tǒng)能夠正確地進(jìn)行計(jì)時。在系統(tǒng)的調(diào)試中，首先對硬件進(jìn)行調(diào)試，然后逐級疊加調(diào)試；軟件先在最小系統(tǒng)板上調(diào)試，確保其工作正常之后，再與硬件系統(tǒng)聯(lián)調(diào)。最后將各模塊組合后整體測試，使系統(tǒng)的所有功能得以實(shí)現(xiàn)。文中介紹了單片機(jī)AT89S51的主要特性及各管腳的說明，并講解了74LS164內(nèi)部功能，在此基礎(chǔ)上展開了設(shè)計(jì)。

The rest of this article time control system is composed of MCS-51 Microcontroller AT89S51 do the main control unit, the external circuit with a 12MHZ crystal oscillator, 74LS164 registers, reset circuit, three buttons, LED digital tube to do quadruple the time of the device shows no the needs of extended memory, can achieve its functions.Throughout the design, mainly using a single chip control theory, including hardware and software.In hardware, including relays, memory and display interface chip;software components, mainly the main program design.The software and hardware together organically, making the system able to correctly time.Debugging the system, the first hardware debugging, and then progressively overlay debugging;software debugging board first in the minimum system to ensure its working properly, the FBI again and the hardware system.Finally, the overall test after each module combination, the system of all functions can be achieved.The paper describes the main features of the microcontroller AT89S51 description and the pin, and explained the 74LS164 internal functions, on this basis to start the design.

第二篇：單片機(jī)英文翻譯

微機(jī)發(fā)展簡史

第一臺存儲程序的計(jì)算開始出現(xiàn)于1950前后，它就是1949年夏天在劍橋大學(xué)，我們創(chuàng)造的延遲存儲自動電子計(jì)算機(jī)（EDSAC）。

最初實(shí)驗(yàn)用的計(jì)算機(jī)是由象我一樣有著廣博知識的人構(gòu)造的。我們在電子工程方面都有著豐富的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，并且我們深信這些經(jīng)驗(yàn)對我們大有裨益。后來，被證明是正確的，盡管我們也要學(xué)習(xí)很多新東西。最重要的是瞬態(tài)一定要小心應(yīng)付，雖然它只會在電視機(jī)的熒幕上一起一個無害的閃光，但是在計(jì)算機(jī)上這將導(dǎo)致一系列的錯誤。

在電路的設(shè)計(jì)過程中，我們經(jīng)常陷入兩難的境地。舉例來說，我可以使用真空二級管做為門電路，就象在EDSAC中一樣，或者在兩個柵格之間用帶控制信號的五級管，這被廣泛用于其他系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)，這類的選擇一直在持續(xù)著直到邏輯門電路開始應(yīng)用。在計(jì)算機(jī)領(lǐng)域工作的人都應(yīng)該記得TTL，ECL和CMOS，到目前為止，CMOS已經(jīng)占據(jù)了主導(dǎo)地位。

在最初的幾年，IEE（電子工程師協(xié)會）仍然由動力工程占據(jù)主導(dǎo)地位。為了讓IEE 認(rèn)識到無線工程和快速發(fā)展的電子工程并行發(fā)展是它自己的一項(xiàng)權(quán)利，我們不得不面對一些障礙。由于動力工程師們做事的方式與我們不同，我們也遇到了許多困難。讓人有些憤怒的是，所有的IEE出版的論文都被期望以冗長的早期研究的陳述開頭，無非是些在早期階段由于沒有太多經(jīng)驗(yàn)而遇到的困難之類的陳述。

60年代的鞏固階段

60年代初，個人英雄時代結(jié)束了，計(jì)算機(jī)真正引起了重視。世界上的計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)量已經(jīng)增加了許多，并且性能比以前更加可靠。這些我認(rèn)為歸因與高級語言的起步和第一個操作系統(tǒng)的誕生。分時系統(tǒng)開始起步，并且計(jì)算機(jī)圖形學(xué)隨之而來。

綜上所述，晶體管開始代替正空管。這個變化對當(dāng)時的工程師們是個不可回避的挑戰(zhàn)。他們必須忘記他們熟悉的電路重新開始。只能說他們鼓起勇氣接受了挑戰(zhàn)，盡管這個轉(zhuǎn)變并不會一帆風(fēng)順。

小規(guī)模集成電路和小型機(jī)

很快，在一個硅片上可以放不止一個晶體管，由此集成電路誕生了。隨著時間的推移，一個片子能夠容納的最大數(shù)量的晶體管或稍微少些的邏輯門和翻轉(zhuǎn)門集成度達(dá)到了一個最大限度。由此出現(xiàn)了我們所知道7400系列微機(jī)。每個門電路或翻轉(zhuǎn)電路是相互獨(dú)立的并且有自己的引腳。他們可通過導(dǎo)線連接在一起，作成一個計(jì)算機(jī)或其他的東西。

這些芯片為制造一種新的計(jì)算機(jī)提供了可能。它被稱為小型機(jī)。他比大型

機(jī)稍遜，但功能強(qiáng)大，并且更能讓人負(fù)擔(dān)的起。一個商業(yè)部門或大學(xué)有能力擁有一臺小型機(jī)而不是得到一臺大型組織所需昂貴的大型機(jī)。

隨著微機(jī)的開始流行并且功能的完善，世界急切獲得它的計(jì)算能力但總是由于工業(yè)上不能規(guī)模供應(yīng)和它可觀的價格而受到挫折。微機(jī)的出現(xiàn)解決了這個局面。

計(jì)算消耗的下降并非起源與微機(jī)，它本來就應(yīng)該是那個樣子。這就是我在概要中提到的“通貨膨脹”在計(jì)算機(jī)工業(yè)中走上了歧途之說。隨著時間的推移，人們比他們付出的金錢得到的更多。

精簡指令計(jì)算機(jī)的誕生

早期的計(jì)算機(jī)有簡單的指令集，隨著時間的推移，商業(yè)用微機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)者增加了另外的他們認(rèn)為可以微機(jī)性能的特性。很少的測試方法被建立，總的來說特性的選取很大程度上依賴于設(shè)計(jì)者的直覺。

1980年，RISC運(yùn)動改變了微機(jī)世界。該運(yùn)動是由Patterson 和 Ditzel發(fā)表了一篇命名為精簡指令計(jì)算機(jī)的情況論文而引起的。

除了RISC這個引人注目縮略詞外，這個標(biāo)題傳達(dá)了一些指令集合設(shè)計(jì)的見解，隨之引發(fā)了RISC運(yùn)動。從某種意義上說，它推動了線程的發(fā)展，在處理器中，同一時間有幾個指令在不同的執(zhí)行階段稱為線程。線程不是個新概念，但是它對微機(jī)來說是從未有過的。

RISC受益于一個最近的可用的方法的誕生，該方法使估計(jì)計(jì)算機(jī)性能成為可能而不去真正實(shí)現(xiàn)該微機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)。我的意思是說利用目前存在的功能強(qiáng)大的計(jì)算機(jī)去模擬新的設(shè)計(jì)。通過模擬該設(shè)計(jì)，RISC的提倡者能夠有信心的預(yù)言，一臺使用和傳統(tǒng)計(jì)算機(jī)相同電路的RISC計(jì)算機(jī)可以和傳統(tǒng)的最好的計(jì)算機(jī)有同樣的性能。

模擬仿真加快了開發(fā)進(jìn)度并且被計(jì)算機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)者廣泛采用。隨后，計(jì)算機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)者變的多些可理性少了一些藝術(shù)性。今天，設(shè)計(jì)者們希望有滿屋可用計(jì)算機(jī)做他們的仿真，而不只是一臺，X86指令集

除非出現(xiàn)很大意外，要不很少聽到有計(jì)算機(jī)使用早期的RISC指令集了。INTEL 8086及其后裔都與x86密切相關(guān)。X86構(gòu)架已經(jīng)占據(jù)了計(jì)算機(jī)核心指令集的主導(dǎo)地位。被認(rèn)為是相當(dāng)成功的RISC指令集現(xiàn)在的生存空間越來越小了。

對于我們這些從事計(jì)算機(jī)學(xué)術(shù)研究的人，X86的統(tǒng)治地位讓我們感到失望。毫無疑問，商業(yè)上對于x86的生存會有更多的考慮，但是這里還有很多原因，盡管我們多么希望人們考慮其他的方面。高級語言并沒有完全消除對機(jī)器原始編碼的的使用。我們?nèi)孕枰粩嗵嵝盐覀冏约海何覀儜?yīng)該嚴(yán)格的與先前的應(yīng)用

在機(jī)器層面上保持兼容。然而，情況也許有所不同，如果Intel的主要目的是為是生產(chǎn)一個好的RISC芯片。有一個已經(jīng)取得了更大的成功，我所說的i860(不是i960,它們有一些不同)。從許多方面來說，i860是個卓越的芯片，但是它的軟件借口不適合在工作站上應(yīng)用。

對于x86取得勝利的最后有一件有意思的事情。直接應(yīng)用先前x86的實(shí)現(xiàn)方式對于滿足RISC處理器的持續(xù)增長的速度要求，是不可能的。因此，設(shè)計(jì)者們沒有完全實(shí)現(xiàn)RISC指令集，盡管這不是很明顯。表面上，一片現(xiàn)代的x86芯片包含了隱藏實(shí)現(xiàn)的部分，好象和實(shí)現(xiàn)RISC指令集的芯片一樣。當(dāng)致命的異常發(fā)生時，X86引入的代碼是，經(jīng)過適當(dāng)?shù)拇鄹暮?，被轉(zhuǎn)化為它的內(nèi)部代碼并且被RISC芯片處理。

對于以上RISC運(yùn)動的總結(jié)，我非常信賴最新版本的哈里斯和培生出版社的有關(guān)計(jì)算機(jī)設(shè)計(jì)的書籍。請參考特殊計(jì)算機(jī)體系構(gòu)造，第三版，2003，P146，151-4，157-8 IA-64指令集

很久以前，Intel 和 Hewlett-Packard引進(jìn)了IA-64指令集。這最初主要是為了滿足通常的64位地址空間問題。在這種情況下，隨后出現(xiàn)了MIPS R4000和Alpha。然而，人們普遍認(rèn)為Intel應(yīng)該與x86構(gòu)架保持兼容，可令人疑惑的是恰恰相反。

進(jìn)一步說，IA-64的設(shè)計(jì)與其他所有的指令集在主要實(shí)現(xiàn)方式上有所不同。特別的，每條指令它需要附加的6位。這打亂了傳統(tǒng)的在指令字長和信息內(nèi)容的平衡，并且它改變了編譯器作者的原先的大綱。

盡管IA-64是個全新的指令集，但I(xiàn)ntel發(fā)表了一個令人困惑的聲明：基于IA-64的芯片將與早期的x86芯片保持兼容。很難弄懂它所指的是什么。

最新的稱為Itaninu IA-64處理器顯然需要特殊的兼容性的硬件，盡管如此，x86編碼運(yùn)行的相當(dāng)慢。

由于以上的復(fù)雜因素，IA-64的實(shí)現(xiàn)需要更大的體積相對與傳統(tǒng)的指令集，這暗示著更大的消耗。因此，在任何情況下，作為常識和一般性的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，Gordon Moore在訪問劍橋最近開放的Betty and Gordon Moore 圖書館時所反復(fù)強(qiáng)調(diào)。在聽到他說問題出現(xiàn)在Intel內(nèi)部也許有所不同，我很不理解。但是我已經(jīng)作好了準(zhǔn)備，去接受這樣的事實(shí)，我已經(jīng)完全不了解半導(dǎo)體經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)了。

AMD已經(jīng)定義了一種64位的與x86更加兼容的指令集，并且他們已經(jīng)取得了進(jìn)展。這種片子并不是很大。很多人認(rèn)為這才是Intel應(yīng)該做的。（在這篇演講稿被提交之前，Intel表示他們將銷售一系列本質(zhì)上與AMD兼容的芯片）

更小晶體管的出現(xiàn)

集成度還在不斷增加，這是通過縮小原始晶體管以致可以更容易放在一個片子上。進(jìn)一步說，物理學(xué)的定律占在了制造商的一方。晶體管變的更快，更簡單，更小。因此，同時導(dǎo)致了更高的集成度和速度。

這有個更明顯的優(yōu)勢。芯片被放在硅片上，稱為晶片。每一個晶片擁有很大數(shù)量的獨(dú)立芯片，他們被同時加工然后分離。因?yàn)榭s小以致在每塊晶片上有了更多的芯片，所以每塊芯片的價格下降了。

單元價格下降對于計(jì)算機(jī)工業(yè)是重要的，因?yàn)椋绻钚碌男酒阅芎鸵郧耙粯拥珒r格更便宜，就沒有理由繼續(xù)提供老產(chǎn)品，至少不應(yīng)該無限期提供。對于整個市場只需一種產(chǎn)品。

然而，詳細(xì)計(jì)算各項(xiàng)消耗，隨著芯片小到一定程度，為了繼續(xù)保持產(chǎn)品的優(yōu)勢，移到一個更大的圓晶片上是十分必要的。尺寸的不斷增加使的圓晶片不再是很小的東西了。最初，圓晶片直徑上只有1到2英寸，到2000年已經(jīng)達(dá)到了12英寸。起初，我不太明白，芯片的縮小導(dǎo)致了一系列的問題，工業(yè)上應(yīng)該在制造更大的圓晶片上遇到更多的問題?，F(xiàn)在，我明白了，單元消耗的減少在工業(yè)上和在一個芯片上增加電子晶體管的數(shù)量是同等重要的，并且，在風(fēng)險中增加圓晶片廠的投資被證明是正確的。

集成度被特殊的尺寸所衡量，對于特定的技術(shù)，它是用在一塊高密度芯片上導(dǎo)線間距離的一半來衡量的。目前，90納米的晶片正在被建成。

對Murphy?s定理的懷疑 1997年3月，在Cavendish實(shí)驗(yàn)室建立一百周年紀(jì)念慶典上，Gordon Moore被邀作為一名演講者。在他演講的過程中，我第一次了解到這樣一個事實(shí)，我們可以使得硅芯片既快并且消耗低，從而違反在英國被稱為Murphy?s 定律或 Sod?s 定律。Moore說在其它領(lǐng)域你也許不在二者之間做出取舍，但事實(shí)上，在硅片上，同時擁有二者是可能的。

在網(wǎng)上可得到一本相關(guān)的書籍，Murphy是在美國空軍中從事人體重力加速度研究的工程師。然而在我們的學(xué)生時代就已經(jīng)相當(dāng)熟悉該定律，當(dāng)時我們對于該定律有個更接近散文的名字而不是上面我們提到的那兩個名字，我們稱為General Cussedness定律。甚至它都曾出現(xiàn)在我們的試卷上。問題是這樣，第一部分是關(guān)于該定律的定義，第二部分是應(yīng)用該定律解決一道問題。我們的試題是：

一、給出General Cussedness定律的定義；

二、當(dāng)一個騎自行車人圍繞著圓做運(yùn)動時，在任何情況下，考慮到風(fēng)的因素得到一個平衡公式。

單片機(jī)

芯片每次的縮小，芯片數(shù)量將減少；并且芯片間的導(dǎo)線也隨之減少。這導(dǎo)

致了整體速度的下降，因?yàn)樾盘栐诟鱾€芯片間的傳輸時間變長了。

漸漸地，芯片的收縮到只剩下處理器部分，緩存都被放在了一個單獨(dú)的片子上。這使得工作站被建成擁有當(dāng)代小型機(jī)一樣的性能，結(jié)果搬倒了小型機(jī)絕對的基石。正如我們所知道的，這對于計(jì)算機(jī)工業(yè)和從事計(jì)算機(jī)事業(yè)的人產(chǎn)生了深遠(yuǎn)的影響

自從上述時代的開始，高密度CMOS硅芯片成為主導(dǎo)。隨著芯片的縮小技術(shù)的發(fā)展，數(shù)百萬的晶體管可以放在一個單獨(dú)的片子上，相應(yīng)的速度也成比例的增加。

為了得到額外的速度。處理器設(shè)計(jì)者開始對新的體系構(gòu)架進(jìn)行實(shí)驗(yàn)。一次成功的實(shí)驗(yàn)都預(yù)言了一種新的編程方式的分支的誕生。我對此取得的成功感到非常驚奇。它導(dǎo)致了程序執(zhí)行速度的增加并且其相應(yīng)的框架。

同樣令人驚奇的是，通過更高級的特性建立一種單片機(jī)是有可能的。例如，為IBM Model 91開發(fā)的新特性，現(xiàn)在在單片機(jī)上也出現(xiàn)了。

Murphy定律仍然在中止的狀態(tài)。它不再適用于使用小規(guī)模集成芯片設(shè)計(jì)實(shí)驗(yàn)用的計(jì)算機(jī)，例如7400系列。想在電路級上做硬件研究的人們沒有別的選擇除了設(shè)計(jì)芯片并且找到實(shí)現(xiàn)它的辦法。一段時間內(nèi)，這樣是可能的，但是并不容易。

不幸的是，制造芯片的花費(fèi)有了戲劇性的增長，主要原因是制造芯片過程中電路印刷版制作成本的增加。因此，為制作芯片技術(shù)追加資金變的十分困難，這是當(dāng)前引起人們關(guān)注的原因。

半導(dǎo)體前景規(guī)劃

對于以上提到的各個方面，在部分國際半導(dǎo)體工業(yè)部門的精誠合作下，廣泛的研究與開發(fā)工作是可行的。

在以前美國反壟斷法禁止這種行為。但是在1980年，該法律發(fā)生了很大變化。預(yù)競爭概念被引進(jìn)了該法律。各個公司現(xiàn)在可以在預(yù)言競爭階段展開合作，然后在規(guī)則允許的情況下繼續(xù)開發(fā)各自的產(chǎn)品。

在半導(dǎo)體工業(yè)中，預(yù)競爭研究的管理機(jī)構(gòu)是半導(dǎo)體工業(yè)協(xié)會。1972年作為美國國內(nèi)的組織，1998年成為一個世界性的組織。任何一個研究組織都可加入該協(xié)會。

每兩年，SIA修訂一次ITRS(國際半導(dǎo)體科學(xué)規(guī)劃)，并且逐年更新。1994年在第一卷中引入了“前景規(guī)劃”一詞，該卷由兩個報告組成，些于1992年，在1993年提交。它被認(rèn)為是該規(guī)劃的真正開始。

為了推動半導(dǎo)體工業(yè)的向前發(fā)展，后續(xù)的規(guī)劃提供最好的可利用的工業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。它們對于15年內(nèi)的發(fā)展做出了詳細(xì)的規(guī)劃。要達(dá)到的目標(biāo)是每18個月晶體管的集成度增加一倍，同時每塊芯片的價格下降一半，即Moore定律。

對于某些方面，前面的道路是清楚的。在另一方面，制造業(yè)的問題是可以預(yù)見的并且解決的辦法也是可以知道的，盡管不是所有的問題都能夠解決。這樣的領(lǐng)域在表格中由藍(lán)色表示，同時沒有解決辦法的，加以紅色。紅色區(qū)域往往稱為紅色磚墻。

規(guī)劃建立的目標(biāo)是現(xiàn)實(shí)的，同時也是充滿挑戰(zhàn)的。半導(dǎo)體工業(yè)整體上的進(jìn)步于該規(guī)劃密不可分。這是個令人驚訝的成就，它可以說是合作和競爭共同的價值。

值得注意的是，促進(jìn)半導(dǎo)體工業(yè)向前發(fā)展的主要的戰(zhàn)略決策是相對開放的預(yù)競爭機(jī)制，而不是閉關(guān)鎖國。這也包括大規(guī)模圓晶片取得進(jìn)展的原因。

1995年前，我開始感覺到，如果達(dá)到了不可能使得晶體管體積更小的臨界點(diǎn)時，將發(fā)生什么。懷著這樣的疑惑，我訪問了位于華盛頓的ARPA（美國國防部）指揮總部，在那，我看到1994年規(guī)劃的復(fù)本。我恍然大悟，當(dāng)圓晶片尺寸在2007年達(dá)到100納米時，將出現(xiàn)嚴(yán)重的問題，在2010年達(dá)到70納米時也如此。在隨后的2004年的規(guī)劃中，當(dāng)圓晶片尺寸達(dá)到100納米時，也做了相應(yīng)的規(guī)劃。不久半導(dǎo)體工業(yè)將發(fā)展到那一步。

從1994年的規(guī)劃中我引用了以上的信息，還有就是一篇提交到IEE的題目為CMOS終結(jié)點(diǎn)的論文和在1996年２月８號的Computing上討論的一些題目。

我現(xiàn)在的想法是，最終的結(jié)果是表示一個存在可用的電子數(shù)目從數(shù)千減少到數(shù)百。在這樣的情況下，統(tǒng)計(jì)波動將成為問題。最后，電路或者不再工作，或者達(dá)到了速度的極限。事實(shí)上，物理限制將開始讓他們感覺到不能突破電子最終的不足，原因是芯片上絕緣層越來越薄，以致量子理論中隧道效應(yīng)引起了麻煩，導(dǎo)致了滲漏。

相對基礎(chǔ)物理學(xué)，芯片制造者面對的問題要多出許多，尤其是電路印刷術(shù)遇到的困難。2001年更新2002年出版的規(guī)劃中，陳述了這樣一種情況，照目前的發(fā)展速度，如果在2005年前在關(guān)鍵技術(shù)領(lǐng)域沒有取得大的突破的話，半導(dǎo)體業(yè)將停止不前。這是對“紅色磚墻”最準(zhǔn)確的描述。到目前為止是SIA遇到的最麻煩的問題。2003年的規(guī)劃書強(qiáng)調(diào)了這一點(diǎn)，通過在許多地方加上了紅色，指示在這些領(lǐng)域仍存在人們沒有解決的制造方法問題。

到目前為止，可以很滿意的報道，所遇到的問題到及時找到了解決之道。規(guī)劃書是個非凡的文檔，并且它坦白了以上提到的問題，并表示出了無限的信心。主要的見解反映出了這種信心并且有一個大致的期望，通過某種方式，圓

晶體將變的更小，也許到45納米或更小。

然而，花費(fèi)將以很大的速率增長。也許將成為半導(dǎo)體停滯不前的最終原因。對于逐步增加的花費(fèi)直到不能滿足，這個精確的工業(yè)上達(dá)到一致意見的平衡點(diǎn)，依賴于經(jīng)濟(jì)的整體形勢和半導(dǎo)體工業(yè)自身的財(cái)政狀況。

最高級芯片的絕緣層厚度僅有５個原子的大小。除了找到更好的絕緣材料外，我們將寸步難行。對于此，我們沒有任何辦法。我們也不得不面對芯片的布線問題，線越來越細(xì)小了。還有散熱問題和原子遷移問題。這些問題是相當(dāng)基礎(chǔ)性的。如果我們不能制作導(dǎo)線和絕緣層，我們就不能制造一臺計(jì)算機(jī)。不論在CMOS加工工藝上和半導(dǎo)體材料上取得多么大的進(jìn)步。更別指望有什么新的工藝或材料可以使得半導(dǎo)體集成度每18個月翻一番的美好時光了。

我在上文中說到，圓晶體繼續(xù)縮小直到45納米或更小是個大致的期望。在我的頭腦中，從某點(diǎn)上來說，我們所知道的繼續(xù)縮小CMOS是不可行的，但工業(yè)上需要超越它。

2001年以來，規(guī)劃書中有一部分陳述了非傳統(tǒng)形式CMOS的新興研究設(shè)備。一些精力旺盛的人和一些投機(jī)者的探索無疑給了我們一些有益的途徑，并且規(guī)劃書明確分辨出了這些進(jìn)步，在那些我們曾經(jīng)使用的傳統(tǒng)CMOS方面。

內(nèi)存技術(shù)的進(jìn)步

非傳統(tǒng)的CMOS變革了存儲器技術(shù)。直到現(xiàn)在，我們?nèi)匀灰揽緿RAM作為主要的存儲體。不幸的是，隨著芯片的縮小，只有芯片外圍速度上的增長——處理器芯片和它相關(guān)的緩存速度每兩年增加一倍。這就是存儲器代溝并且是人們焦慮的根源。存儲技術(shù)的一個可能突破是，使用一種非傳統(tǒng)的CMOS管，在計(jì)算機(jī)整體性能上將導(dǎo)致一個很大的進(jìn)步，將解決大存儲器的需求，即緩存不能解決的問題。

也許這個，而不是外圍電路達(dá)到基本處理器的速度將成為非傳統(tǒng)CMOS.的最終角色。

翻譯：

Progress in Computers The first stored program computers began to work around 1950.The one we built in Cambridge, the EDSAC was first used in the summer of 1949.These early experimental computers were built by people like myself with varying backgrounds.We all had extensive experience in electronic engineering and were confident that that experience would stand us in good stead.This proved true，although we had some new things to learn.The most important of these was that transients must be treated correctly;what would cause a harmless flash on the screen of a television set could lead to a serious error in a computer.As far as computing circuits were concerned, we found ourselves with an embarass de richess.For example, we could use vacuum tube diodes for gates as we did in the EDSAC or pentodes with control signals on both grids, a system widely used elsewhere.This sort of choice persisted and the term families of logic came into use.Those who have worked in the computer field will remember TTL, ECL and CMOS.Of these, CMOS has now become dominant.In those early years, the IEE was still dominated by power engineering and we had to fight a number of major battles in order to get radio engineering along with the rapidly developing subject of electronics.dubbed in the IEE light current electrical engineering.properly recognised as an activity in its own right.I remember that we had some difficulty in organising a conference because the power engineers? ways of doing things were not our ways.A minor source of irritation was that all IEE published papers were expected to start with a lengthy statement of earlier practice, something difficult to do when there was no earlier practice Consolidation in the 1960s

By the late 50s or early 1960s, the heroic pioneering stage was over and the computer field was starting up in real earnest.The number of computers in the world had increased and they were much more reliable than the very early ones.To those years we can ascribe the first steps in high level languages and the first operating systems.Experimental time-sharing was beginning, and ultimately computer graphics was to come along.Above all, transistors began to replace vacuum tubes.This change presented a formidable challenge to the engineers of the day.They had to forget what they knew about circuits and start again.It can only be said that they measured up superbly well to the challenge and that the change could not have gone more smoothly.Soon it was found possible to put more than one transistor on the same bit of silicon, and this was the beginning of integrated circuits.As time went on, a sufficient level of integration was reached for one chip to accommodate enough transistors for a small number of gates or flip flops.This led to a range of chips known as the 7400 series.The gates and flip flops were independent of one another

and each had its own pins.They could be connected by off-chip wiring to make a computer or anything else.These chips made a new kind of computer possible.It was called a minicomputer.It was something less that a mainframe, but still very powerful, and much more affordable.Instead of having one expensive mainframe for the whole organisation, a business or a university was able to have a minicomputer for each major department.Before long minicomputers began to spread and become more powerful.The world was hungry for computing power and it had been very frustrating for industry not to be able to supply it on the scale required and at a reasonable cost.Minicomputers transformed the situation.The fall in the cost of computing did not start with the minicomputer;it had always been that way.This was what I meant when I referred in my abstract to inflation in the computer industry ?going the other way?.As time goes on people get more for their money, not less.The RISC Movement and Its Aftermath

Early computers had simple instruction sets.As time went on designers of commercially available machines added additional features which they thought would improve performance.Few comparative measurements were done and on the whole the choice of features depended upon the designer?s intuition.In 1980, the RISC movement that was to change all this broke on the world.The movement opened with a paper by Patterson and Ditzel entitled The Case for the Reduced Instructions Set Computer.Apart from leading to a striking acronym, this title conveys little of the insights into instruction set design which went with the RISC movement, in particular the way it facilitated pipelining, a system whereby several instructions may be in different stages of execution within the processor at the same time.Pipelining was not new, but it was new for small computers

The RISC movement benefited greatly from methods which had recently become available for estimating the performance to be expected from a computer design without actually implementing it.I refer to the use of a powerful existing computer to simulate the new design.By the use of simulation, RISC advocates were able to predict with some confidence that a good RISC design would be able to out-perform the best conventional computers using the same circuit technology.This

prediction was ultimately born out in practice.Simulation made rapid progress and soon came into universal use by computer designers.In consequence, computer design has become more of a science and less of an art.Today, designers expect to have a roomful of, computers available to do their simulations, not just one.They refer to such a roomful by the attractive name of computer farm.The x86 Instruction Set

Little is now heard of pre-RISC instruction sets with one major exception, namely that of the Intel 8086 and its progeny, collectively referred to as x86.This has become the dominant instruction set and the RISC instruction sets that originally had a considerable measure of success are having to put up a hard fight for survival.This dominance of x86 disappoints people like myself who come from the research wings.both academic and industrial.of the computer field.No doubt, business considerations have a lot to do with the survival of x86, but there are other reasons as well.However much we research oriented people would like to think otherwise.high level languages have not yet eliminated the use of machine code altogether.We need to keep reminding ourselves that there is much to be said for strict binary compatibility with previous usage when that can be attained.Nevertheless, things might have been different if Intel?s major attempt to produce a good RISC chip had been more successful.I am referring to the i860(not the i960, which was something different).In many ways the i860 was an excellent chip, but its software interface did not fit it to be used in a workstation.There is an interesting sting in the tail of this apparently easy triumph of the x86 instruction set.It proved impossible to match the steadily increasing speed of RISC processors by direct implementation of the x86 instruction set as had been done in the past.Instead, designers took a leaf out of the RISC book;although it is not obvious, on the surface, a modern x86 processor chip contains hidden within it a RISC-style processor with its own internal RISC coding.The incoming x86 code is, after suitable massaging, converted into this internal code and handed over to the RISC processor where the critical execution is performed.In this summing up of the RISC movement, I rely heavily on the latest edition of Hennessy and Patterson?s books on computer design as my supporting authority;see in particular Computer Architecture, third edition, 2003, pp 146, 151-4, 157-8.The IA-64 instruction set.Some time ago, Intel and Hewlett-Packard introduced the IA-64 instruction set.This was primarily intended to meet a generally recognised need for a 64 bit address space.In this, it followed the lead of the designers of the MIPS R4000 and Alpha.However one would have thought that Intel would have stressed compatibility with the x86;the puzzle is that they did the exact opposite.Moreover, built into the design of IA-64 is a feature known as predication which makes it incompatible in a major way with all other instruction sets.In particular, it needs 6 extra bits with each instruction.This upsets the traditional balance between instruction word length and information content, and it changes significantly the brief of the compiler writer.In spite of having an entirely new instruction set, Intel made the puzzling claim that chips based on IA-64 would be compatible with earlier x86 chips.It was hard to see exactly what was meant.Chips for the latest IA-64 processor, namely, the Itanium, appear to have special hardware for compatibility.Even so, x86 code runs very slowly.Because of the above complications, implementation of IA-64 requires a larger chip than is required for more conventional instruction sets.This in turn implies a higher cost.Such at any rate, is the received wisdom, and, as a general principle, it was repeated as such by Gordon Moore when he visited Cambridge recently to open the Betty and Gordon Moore Library.I have, however, heard it said that the matter appears differently from within Intel.This I do not understand.But I am very ready to admit that I am completely out of my depth as regards the economics of the semiconductor industry.AMD have defined a 64 bit instruction set that is more compatible with x86 and they appear to be making headway with it.The chip is not a particularly large one.Some people think that this is what Intel should have done.[Since the lecture was delivered, Intel have announced that they will market a range of chips essentially compatible with those offered by AMD.]

The Relentless Drive towards Smaller Transistors

The scale of integration continued to increase.This was achieved by shrinking the original transistors so that more could be put on a chip.Moreover, the laws of physics were on the side of the manufacturers.The transistors also got faster, simply by getting smaller.It was therefore possible to have, at the same time, both high density and high speed.There was a further advantage.Chips are made on discs of silicon, known as wafers.Each wafer has on it a large number of individual chips, which are processed together and later separated.Since shrinkage makes it possible to get more chips on a wafer, the cost per chip goes down.Falling unit cost was important to the industry because, if the latest chips are cheaper to make as well as faster, there is no reason to go on offering the old ones, at least not indefinitely.There can thus be one product for the entire market.However, detailed cost calculations showed that, in order to maintain this advantage as shrinkage proceeded beyond a certain point, it would be necessary to move to larger wafers.The increase in the size of wafers was no small matter.Originally, wafers were one or two inches in diameter, and by 2000 they were as much as twelve inches.At first, it puzzled me that, when shrinkage presented so many other problems, the industry should make things harder for itself by going to larger wafers.I now see that reducing unit cost was just as important to the industry as increasing the number of transistors on a chip, and that this justified the additional investment in foundries and the increased risk.The degree of integration is measured by the feature size, which, for a given technology, is best defined as the half the distance between wires in the densest chips made in that technology.At the present time, production of 90 nm chips is still building up Suspension of Law

In March 1997, Gordon Moore was a guest speaker at the celebrations of the centenary of the discovery of the electron held at the Cavendish Laboratory.It was during the course of his lecture that I first heard the fact that you can have silicon chips that are both fast and low in cost described as a violation of Murphy?s law.or Sod?s law as it is usually called in the UK.Moore said that experience in other fields would lead you to expect to have to choose between speed and cost, or to compromise between them.In fact, in the case of silicon chips, it is possible to have both.In a reference book available on the web, Murphy is identified as an engineer working on human acceleration tests for the US Air Force in 1949.However, we were perfectly familiar with the law in my student days, when we called it by a much more prosaic name than either of those mentioned above, namely, the Law of General Cussedness.We even had a mock examination question in which the law

featured.It was the type of question in which the first part asks for a definition of some law or principle and the second part contains a problem to be solved with the aid of it.In our case the first part was to define the Law of General Cussedness and the second was the problem;A cyclist sets out on a circular cycling tour.Derive an equation giving the direction of the wind at any time.The single-chip computer

At each shrinkage the number of chips was reduced and there were fewer wires going from one chip to another.This led to an additional increment in overall speed, since the transmission of signals from one chip to another takes a long time.Eventually, shrinkage proceeded to the point at which the whole processor except for the caches could be put on one chip.This enabled a workstation to be built that out-performed the fastest minicomputer of the day, and the result was to kill the minicomputer stone dead.As we all know, this had severe consequences for the computer industry and for the people working in it.From the above time the high density CMOS silicon chip was Cock of the Roost.Shrinkage went on until millions of transistors could be put on a single chip and the speed went up in proportion.Processor designers began to experiment with new architectural features designed to give extra speed.One very successful experiment concerned methods for predicting the way program branches would go.It was a surprise to me how successful this was.It led to a significant speeding up of program execution and other forms of prediction followed Equally surprising is what it has been found possible to put on a single chip computer by way of advanced features.For example, features that had been developed for the IBM Model 91.the giant computer at the top of the System 360 range.are now to be found on microcomputers

Murphy?s Law remained in a state of suspension.No longer did it make sense to build experimental computers out of chips with a small scale of integration, such as that provided by the 7400 series.People who wanted to do hardware research at the circuit level had no option but to design chips and seek for ways to get them made.For a time, this was possible, if not easy

Unfortunately, there has since been a dramatic increase in the cost of making chips, mainly because of the increased cost of making masks for lithography, a photographic process used in the manufacture of chips.It has, in consequence, again

become very difficult to finance the making of research chips, and this is a currently cause for some concern.The Semiconductor Road Map

The extensive research and development work underlying the above advances has been made possible by a remarkable cooperative effort on the part of the international semiconductor industry.At one time US monopoly laws would probably have made it illegal for US companies to participate in such an effort.However about 1980 significant and far reaching changes took place in the laws.The concept of pre-competitive research was introduced.Companies can now collaborate at the pre-competitive stage and later go on to develop products of their own in the regular competitive manner.The agent by which the pre-competitive research in the semi-conductor industry is managed is known as the Semiconductor Industry Association(SIA).This has been active as a US organisation since 1992 and it became international in 1998.Membership is open to any organisation that can contribute to the research effort.Every two years SIA produces a new version of a document known as the International Technological Roadmap for Semiconductors(ITRS), with an update in the intermediate years.The first volume bearing the title ?Roadmap? was issued in 1994 but two reports, written in 1992 and distributed in 1993, are regarded as the true beginning of the series.Successive roadmaps aim at providing the best available industrial consensus on the way that the industry should move forward.They set out in great detail.over a 15 year horizon.the targets that must be achieved if the number of components on a chip is to be doubled every eighteen months.that is, if Moore?s law is to be maintained.-and if the cost per chip is to fall.In the case of some items, the way ahead is clear.In others, manufacturing problems are foreseen and solutions to them are known, although not yet fully worked out;these areas are coloured yellow in the tables.Areas for which problems are foreseen, but for which no manufacturable solutions are known, are coloured red.Red areas are referred to as Red Brick Walls.The targets set out in the Roadmaps have proved realistic as well as challenging, and the progress of the industry as a whole has followed the Roadmaps closely.This is a remarkable achievement and it may be said that the merits of cooperation and competition have been combined in an admirable manner.It is to be noted that the major strategic decisions affecting the progress of the industry have been taken at the pre-competitive level in relative openness, rather than behind closed doors.These include the progression to larger wafers.By 1995, I had begun to wonder exactly what would happen when the inevitable point was reached at which it became impossible to make transistors any smaller.My enquiries led me to visit ARPA headquarters in Washington DC, where I was given a copy of the recently produced Roadmap for 1994.This made it plain that serious problems would arise when a feature size of 100 nm was reached, an event projected to happen in 2007, with 70 nm following in 2010.The year for which the coming of 100 nm(or rather 90 nm)was projected was in later Roadmaps moved forward to 2004 and in the event the industry got there a little sooner.I presented the above information from the 1994 Roadmap, along with such other information that I could obtain, in a lecture to the IEE in London, entitled The CMOS end-point and related topics in Computing and delivered on 8 February 1996.The idea that I then had was that the end would be a direct consequence of the number of electrons available to represent a one being reduced from thousands to a few hundred.At this point statistical fluctuations would become troublesome, and thereafter the circuits would either fail to work, or if they did work would not be any faster.In fact the physical limitations that are now beginning to make themselves felt do not arise through shortage of electrons, but because the insulating layers on the chip have become so thin that leakage due to quantum mechanical tunnelling has become troublesome.There are many problems facing the chip manufacturer other than those that arise from fundamental physics, especially problems with lithography.In an update to the 2001 Roadmap published in 2002, it was stated that the continuation of progress at present rate will be at risk as we approach 2005 when the roadmap projects that progress will stall without research break-throughs in most technical areas “.This was the most specific statement about the Red Brick Wall, that had so far come from the SIA and it was a strong one.The 2003 Roadmap reinforces this statement by showing many areas marked red, indicating the existence of problems for which no manufacturable solutions are known.It is satisfactory to report that, so far, timely solutions have been found to all the problems encountered.The Roadmap is a remarkable document and, for all its frankness about the problems looming above, it radiates immense confidence.Prevailing opinion reflects that confidence and there is a general expectation that, by one means or another, shrinkage will continue, perhaps down to 45 nm or even less.However, costs will rise steeply and at an increasing rate.It is cost that will ultimately be seen as the reason for calling a halt.The exact point at which an industrial consensus is reached that the escalating costs can no longer be met will depend on the general economic climate as well as on the financial strength of the semiconductor industry itself.。

Insulating layers in the most advanced chips are now approaching a thickness equal to that of 5 atoms.Beyond finding better insulating materials, and that cannot take us very far, there is nothing we can do about this.We may also expect to face problems with on-chip wiring as wire cross sections get smaller.These will concern heat dissipation and atom migration.The above problems are very fundamental.If we cannot make wires and insulators, we cannot make a computer, whatever improvements there may be in the CMOS process or improvements in semiconductor materials.It is no good hoping that some new process or material might restart the merry-go-round of the density of transistors doubling every eighteen months.I said above that there is a general expectation that shrinkage would continue by one means or another to 45 nm or even less.What I had in mind was that at some point further scaling of CMOS as we know it will become impracticable, and the industry will need to look beyond it.Since 2001 the Roadmap has had a section entitled emerging research devices on non-conventional forms of CMOS and the like.Vigorous and opportunist exploitation of these possibilities will undoubtedly take us a useful way further along the road, but the Roadmap rightly distinguishes such progress from the traditional scaling of conventional CMOS that we have been used to.Advances in Memory Technology

Unconventional CMOS could revolutionalize memory technology.Up to now, we have relied on DRAMs for main memory.Unfortunately, these are only increasing in speed marginally as shrinkage continues, whereas processor chips and their associated cache memory continue to double in speed every two years.The result is a growing gap in speed between the processor and the main memory.This is the memory gap and is a current source of anxiety.A breakthrough in memory technology, possibly using some form of unconventional CMOS, could lead to a major advance in overall performance on problems with large memory requirements，that is, problems which fail to fit into the cache.Perhaps this, rather than attaining marginally higher basis processor speed will be the ultimate role for non-conventional CMOS.

第三篇：英文翻譯及文獻(xiàn)_單片機(jī)-傳感器_壓力檢測

譯文

輪胎壓力監(jiān)測在汽車使用被動聲表面波傳感器

阿爾弗雷德波爾1，G。Ostermayer}，L.Reindl 2F.塞弗特 1）應(yīng)用電子實(shí)驗(yàn)室，oETechnology大學(xué)，Gusshausstrasse 27，A1739年慕尼黑，德國

摘要：在我們的文件，我們介紹表面聲波（SAW）傳感器在測量道路車輛的輪胎連續(xù)氣壓的應(yīng)用。有了這些，在駕駛的每一個階段可以讀出輪胎氣壓。我們展示了實(shí)施原型裝置測量輪胎壓力，所應(yīng)用的SAW傳感器，改進(jìn)版本和審訊設(shè)置。對實(shí)際應(yīng)用中存在的問題進(jìn)行了討論。在測試駕駛發(fā)生的時候所測得的輪胎壓力就是實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果。

導(dǎo)言

駕駛汽車時，在運(yùn)動中因一個輪胎爆胎的輪胎故障可能會導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重事故，危及人的生命。此外，現(xiàn)在的汽車制造商試圖挽救汽車備胎。它的成本通常只有重量和空間，因此產(chǎn)生較高的油耗，雖然這將需要在汽車十余年的生命里不少于一次維護(hù)。這只能在駕駛期間測得輪胎氣壓。目前使用的傳感器含有活性成分，采用鋰電池。這些傳感器組件的質(zhì)量大約是20克，造成高動態(tài)負(fù)載。幾年前，遠(yuǎn)距離無線聲表面波器件傳感器被發(fā)明。使用的是一個SAW延遲線連接到天線，射頻信號的審訊注入和傳感器響應(yīng)，重復(fù)傳輸無線審訊。這些傳感器能測量

溫度，機(jī)械負(fù)荷，力和位移等的好處是，聲表面波傳感器是完全無源器件，并包含沒有電力供應(yīng)，也沒有半導(dǎo)體。即使在惡劣的環(huán)境下，它們的溫度高達(dá)幾百度，其壽命遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)長于的電池供電，車輛強(qiáng)烈的電磁污染是由點(diǎn)火系統(tǒng)傳感器運(yùn)作產(chǎn)生的危害風(fēng)險。首先，我們討論壓力測量采用聲表面波傳感器與無線目前某些類型的傳感器組件和審查我們討論實(shí)施到本實(shí)驗(yàn)簡要總結(jié)的內(nèi)容。

聲表面波壓力傳感器

電氣被動聲表面波壓力傳感器始終是一個端口延遲線多個反射或各自獨(dú)立的諧振器。在延遲，審訊傳送突發(fā)信號，讀寫器發(fā)送一個脈沖信號，每一個反射安排在基板的表面延遲差兩個或兩個以上的反應(yīng)信號測量一些物理值，參數(shù)轉(zhuǎn)化為改變傳感器的表面長度或表面聲波的速度，分別延遲里的反應(yīng)一比長度李聲表面波傳播的基板表面和繁殖。損害傳感器測量精度的傳感器的反應(yīng)遵守延遲響應(yīng)信號源于硅反射鏡可以通過拉伸和壓縮收集載入傳感器，用于無線測量的扭矩等，聲表面波傳感器的基板可以會影響傳感器彎曲膜，把邊緣傳感器固定在傳感器裝到彎曲由于轉(zhuǎn)移的中心，膜加載的另一方面?zhèn)鞲衅骺芍苯影惭b在膜或壓電膜代表的SAW基板可以顯示這些方法。

圖1 ：

一）膜轉(zhuǎn)換轉(zhuǎn)變彎曲的聲表面波傳感器（鋸）二）聲表面波傳感器安裝在膜

下一步是覆蓋膜傳感器組成的 串行制造的傳感器系統(tǒng)?有別小得多，能夠被納入，我們實(shí)施了綜合壓力室（圖2）進(jìn)入傳感器固定在輪輞，金屬閥軸用作為傳感器的天線（圖4）。

圖4 ：集成壓力室固定在輪輞閥用作天線

為了提高執(zhí)行只安裝閥門傳感器裝置（圖5）。即使是在高速行駛的時候，該單位的總質(zhì)量只有幾克，動態(tài)負(fù)載很小。

圖5 ：壓力傳感器閥軸

審訊系統(tǒng)采用基于空間的多樣性，以區(qū)分傳感器低于每一輛翼天線要使用同軸電纜，這個技術(shù)是困難和昂貴的，我們的調(diào)查也顯示雙絞線的適用性。

圖6 ：訊問汽車天線

為了測量，我們開發(fā)了一個小型的審訊系統(tǒng)的傳輸陣和尋找的響應(yīng)信號陣陣之間的相移。該系統(tǒng)是由一個片上微控制器控制和一個液晶顯示屏上顯示測量結(jié)果。系統(tǒng)的照片在圖7所示

圖7 ：系統(tǒng)的無線審訊的被動聲表面波傳感器

為了檢驗(yàn)我們的傳感器和我們的系統(tǒng)，我們做了很多測試車領(lǐng)域內(nèi)和周圍的城市審訊系統(tǒng)耦合到筆記本計(jì)算機(jī)壓力值進(jìn)行測量和記錄檔案。數(shù)字和 高胎壓屬于制動演習(xí)（傳感器是安裝東亞前輪）時間越長增加了輪胎壓力和下列期限衰變是因?yàn)轵T了系統(tǒng)表現(xiàn)出較高的可靠性，即使是在暴風(fēng)雪里駕駛汽車。

圖8：在不同的駕駛條件下的輪胎壓力

在圖9中的壓力右前輪可以看到放大的時間，而通過兩個軌道平面交叉口與相鄰的水通道跨越的破舊安排的平面交叉口，硬沖擊傳達(dá)給身體造成硬壓力沖擊的輪胎。

圖9：輪胎壓力過級過境兩個軌道

討論

無線聲表面波傳感器的審訊都是免維護(hù)和承受高的熱和機(jī)械載荷。在測量性能與競爭對手。在汽車系統(tǒng)中所付出的努力是對SAW傳感器更高，因?yàn)橛性磦鞲衅鲉挝话l(fā)送包含壓力值和傳感器識別的SAW器件的主要優(yōu)勢為前提的數(shù)字信息。應(yīng)用程序，每次旋轉(zhuǎn)的發(fā)生，是他們的低質(zhì)量。在離心力的作用MV*/ R，與質(zhì)量為m，速度v和半徑r.To動態(tài)機(jī)械負(fù)荷最小化，系統(tǒng)應(yīng)用到旋轉(zhuǎn)部件的質(zhì)量，應(yīng)盡可能低。而傳統(tǒng)輪胎壓力測量傳感器的單位有一個大約的質(zhì)量。20克，集成壓力傳感器（圖5）有一個不到一克的質(zhì)量。在最壞的情況下完整的SAW傳感器單元的質(zhì)量只有幾克。傳統(tǒng)的系統(tǒng)是由鋰離子電池供電。在一個破舊輪胎的情況下，由于電池不能被選中，應(yīng)更換傳感器，產(chǎn)生廢物處置的問題。在汽車電子集成系統(tǒng)，它是不必要的，以顯示每個輪胎的壓力不斷。在這里，只有一個故障觸發(fā)警報。系統(tǒng)的顯示，可以取消，降低系統(tǒng)的成本。

結(jié)論

無源聲表面波傳感器的優(yōu)點(diǎn)是它們適合用于車輛應(yīng)用。特別是測量輪胎氣壓低質(zhì)量和他們不用維護(hù)的事實(shí)，使他們能夠比競爭對手優(yōu)越。壓力測量表面波傳感器，輪胎的磨損程度和審訊系統(tǒng)將被討論。大量測量駕駛的實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果將被表示出來。參考文獻(xiàn)

[1]Reindl，F(xiàn).穆勒，塞弗特，無源表面波傳感器的訊問，國際專利應(yīng)用（1992年）。

[2]塞弗特樓。機(jī)械傳感器基于表面聲波，傳感器（1994）231-239 [3] 紹爾，T.奧斯特塔格，L.Reindl，H.謝爾，0.Sczesny，U.沃爾夫，無線聲表面波傳感器的遠(yuǎn)程測控的物理參數(shù)，商業(yè)電臺傳感器和通信技術(shù)，1997年。pp.51-58 [ 4 ] H ·謝爾，G.舍爾，F(xiàn).塞弗特，R.威格爾，石英壓力傳感器反射基于聲表面波延遲線，Proc.IEEE超聲波研討會1996年。pp.347-350。

第四篇：英文翻譯

英語三級翻譯輔導(dǎo)習(xí)題

1.各吹各的號，各唱各的調(diào)。

2.每逢假日的下午，我總要漫游周圍的鄉(xiāng)村。

3.暴風(fēng)雨把小屋沖壞，他們只好住在一個窯洞里。

4.要不斷加強(qiáng)基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施建設(shè)，努力營建良好的開發(fā)環(huán)境。

5.深秋，冷雨霏霏，屋里靜悄悄的。他們看了一下午的書。

6.Liberty is more important than life.（英譯漢）

答案：

1.各吹各的號，各唱各的調(diào)。轉(zhuǎn)載自:考試大[Examda.Com]

She works as a bilingual secretary for an insurance company.4.去年我一天洗兩次澡，早晚各一次。

I used to take a bath twice a day last year，morning and night.5.坦白地說，面試后我一直認(rèn)為這個職位不適合我。

Frankly speaking，I have been thinking that the position is not right for me after the

interview.6.Some people assert that nothing is impossible.Such people should get a grip on

reality and understand it‘s impossible to create another Universe.In more down-to-earth

terms，it’s impossible to know with any certainty whether you will live or die tomorrow.（英譯漢）

一些人斷言沒有什么事是不可能的。這些人應(yīng)該把握現(xiàn)實(shí)，知道再造一個宇宙是不可能的。更現(xiàn)實(shí)的 說法是不可能明確地知道明天你會活著還是會死。

get a grip on抓住，控制，管束

1.八成他不會來了。

Most probably he isn，t coming.2.他巴不得立刻見到你。

He is very anxious to meet you immediately.3.這刀不會留下任何疤痕。轉(zhuǎn)載自:考試大-[Examda.Com]

The cut will not leave any scar.4.孩子成了他唯一的安慰。

The child became her only consolation.5.非常感謝貴公司的錄用，但我不得不拒絕這份工作。

I really appreciate your offer，but I must decline it.6.Things aren’t even starting to take shape yet.（英譯漢）

八字還沒有一撇.1.顯然你錯了?？荚嚧笳搲?/p>

It is clear you were wrong.2.仔細(xì)看看信的地址是否寫對了。

Care should be taken to see that the letter is properly addressed.3.現(xiàn)在全廠上上下下都普遍認(rèn)為工廠必須進(jìn)行改革。

It is now generally accepted that reform is necessary in the factory.4.這兒是頭兩卷，第三卷下個月出版。

Here are the first two volumes，the third one to come out next month.5.我們不知不覺地朝公園走去。公園就在人行橋那邊，橋下很深的地方，洶涌的河水滾滾流過。Somehow our path took us toward the park across the footbridge high above the rolling

waters of the river.6.The man who is above his business may one day find his business above him.（英譯漢）

不屑于干自己工作的人，終會有一天發(fā)現(xiàn)自己不配干那份工作。

1.為了找房子，不知花費(fèi)我多少時間，受過多少閑氣。

In my long seeking for lodging，I often met with a snub.2.樹是那樣高，筆直，而又整齊的特別可愛！因?yàn)槭撬蓸浜蜕紭涞脑?，所以四時都是綠油油的。Standing tall and erect before me in neat array was a forest of evergreen pines and

firs.3.自己在樹底下行走，如果把風(fēng)景看得太嚴(yán)重了，倒反沒有什么趣味?？荚嚧笳搲?/p>

While walking in the shade of the trees，I preferred not to focus my attention

exclusively on the scenery.4.最有意思的是自己慢慢地在后面走，看著人家一個個地從樹蔭下經(jīng)過。

I found it most interesting to watch，by slowing down my pace，other people walking

ahead of me one after another.6.We‘ve all done something in our lives us we are ashamed of，some of us have fallen

for the wrong man，some have let go of the right women，there’re those who have

humiliated their parents and those who have failed their children.Yes，we‘ve all made

mistakes that diminish us and those we love.But there is redemption if we try to learn from

those mistakes and grow。（英譯漢）

我們都做過一些自己都感到慚愧的事。有些人愛錯了人，有些人錯過了愛；有些孩子使父母丟臉，也 有些家長讓孩子失望。是的，我們都犯過錯，使自己和愛人蒙羞。但如果我們試著從s這些錯誤中吸取教 訓(xùn)并成長，就還有挽回的機(jī)會。

A： Bill Mcphee。我會盡快帶他來見你。

Bill Mcphee.I’ll bring him around to see you soon.B： 我們會懷念和你一起共事的時光。

We’ll miss doing business with you.A： Bill Mcphee是個好人。你們會和他相處得很好的。

Bill Mcphee is a good man.You’ll get along with him very well.6.With the rapid development of Taiwan’s economy，a lot of social problems have come

to pass.（英譯漢）

隨著臺灣經(jīng)濟(jì)的快速發(fā)展許多社會問題產(chǎn)生了

1.這架班機(jī)正點(diǎn)起飛吧？

Is the plane on schedule？

2.準(zhǔn)備好機(jī)票與登機(jī)牌。

Let’s get our tickets and boarding pass ready.3.如果有退票的，請通知我。

Please notify me if there is any cancellation.4.請于起飛前一小進(jìn)到達(dá)機(jī)場。

Please be at the airport at least one hour before departure？

You’ll be late if you don’t arrive in one hour before leaving.5.我需要提前多少天付款訂票？

How long in advance of the flight must I pay to confirm the booking？

6.Promises are often like the butterfly，which disappear after beautiful hover。（英譯

漢）

承諾常常很像蝴蝶，美麗地盤旋然后不見。

1.我們應(yīng)該不遺余力地美化我們的環(huán)境。請?jiān)L問考試大網(wǎng)站http:///

We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.2.在建立個人網(wǎng)站前，先問問自己，為什么想要一網(wǎng)站，想要達(dá)到的目標(biāo)是什么。

Before you build a personal site，ask yourself why you want one，and what you want to

accomplish.3.在造訪一個提供網(wǎng)站空間服務(wù)的網(wǎng)站時，你會看到種類繁多的方案可供選擇，哪一種價位可以給 你多少網(wǎng)絡(luò)空間及多大的傳輸流量。

When you visit the site of a Web host，you’ll see a wide variety of plans-so much

space and so much network traffic for so much money.4.典型的網(wǎng)站包括圖像、文字及圖片，比較精心制作的網(wǎng)站還有動畫、影像、聲音和其他額外的內(nèi) 容。

Web site typically contain graphics，texts and pictures，while more elaborate ones

include animation，video，audio and other extras.5.關(guān)于網(wǎng)站設(shè)計(jì)，有許多是很吸引人的，也有許多則令人泄氣。

There are many things about Web sites that are appealing and many that are just plain

frustrating.6.Pizza came to the U.S.with Italian immigrants;the first U.S.pizzeria opened in

1905，and pizza became one of the nation’s favourite foods after World War Ⅱ。It is now

popular worldwide.（英譯漢）

比薩隨著意大利移民引進(jìn)美國；1905年第一家美國比薩店開業(yè)了，第二次世界大戰(zhàn)后比薩成為全美國 最喜愛的食物之一。現(xiàn)在比薩暢銷全世界。

1.只要走一下就到了嗎？

Is it within walking distance？

2.我兒子騎在我肩上看游行。

My son rode pickaback on me to watch the parade.3.其實(shí)我一點(diǎn)都不喜歡我現(xiàn)在的工作。

The fact of the matter is I’m not enjoying my new job at all.4.他有邊吃飯邊抽煙那讓人討厭的習(xí)慣。

He has the irritating habit of smoking during meals.5.如果我今早沒忘了把油箱加滿，我們不會沒油的。

If I hadn’t forgotten to fill up the tank this morning，we wouldn’t be out of gas.6.Are there any charter flights？（英譯漢）

有包機(jī)航班嗎？

1、A：有什么我可以為您效勞的嗎？

Is there anything I can help you with？

B：是的，我想知道你是否可以幫我找到一些這個城市的旅游指南，或許也要一張公路地圖。Yes，I was wondering if you could help me find some travel guides for this city.And

maybe also a rode map，too.A：我們有各種不同的那個題材的書。有些相當(dāng)概扣，而其他的則比較專業(yè)化。

We have a variety of books on that subject.Some are quite general while others are more

specialized and specific，B：我想概括性的就可以了。我只是要在這兒停留幾天。但我想要那種多多少少能使我感覺到這個城 市的東西。

I think the generalized ones would do.I’m only staying here for a couple of days.But

I want something that can give me more or less the feel of the city.A：那樣的話，也許這本書可以。它有很多圖片，而且容易閱讀，里頭也有公路地圖。

In that case，maybe this book will do.It has a lot of pictures and is easy to read.There are also road maps in it.B：太好了！我買這一本。

That’s perfect.I’ll buy this one.（英譯漢）

2、At Christmas the air is filled with carols.圣誕節(jié)的時候到處都可以聽到圣誕頌歌。

1.我認(rèn)為年輕人應(yīng)該能夠有自己作決定的自由和空間。

I think young people should have the freedom and the space to make their own decisions.2.由于奧運(yùn)會規(guī)模越來越大，為了大多數(shù)的城市將沒有能力舉辦。來源：考試大

The Olympic Games are growing so big that most cities may not be able to host them in

future.3.當(dāng)奧運(yùn)會結(jié)束后，所有累積的專業(yè)經(jīng)驗(yàn)就消失，使下一屆主辦城市必須一切從零開始。Currently，once the Games are finished，all the gathered expertise vanishes and the

next city has to begin from scratch.4.除了一般大學(xué)程度的課程之外，盧浮學(xué)院也提供大眾免費(fèi)的夜間藝術(shù)史課程。

The Ecole du Louvre，in addition to its regular university-level curricula，offers

free public evening classes in art history.5.你會相信咖啡有助于保護(hù)你的腦部免收一種危險的退化性疾病的侵襲嗎？

Would you believe coffee and help protect your brain from a dangerous degenerative

disease？

6.The two of us sit on chairs and stare upward and around until closing time，watching

the sun illuminate the stained glass panes deep red，blue，gold，and a near blinding

white.On the way out，someone coughs，and the sound goes on and on—acoustics in this

chapel are remarkable.（英譯漢）

我們倆坐在椅子上向上及四周凝視直到教堂關(guān)門，看著太陽照亮窗格中的彩色玻璃，有深紅、藍(lán)色、金色，及眩目的白色。離開時，有人咳嗽，回音繚繞再繚繞—可見這座教堂里的音響效果是多么棒。

1.她的行為深深地刺痛了我的心。{來源：考{試大}

I am deeply offended by her conduct.2.穩(wěn)定性帶來的好處有可能被夸大。

It is possible to overstate the benefits of stabilization.3.這事若是事實(shí)，它將給我們造成許多麻煩。

If true，this will cause us a lot of trouble.If it is true，this will cause us a lot of trouble.4.任何政府忽視這一點(diǎn)都將付出巨大的代價。

Any government which is blind to this point may pay a heavy price.5.許多市民抱怨城市的公交車太少，以至于他們要花很長時間等一輛公交車，而車上可能已滿載乘客Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to

spend much more time waiting for a bus，which is usually crowded with a large number of

passengers.6.Love is the greatest refreshment in life。

愛情是生活最好的提神劑。

1.大家最好養(yǎng)成學(xué)習(xí)的好習(xí)慣。

You‘d better form the habit of studying.2.別把這兩個近義詞混淆了。

Don’t mix up this pair of synonyms.3.給出這個詞的同義詞和反義詞。

Give the synonym and antonym of this word.4.他臉皮厚，從來不在乎別人講什么。

He is thick-skinned and never cares what others say.5.面試時，有些面試者會有夸大的傾向。

During the interview，some interviewees tend to exaggerate.6.You’re really too good for me.（英語）

我真的配不上你。

1.一項(xiàng)調(diào)查顯示婦女歡迎退休。

An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward

retirement.2.我最近利用了一點(diǎn)時間采訪成功的專業(yè)人士，談?wù)勊麄冏铍y忘、最有效的學(xué)習(xí)經(jīng)驗(yàn)。

I recently spent time asking effective professionals about their most memorable and

effective learning experiences.3.我的目的，是要找出成人教育的最佳方式。{來源：考{試大}

My goal was to find out what works best when it comes to adult education.4.那么為什么在適合成人的訓(xùn)練方式與公司的訓(xùn)練部門實(shí)際所提供的訓(xùn)練之間會有如此的斷層呢？So why is there such a disconnect between what works for adults and is offered by

corporate training departments？

5.在世界各地，極少數(shù)的訓(xùn)練人員在從事他們的工作時，具備有充分的學(xué)習(xí)方面的知識。Very few trainers，in world over，come to their work with much knowledge about

learning.6.What I discovered is that adults are remarkably similar in how they learn best： The

most unforgettable and transformative learning occurs through personal experience，group

support and/or mentoring.（英譯漢）

我發(fā)現(xiàn)，成人學(xué)習(xí)最有效的方式其實(shí)非常類似：最難忘、帶來最深遠(yuǎn)改變的學(xué)習(xí)經(jīng)驗(yàn)，均是通過個人 的體會、小組支持或者良師的啟發(fā)。

第五篇：英文翻譯

物流企業(yè)績效評價

摘要：隨著實(shí)踐的發(fā)展與學(xué)術(shù)、媒體的關(guān)注和刺激, 物流企業(yè)績效評價系統(tǒng)得到了很好的發(fā)展，而基于經(jīng)濟(jì)增加值和平衡計(jì)分卡(BSC)方法的物流企業(yè)績效評價就此產(chǎn)生。該系統(tǒng)通過相關(guān)的測試和線性回歸被給予了實(shí)證，就長遠(yuǎn)的眼光而言，經(jīng)濟(jì)增值是這個系統(tǒng)最重要的目的。為了得到高的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益，這四個方面包括財(cái)務(wù)、顧客、內(nèi)部業(yè)務(wù)流程和學(xué)習(xí)和成長都將有巨大意義。經(jīng)濟(jì)附加值在企業(yè)的戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)和企業(yè)價值的相關(guān)性上占據(jù)絕對的重要地位。在研究企業(yè)績效的線性回歸數(shù)據(jù)中有經(jīng)濟(jì)附加值、運(yùn)行費(fèi)用、審計(jì)報告和員工的內(nèi)部控制的教育比等數(shù)據(jù)，他們被用來代表了前面四個方面。其中，財(cái)務(wù)和企業(yè)內(nèi)部業(yè)務(wù)流程有量化的系數(shù)與理論分析一致。

關(guān)鍵詞：績效評估、物流、經(jīng)濟(jì)附加值、平衡計(jì)分卡(BSC)

1緒論

隨著物流行業(yè)的快速發(fā)展,物流企業(yè)不斷的成長和壯大。對于股東來說，一個問題迫切需要解決的問題產(chǎn)生了，即如何對其物流企業(yè)進(jìn)行有效而科學(xué)的績效評價。雖然這個行業(yè)具有很大的利潤空間，里面有巨大的財(cái)富，但是該物流企業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)附加值到底有多大，而如何又能創(chuàng)造出來，作為股東又能獲得多少報酬這些都是令人棘手的問題。傳統(tǒng)的企業(yè)績效評價以企業(yè)財(cái)務(wù)報表作為分析的基礎(chǔ)，在一定程度上反映了企業(yè)為股東創(chuàng)造財(cái)富的能力和企業(yè)生存、發(fā)展的能力，但是人們只使用財(cái)務(wù)數(shù)據(jù)來支持他們的判斷從而就缺乏注意到其他措施,特別是忽視股權(quán)成本由股東的投資。在本文中,我們基于平衡計(jì)分卡(BSC)建造一個評價指標(biāo)系統(tǒng)，并圍繞EVA作為物流企業(yè)績效評價的指標(biāo)體系，把經(jīng)濟(jì)增值作為一種主要的目標(biāo)來對物流企業(yè)進(jìn)行績效評價，并衡量企業(yè)的股東獲得的真正的財(cái)富。然后，本文提供實(shí)例證明這個系統(tǒng)的有效性。本文是組織結(jié)構(gòu)如下：第二章相關(guān)的理論知識；第三部分建立評價體系根據(jù)通過EVA建立指標(biāo)體系和介紹使用的平衡計(jì)分卡方法；四章和第五章對上面介紹的績效評價方法給予實(shí)證；第六部分總結(jié)結(jié)論。文獻(xiàn)回顧

2.1物流績效評價

物流績效評價在物流管理中是一個非常重要的問題?？茖W(xué)而準(zhǔn)確的評價的結(jié)果可以讓人們知道他們昨天的工作收獲了什么，明天又將要做些什么。

許多外國的日報都聚焦在這三個方面1)介紹應(yīng)具有的特性，個性 2)該方法需要涉及到的員工3）該企業(yè)要選擇的方法步驟。而一個建立水平軸的反映國際物流組織所規(guī)定的服務(wù)質(zhì)量和性能和垂直軸代表特定服務(wù)對客戶的重要性的矩陣式相當(dāng)困難的。

指定物流績效指標(biāo)分成三個廣闊的領(lǐng)域，包括有形成分、實(shí)施途徑和信息操作。近年來,人們越來越重視企業(yè)的獨(dú)特的環(huán)境行為或公司的策略。有些論文試圖為廠商解決如何面對日益變化的市場的問題，這些論文可以動態(tài)地解決這一問題的績效衡量選擇,卻不是依靠一個靜態(tài)群的措施。

在中國,物流企業(yè)績效評價研究的主要內(nèi)容有：1)選擇的措施；(2)評價的方法；3)績效評價體系。一個正確的績效評價系統(tǒng)通常包含許多個部分。其中，王，楊兩個人研究的內(nèi)容，他們在乎費(fèi)用、效率、風(fēng)險、客戶管理，而魏強(qiáng)調(diào)物流企業(yè)的競爭和發(fā)展能力。在這些 系統(tǒng)中，最常用的措施都是相關(guān)的，比如收入、成本、供應(yīng)、訂單交付延遲時間，指令反饋的精度等。支持以上的理論分析且已應(yīng)用于物流企業(yè)的方法有很多，比如模糊分類方法，主成分分析方法，利用數(shù)據(jù)包絡(luò)分析方法等。盡管這些方法都已經(jīng)有一些高質(zhì)量的研究成果，但是它們卻很少關(guān)注公司的策略問題。

2.2平衡計(jì)分卡方法

平衡計(jì)分卡方法是由羅伯特·卡普蘭和大衛(wèi)·諾頓提出并形成的。它是一種將戰(zhàn)略非財(cái)務(wù)指標(biāo)添加到傳統(tǒng)的給管理者看的財(cái)務(wù)指標(biāo)，同時要求均衡的組織中的表現(xiàn)的框架結(jié)構(gòu)的績效評價方法。經(jīng)過多年的發(fā)展,它成長成為一種全戰(zhàn)略規(guī)劃和管理的績效評價方法，該方法包括四個方面：財(cái)務(wù)、客戶、內(nèi)部業(yè)務(wù)流程、學(xué)習(xí)和成長。見表一：

在卡普蘭和諾頓建立平衡計(jì)分卡以后，有些文章開始逐漸將平衡計(jì)分卡在應(yīng)用在物流績效評價之中。布魯爾和斯潘通過對先前的平衡積分卡的修改，進(jìn)而推出一套可用于供應(yīng)供應(yīng)鏈績效評價的BSC，他們建立的框架包括供應(yīng)鏈管理(SCM)的目標(biāo)、最終客戶利益、財(cái)務(wù)收益、SCM提高；根據(jù)平衡計(jì)分卡模型,劉和王給出了一個3 + 1的模型，這其中的物流績效評估包括財(cái)務(wù)、客戶、內(nèi)部操作和學(xué)習(xí)四個方面；在孫的導(dǎo)師的論文中，他將平衡積分卡方法與網(wǎng)絡(luò)程序分析（ANP）相結(jié)合來對企業(yè)進(jìn)行績效評價，該方法以物流企業(yè)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略作為評價標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，并建立了網(wǎng)絡(luò)程序分析模型（ANP），由此可以量化績效評價的影響和便于定量矩陣的反饋。

這些文章都試圖添加戰(zhàn)略信息并將其轉(zhuǎn)化為物流績效評估的部分,從而使評價結(jié)果對物流企業(yè)來說更合理的、更有用。但是平衡計(jì)分卡模型在物流企業(yè)績效評價上的應(yīng)用物流才只是個開始，遠(yuǎn)非十全十美。再者，很少的研究報告能告訴我們包括股東企業(yè)為自己創(chuàng)造的真正的價值。

2.3 經(jīng)濟(jì)附加值(EVA)

股東對企業(yè)的投資，然而傳統(tǒng)意義上的利潤不可能告訴我們分與多少股東與其投資相符的紅利，繼而股東權(quán)益得不到強(qiáng)制性保證。投資的機(jī)會成本解釋了為什么股東選擇投資A公司而不是B公司的原因，然而沒有效益的投資，誰還會繼續(xù)。因此忽視利潤的分配會導(dǎo)致重大決策失誤。

EVA作為商標(biāo)是由其開發(fā)者,斯特恩·斯圖爾特和其公司在20世紀(jì)80年代注冊的。EVA具有很大的吸引力的優(yōu)勢是因?yàn)镋VA與傳統(tǒng)的利潤相比較，EVA的計(jì)算措施以考慮股本的機(jī)會成本為主。以這個方式而言，股東投資就等同于作為貸款的債權(quán)人。已經(jīng)有實(shí)證研究支持這個增量，EVA信息內(nèi)容的價值相關(guān)性要高于其他的一些行業(yè)的措施。在這同時，EVA有助于制定有效的激勵管理，從這個角度來說,EVA的應(yīng)用對反映出準(zhǔn)確的財(cái)務(wù)績效從而解決股東和管理的代理問題做出了重大貢獻(xiàn)。

盡管EVA的應(yīng)用受到如此多的贊揚(yáng),但是它卻還沒有來得及在物流行業(yè)廣泛應(yīng)用。EVA未能得到物流行業(yè)應(yīng)用的主要原因是因?yàn)槲锪髌髽I(yè)有著其自身的特殊性和特征。在本文中，我們設(shè)法把EVA和平衡計(jì)分卡模型結(jié)合在一起建立一個物流企業(yè)績效評價系統(tǒng)。

3基于EVA和BSC的績效評價系統(tǒng)

戰(zhàn)略是企業(yè)發(fā)展和成功至關(guān)重要的因素，其中企業(yè)中最盛行的一個策略是公司價值的最大化。策略導(dǎo)向BSC，價值強(qiáng)調(diào)EVA，兩者的結(jié)合可以讓企業(yè)的績效評價對齊企業(yè)的戰(zhàn)略。3.1根據(jù)斯坦·斯圖爾特定義，EVA一般相當(dāng)于一個真正的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益評估，該評估糾正并調(diào)整了正確會計(jì)編號。這個基本關(guān)系式為：

在(1)中，NOPAT代表網(wǎng)上營業(yè)利潤稅后、IC卡代表公司資本總額聯(lián)合會代表加權(quán)平均資本成本(包括資本投資股東和債權(quán)人)。

考慮到高的離職率和現(xiàn)金流的物流，我們做出對(1)做出調(diào)整，得到方程(2)，如下：

其中：NCFO代表凈現(xiàn)金流量從操作、收益；在權(quán)責(zé)發(fā)生制下，ATInt稅后利潤；TA代表總資產(chǎn)(包括債務(wù)和股權(quán))；AcctAdj特殊調(diào)整的項(xiàng)目，包括商譽(yù)、津貼作為壞帳等。3.2戰(zhàn)略圖

除了EVA，BSC還需要其他更多的指標(biāo)去聯(lián)系其框架結(jié)構(gòu)的目標(biāo)，以及物流企業(yè)的特點(diǎn)。我們需要從很多的案例中分析出三者之間的關(guān)系，然后再做合理的決策。而BSC提供了一個很好的工具來完成這一過程，這個工具名為戰(zhàn)略圖，下面給出了一個物流企業(yè)的戰(zhàn)略圖。

認(rèn)識到戰(zhàn)略目的作為戰(zhàn)略圖的首要任務(wù)是很重要的,因?yàn)閼?zhàn)略目的代表和指導(dǎo)整個發(fā)現(xiàn)并建立企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略的過程。EVA反映了一個物流企業(yè)中，股東價值創(chuàng)造的真實(shí)的增量，因此它是從財(cái)務(wù)角度來看的最主要的指標(biāo)，同時它又是由成本和收入的增長兩個關(guān)鍵項(xiàng)目支持的，在財(cái)務(wù)角度下,我們能夠了解需要做出哪些工作來實(shí)現(xiàn)EVA。物流企業(yè)必須實(shí)現(xiàn)客戶滿意度和保證新客戶的產(chǎn)生，這需要高的營業(yè)額和較短的交貨時間。學(xué)習(xí)和成長伴隨著人類、信息和組織資本。這是最低的觀點(diǎn)，然而它卻不能被忽視。物流企業(yè)的無形資產(chǎn)是最強(qiáng)大的和可持續(xù)的滿足股東要求的方式。箭頭的效果是由低到高的角度,反映了“拉”的聯(lián)系，這個從低到高的改進(jìn)需要很長一段時間,但是它將從根本上大幅度的改變公司并給公司一個光明的前途。

3.3方法的選擇和EVA的指導(dǎo)作用

在選取具體方法進(jìn)行績效評價之前，戰(zhàn)略圖為我們提供了一種語言來描述的策略，戰(zhàn)略圖還為物流企業(yè)給出了一個走向成功的合理的道路。當(dāng)利益相關(guān)者對物流公司的包括管理、股東、銀行家、潛力投資者等方式進(jìn)行績效評價的時候，他們想要清晰并且容易的工作。根據(jù)卡普蘭和諾頓，太多的方法讓用戶感到困惑，還增加了運(yùn)營成本。所以按照戰(zhàn)略地圖的關(guān)鍵詞，我們可以列出物流企業(yè)績效評價方法的名單，如表2。他們并不適合所有的公司,但是可以針對某些典型的物流企業(yè)。

在這些績效評估方法中，EVA代表最終的結(jié)果和領(lǐng)導(dǎo)前沿，主要是因?yàn)樗慕?jīng)濟(jì)意義。根據(jù)在戰(zhàn)略地圖對這些運(yùn)行過程的描述，作為一個高效、創(chuàng)造價值的企業(yè)將把較高效用的EVA作為其財(cái)務(wù)評價的結(jié)果。

4假設(shè)發(fā)展

盡管我們基于EVA和BSC對物流企業(yè)績效評價的方法進(jìn)行了描述，同時簡述了EVA 與其他方法的的關(guān)系和不同點(diǎn)，但是EVA就真的滿足企業(yè)長期發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略的目標(biāo)么？EVA就真的能在BSC系統(tǒng)的傳統(tǒng)績效評價方法中占據(jù)主導(dǎo)地位？

所有的相關(guān)信息可以根據(jù)市場效率的假設(shè)反映在股票市場，上市公司價值幾乎跟股票價格是一樣的，物流企業(yè)也不能例外，雖然中國的股票不可能有市場效率高，但是從1997年的實(shí)證表明它已經(jīng)開始弱化。再者,股票市場的迅速發(fā)展,所以對于物流企業(yè)而言，市場本身和波動股票價格將會更加重要。企業(yè)價值最大化的戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)將被大眾在一般在長期的目標(biāo)下等同于市場回報最大化。接著，讓我們假設(shè)1：H1）EVA相比傳統(tǒng)的凈收益回報，與市場回報具有顯著的關(guān)系。

作為績效評價體系的最終結(jié)果，EVA應(yīng)該和其他在BSC四部分有效的措施有重要的關(guān)聯(lián)度。因此我們得到假設(shè)2：H2)EVA和其他績效評價措施相關(guān)。

5數(shù)據(jù)和經(jīng)驗(yàn)的結(jié)果

在績效評價系統(tǒng)中，大多數(shù)的措施都是內(nèi)部的信息，例如加工時間順序，所以我們不能讓我們所需要的所有的數(shù)據(jù)去完成實(shí)證檢驗(yàn)。我們對應(yīng)一個觀點(diǎn)一種手段，包括EVA在內(nèi)的手段，包括運(yùn)行成本、第一五客戶、收益率、審計(jì)的內(nèi)部控制報告與員工教育的比例。我們找到46家上市物流企業(yè)在上海和深圳股票交易作為案例來進(jìn)行實(shí)證檢驗(yàn)。因?yàn)閺?007年起，新的會計(jì)準(zhǔn)則生效,我們計(jì)算的數(shù)字調(diào)查數(shù)據(jù)集中于2008年，我們通過刪除缺失數(shù)據(jù)或極端異常的數(shù)據(jù)得到36個觀察結(jié)果，這些觀察已經(jīng)被編制到財(cái)務(wù)信息服務(wù)數(shù)據(jù)庫中。

審計(jì)報告的內(nèi)部控制是一種兩分法，當(dāng)內(nèi)部控制報告可以獨(dú)立審計(jì)，則為1；若不可，其值為0。一個沒有獨(dú)立的外部審計(jì)意見內(nèi)部報告缺乏目的評價，不夠支撐一個高品質(zhì)內(nèi)部運(yùn)作過程。為了減少數(shù)據(jù)上的差異，我們縮小2008年設(shè)立的EVA及操作成本總額，這五個描述性統(tǒng)計(jì)結(jié)果變量見表3：

所有的物流企業(yè)有負(fù)面的EVA，就是說他們不再繼續(xù)為股東創(chuàng)造價值，它迫切需要公司向績效評價體系增加新的EVA。上表中的客戶平均收入的比是0.3558，代表前5個客戶為物流企業(yè)貢獻(xiàn)了三分之一的收入。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)了大部分公司都沒有審計(jì)的內(nèi)部控制報告，顯示相對薄弱的內(nèi)在力量。在員工受教育方面有最低標(biāo)準(zhǔn)偏差，它的均值是0.1838，這放映了物流企業(yè)內(nèi)部人員受教育程度較低。

根據(jù)表

4、EVA具有顯著的正相關(guān)關(guān)系與市場回報,支持假設(shè)1a。在同一時間，得到一個微不足道的凈利潤與市場回報，符合假說意向書。也有EVA和凈利潤之間明顯的關(guān)系，但相關(guān)是消極的，可以看出傳統(tǒng)的利潤指標(biāo)的問題。

用線性回歸的假設(shè)2進(jìn)行處理，處理結(jié)果如表5：

但是審計(jì)內(nèi)部控制報告得到了顯著的正面相關(guān)性，符合我們的預(yù)測；其中前五客戶收入與EVA比沒有明顯關(guān)系；教育的比例為顯著負(fù)系數(shù)，雖然得到這些，但是它們不能提供進(jìn)一步的證據(jù)來支持假設(shè)2。因?yàn)檫@些結(jié)果所采取的措施為客戶、學(xué)習(xí)和成長的觀點(diǎn)更多的是根據(jù)內(nèi)部信息，而不是我們所選定的對于財(cái)務(wù)內(nèi)部業(yè)務(wù)流程的內(nèi)容，所以我們沒有合理的代理。我們收集的數(shù)據(jù)來自于公眾物流企業(yè)的報告，因?yàn)榉N種原因，可能會有偏見。最后，我們可以做一個結(jié)論：假設(shè)2部分支持。

6結(jié)論

出于學(xué)術(shù)和實(shí)踐的重要意義，我們建立一個基于EVA及平衡記分卡的績效評價體系的為物流企業(yè)星星有效的績效評價。從長遠(yuǎn)的眼光來研究，將EVA放在作戰(zhàn)略地圖首位，其他財(cái)政，客戶，內(nèi)部業(yè)務(wù)流程，學(xué)習(xí)和成長等指標(biāo)用來輔助。然后我們給每個因素包括EVA定義指標(biāo)：分別是運(yùn)營成本、前五客戶收益率、內(nèi)部控制報告和員工受教育的程度。

K相關(guān)測試支持EVA和戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)之間的一致性，另外，我們用線性回歸發(fā)現(xiàn)運(yùn)營成本顯著的負(fù)系數(shù)，審計(jì)的內(nèi)部控制報告得到了顯著的正面，基本符合了我們的預(yù)測，其中前五客戶與EVA收入比沒有明顯關(guān)系，受教育教育的比例有顯著的負(fù)系數(shù)關(guān)系。

因此，我們覺得基于EVA和平衡計(jì)分卡的績效評價體系是很重要的，它可以幫助物流企業(yè)關(guān)注戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)，積極為股東創(chuàng)造價值的增量，并且基于內(nèi)部信息分析未來的需要。