第一篇:機(jī)械類專業(yè)英語(yǔ)翻譯
EXTENDING BEARING LIFE Bearings fail for a number of reasons,but the most common are misapplication,contamination,improper lubricant,shipping or handling damage,and misalignment.The problem is often not difficult to diagnose because a failed bearing usually leaves telltale signs about what went wrong.
However,while a postmortem yields good information,it is better to avoid the process altogether by specifying the bearing correctly in The first place.To do this,it is useful to review the manufacturers sizing guidelines and operating characteristics for the selected bearing.Equally critical is a study of requirements for noise, torque, and runout, as well as possible exposure to contaminants, hostile liquids, and temperature extremes.This can provide further clues as to whether a bearing is right for a job.1 Why bearings fail About 40% of ball bearing failures are caused by contamination from dust, dirt, shavings, and corrosion.Contamination also causes torque and noise problems, and is often the result of improper handling or the application environment.Fortunately, a bearing failure caused by environment or handling contamination is preventable,and a simple visual examination can easily identify the cause.
Conducting a postmortem il1ustrates what to look for on a failed or failing bearing.Then,understanding the mechanism behind the failure, such as brinelling or fatigue, helps eliminate the source of the problem.Brinelling is one type of bearing failure easily avoided by proper handing and assembly.It is characterized by indentations in the bearing raceway caused by shock loading-such as when a bearing is dropped-or incorrect assembly.Brinelling usually occurs when loads exceed the material yield point(350,000 psi in SAE 52100 chrome steel).It may also be caused by improper assembly, Which places a load across the races.Raceway dents also produce noise,vibration,and increased torque.A similar defect is a pattern of elliptical dents caused by balls vibrating between raceways while the bearing is not turning.This problem is called false brinelling.It occurs on equipment in transit or that vibrates when not in operation.In addition, debris created by false brinelling acts like an abrasive, further contaminating the bearing.Unlike brinelling, false binelling is often indicated by a reddish color from fretting corrosion in the lubricant.False brinelling is prevented by eliminating vibration sources and keeping the bearing well lubricated.Isolation pads on the equipment or a separate foundation may be required to reduce
running torque,stiffness,nonrepetitive runout,and radial and axial play.In some applications, these items are so critical that specifying an ABEC level alone is not sufficient.
Torque requirements are determined by the lubricant,retainer,raceway quality(roundness cross curvature and surface finish),and whether seals or shields are used.Lubricant viscosity must be selected carefully because inappropriate lubricant,especially in miniature bearings,causes excessive torque.Also,different lubricants have varying noise characteristics that should be matched to the application.For example,greases produce more noise than oil.
Nonrepetitive runout(NRR)occurs during rotation as a random eccentricity between the inner and outer races,much like a cam action.NRR can be caused by retainer tolerance or eccentricities of the raceways and balls.Unlike repetitive runout, no compensation can be made for NRR.NRR is reflected in the cost of the bearing.It is common in the industry to provide different bearing types and grades for specific applications.For example,a bearing with an NRR of less than 0.3um is used when minimal runout is needed,such as in disk—drive spindle motors.Similarly,machine—tool spindles tolerate only minimal deflections to maintain precision cuts.Consequently, bearings are manufactured with low NRR just for machine-tool applications.
Contamination is unavoidable in many industrial products,and shields and seals are commonly used to protect bearings from dust and dirt.However,a perfect bearing seal is not possible because of the movement between inner and outer races.Consequently,lubrication migration and contamination are always problems.
Once a bearing is contaminated, its lubricant deteriorates and operation becomes noisier.If it overheats,the bearing can seize.At the very least,contamination causes wear as it works between balls and the raceway,becoming imbedded in the races and acting as an abrasive between metal surfaces.Fending off dirt with seals and shields illustrates some methods for controlling contamination.
Noise is as an indicator of bearing quality.Various noise grades have been developed to classify bearing performance capabilities.
Noise analysis is done with an Anderonmeter, which is used for quality control in bearing production and also when failed bearings are returned for analysis.A transducer is attached to the outer ring and the inner race is turned at 1,800rpm on an air spindle.Noise is measured in andirons, which represent ball displacement in μm/rad.With experience, inspectors can identify the smallest flaw from their sound.Dust, for example, makes an irregular crackling.Ball scratches make a consistent popping and are the most difficult to identify.Inner-race damage is normally a constant high-pitched noise, while a damaged outer race makes an intermittent sound as it rotates.如何延長(zhǎng)軸承壽命 軸承失效的原因
在球軸承的失效中約有40%是由灰塵、臟物、碎屑的污染以及腐蝕造成的。污染通常是由不正確的使用和不良的使用環(huán)境造成的,它還會(huì)引起扭矩和噪聲的問(wèn)題。由環(huán)境和污染所產(chǎn)生的軸承失效是可以預(yù)防的,而且通過(guò)簡(jiǎn)單的肉眼觀察是可以確定產(chǎn)生這類失效的原因。
通過(guò)失效后的分析可以得知對(duì)已經(jīng)失效的或?qū)⒁У妮S承應(yīng)該在哪些方面進(jìn)行查看。弄清諸如剝蝕和疲勞破壞一類失效的機(jī)理,有助于消除問(wèn)題的根源。
只要使用和安裝合理,軸承的剝蝕是容易避免的。剝蝕的特征是在軸承圈滾道上留有由沖擊載荷或不正確的安裝產(chǎn)生的壓痕。剝蝕通常是在載荷超過(guò)材料屈服極限時(shí)發(fā)生的。如果安裝不正確從而使某一載荷橫穿軸承圈也會(huì)產(chǎn)生剝蝕。軸承圈上的壓坑還會(huì)產(chǎn)生噪聲、振動(dòng)和附加扭矩。
類似的一種缺陷是當(dāng)軸承不旋轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)由于滾珠在軸承圈間振動(dòng)而產(chǎn)生的橢圓形壓痕。這種破壞稱為低荷振蝕。這種破壞在運(yùn)輸中的設(shè)備和不工作時(shí)仍振動(dòng)的設(shè)備中都會(huì)產(chǎn)生。此外,低荷振蝕產(chǎn)生的碎屑的作用就象磨粒一樣,會(huì)進(jìn)一步損害軸承。與剝蝕不同,低荷振蝕的特征通常是由于微振磨損腐蝕在潤(rùn)滑劑中會(huì)產(chǎn)生淡紅色。
消除振動(dòng)源并保持良好的軸承潤(rùn)滑可以防止低荷振蝕。給設(shè)備加隔離墊或?qū)Φ鬃M(jìn)行隔離可以減輕環(huán)境的振動(dòng)。另外在軸承上加一個(gè)較小的預(yù)載荷不僅有助于滾珠和軸承圈保持緊密的接觸,并且對(duì)防止在設(shè)備運(yùn)輸中產(chǎn)生的低荷振蝕也有幫助。
造成軸承卡住的原因是缺少內(nèi)隙、潤(rùn)滑不當(dāng)和載荷過(guò)大。在卡住之前,過(guò)大的摩擦和熱量使軸承鋼軟化。過(guò)熱的軸承通常會(huì)改變顏色,一般會(huì)變成藍(lán)黑色或淡黃色。摩擦還會(huì)使保持架受力,這會(huì)破壞支承架,并加速軸承的失效。
材料過(guò)早出現(xiàn)疲勞破壞是由重載后過(guò)大的預(yù)載引起的。如果這些條件不可避免,就應(yīng)仔細(xì)計(jì)算軸承壽命,以制定一個(gè)維護(hù)計(jì)劃。
另一個(gè)解決辦法是更換材料。若標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的軸承材料不能保證足夠的軸承壽命,就應(yīng)當(dāng)采用特殊的材料。另外,如果這個(gè)問(wèn)題是由于載荷過(guò)大造成的,就應(yīng)該采用抗載能力更強(qiáng)或其他結(jié)構(gòu)的軸承。
蠕動(dòng)不象過(guò)早疲勞那樣普遍。軸承的蠕動(dòng)是由于軸和內(nèi)圈之間的間隙過(guò)大造成的。蠕動(dòng)的害處很大,它不僅損害軸承,也破壞其他零件。
蠕動(dòng)的明顯特征是劃痕、擦痕或軸與內(nèi)圈的顏色變化。為了防止蠕動(dòng),應(yīng)該先用肉眼檢查一下軸承箱件和軸的配件。
第二篇:機(jī)械英語(yǔ)翻譯
機(jī)械英語(yǔ)翻譯.txt你無(wú)法改變別人,但你可以改變自己;你無(wú)法改變天氣,但你可以改變心情;你無(wú)法改變生命長(zhǎng)度,但你可以拓展它的寬度。第一單元 ? Types of Materials 材料的類型
Materials may be grouped in several ways.Scientists often classify materials by their state: solid, liquid, or gas.They also separate them into organic(once living)and inorganic(never living)materials.材料可以按多種方法分類??茖W(xué)家常根據(jù)狀態(tài)將材料分為:固體、液體或氣體。他們也把材料分為有機(jī)材料(曾經(jīng)有生命的)和無(wú)機(jī)材料(從未有生命的)。
For industrial purposes, materials are divided into engineering materials or nonengineering materials.Engineering materials are those used in manufacture and become parts of products.就工業(yè)效用而言,材料被分為工程材料和非工程材料。那些用于加工制造并成為產(chǎn)品組成部分的就是工程材料。
Nonengineering materials are the chemicals, fuels, lubricants, and other materials used in the manufacturing process, which do not become part of the product.非工程材料則是化學(xué)品、燃料、潤(rùn)滑劑以及其它用于加工制造過(guò)程但不成為產(chǎn)品組成部分的材料。
Engineering materials may be further subdivided into: ①M(fèi)etal ②Ceramics ③Composite ④Polymers, etc.工程材料還能進(jìn)一步細(xì)分為:①金屬材料②陶瓷材料③復(fù)合材料 ④聚合材料,等等。? Metals and Metal Alloys 金屬和金屬合金
Metals are elements that generally have good electrical and thermal conductivity.Many metals have high strength, high stiffness, and have good ductility.金屬就是通常具有良好導(dǎo)電性和導(dǎo)熱性的元素。許多金屬具有高強(qiáng)度、高硬度以及良好的延展性。
Some metals, such as iron, cobalt and nickel, are magnetic.At low temperatures, some metals and intermetallic compounds become superconductors.某些金屬能被磁化,例如鐵、鈷和鎳。在極低的溫度下,某些金屬和金屬化合物能轉(zhuǎn)變成超導(dǎo)體。
What is the difference between an alloy and a pure metal? Pure metals are elements which come from a particular area of the periodic table.Examples of pure metals include copper in electrical wires and aluminum in cooking foil and beverage cans.合金與純金屬的區(qū)別是什么?純金屬是在元素周期表中占據(jù)特定位置的元素。例如電線中的銅和制造烹飪箔及飲料罐的鋁。
Alloys contain more than one metallic element.Their properties can be changed by changing the elements present in the alloy.Examples of metal alloys include stainless steel which is an alloy of iron, nickel, and chromium;and gold jewelry which usually contains an alloy of gold and nickel.合金包含不止一種金屬元素。合金的性質(zhì)能通過(guò)改變其中存在的元素而改變。金屬合金的例子有:不銹鋼是一種鐵、鎳、鉻的合金,以及金飾品通常含有金鎳合金。Why are metals and alloys used? Many metals and alloys have high densities and are used in applications which require a high mass-to-volume ratio.為什么要使用金屬和合金?許多金屬和合金具有高密度,因此被用在需要較高質(zhì)量體積比的場(chǎng)合。
Some metal alloys, such as those based on aluminum, have low densities and are used in aerospace applications for fuel economy.Many alloys also have high fracture toughness, which means they can withstand impact and are durable.某些金屬合金,例如鋁基合金,其密度低,可用于航空航天以節(jié)約燃料。許多合金還具有高斷裂韌性,這意味著它們能經(jīng)得起沖擊并且是耐用的。
What are some important properties of metals? Density is defined as a material’s mass divided by its volume.Most metals have relatively high densities, especially compared to polymers.金屬有哪些重要特性?
密度定義為材料的質(zhì)量與其體積之比。大多數(shù)金屬密度相對(duì)較高,尤其是和聚合物相比較而言。
Materials with high densities often contain atoms with high atomic numbers, such as gold or lead.However, some metals such as aluminum or magnesium have low densities, and are used in applications that require other metallic properties but also require low weight.高密度材料通常由較大原子序數(shù)原子構(gòu)成,例如金和鉛。然而,諸如鋁和鎂之類的一些金屬則具有低密度,并被用于既需要金屬特性又要求重量輕的場(chǎng)合。Fracture toughness can be described as a material’s ability to avoid fracture, especially when a flaw is introduced.Metals can generally contain nicks and dents without weakening very much, and are impact resistant.A football player counts on this when he trusts that his facemask won’t shatter.斷裂韌性可以描述為材料防止斷裂特別是出現(xiàn)缺陷時(shí)不斷裂的能力。金屬一般能在有缺口和凹痕的情況下不顯著削弱,并且能抵抗沖擊。橄欖球運(yùn)動(dòng)員據(jù)此相信他的面罩不會(huì)裂成碎片。
Plastic deformation is the ability of bend or deform before breaking.As engineers, we usually design materials so that they don’t deform under normal conditions.You don’t want your car to lean to the east after a strong west wind.塑性變形就是在斷裂前彎曲或變形的能力。作為工程師,設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)通常要使材料在正常條件下不變形。沒(méi)有人愿意一陣強(qiáng)烈的西風(fēng)過(guò)后自己的汽車(chē)向東傾斜。
However, sometimes we can take advantage of plastic deformation.The crumple zones in a car absorb energy by undergoing plastic deformation before they break.然而,有時(shí)我們也能利用塑性變形。汽車(chē)上壓皺的區(qū)域在它們斷裂前通過(guò)經(jīng)歷塑性變形來(lái)吸收能量。
The atomic bonding of metals also affects their properties.In metals, the outer valence electrons are shared among all atoms, and are free to travel everywhere.Since electrons conduct heat and electricity, metals make good cooking pans and electrical wires.金屬的原子連結(jié)對(duì)它們的特性也有影響。在金屬內(nèi)部,原子的外層階電子由所有原子共享并能到處自由移動(dòng)。由于電子能導(dǎo)熱和導(dǎo)電,所以用金屬可以制造好的烹飪鍋和電線。It is impossible to see through metals, since these valence electrons absorb any photons of light which reach the metal.No photons pass through.因?yàn)檫@些階電子吸收到達(dá)金屬的光子,所以透過(guò)金屬不可能看得見(jiàn)。沒(méi)有光子能通過(guò)金屬。Alloys are compounds consisting of more than one metal.Adding other metals can affect the density, strength, fracture toughness, plastic deformation, electrical conductivity and environmental degradation.合金是由一種以上金屬組成的混合物。加一些其它金屬能影響密度、強(qiáng)度、斷裂韌性、塑性變形、導(dǎo)電性以及環(huán)境侵蝕。
For example, adding a small amount of iron to aluminum will make it stronger.Also, adding some chromium to steel will slow the rusting process, but will make it more brittle.例如,往鋁里加少量鐵可使其更強(qiáng)。同樣,在鋼里加一些鉻能減緩它的生銹過(guò)程,但也將使它更脆。
? Ceramics and Glasses 陶瓷和玻璃 A ceramic is often broadly defined as any inorganic nonmetallic material. By this definition, ceramic materials would also include glasses;however, many materials scientists add the stipulation that “ceramic” must also be crystalline.陶瓷通常被概括地定義為無(wú)機(jī)的非金屬材料。照此定義,陶瓷材料也應(yīng)包括玻璃;然而許多材料科學(xué)家添加了“陶瓷”必須同時(shí)是晶體物組成的約定。
A glass is an inorganic nonmetallic material that does not have a crystalline structure.Such materials are said to be amorphous.玻璃是沒(méi)有晶體狀結(jié)構(gòu)的無(wú)機(jī)非金屬材料。這種材料被稱為非結(jié)晶質(zhì)材料。Properties of Ceramics and Glasses Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance.陶瓷和玻璃的特性
高熔點(diǎn)、低密度、高強(qiáng)度、高剛度、高硬度、高耐磨性和抗腐蝕性是陶瓷和玻璃的一些有用特性。
Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators.Some ceramics have special properties: some ceramics are magnetic materials;some are piezoelectric materials;and a few special ceramics are superconductors at very low temperatures.Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle.許多陶瓷都是電和熱的良絕緣體。某些陶瓷還具有一些特殊性能:有些是磁性材料,有些是壓電材料,還有些特殊陶瓷在極低溫度下是超導(dǎo)體。陶瓷和玻璃都有一個(gè)主要的缺點(diǎn):它們?nèi)菀灼扑椤?/p>
Ceramics are not typically formed from the melt.This is because most ceramics will crack extensively(i.e.form a powder)upon cooling from the liquid state.陶瓷一般不是由熔化形成的。因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)陶瓷在從液態(tài)冷卻時(shí)將會(huì)完全破碎(即形成粉末)。
Hence, all the simple and efficient manufacturing techniques used for glass production such as casting and blowing, which involve the molten state, cannot be used for the production of crystalline ceramics.Instead, “sintering” or “firing” is the process typically used.因此,所有用于玻璃生產(chǎn)的簡(jiǎn)單有效的—諸如澆鑄和吹制這些涉及熔化的技術(shù)都不能用于由晶體物組成的陶瓷的生產(chǎn)。作為替代,一般采用“燒結(jié)”或“焙燒”工藝。
In sintering, ceramic powders are processed into compacted shapes and then heated to temperatures just below the melting point.At such temperatures, the powders react internally to remove porosity and fully dense articles can be obtained.在燒結(jié)過(guò)程中,陶瓷粉末先擠壓成型然后加熱到略低于熔點(diǎn)溫度。在這樣的溫度下,粉末內(nèi)部起反應(yīng)去除孔隙并得到十分致密的物品。
An optical fiber contains three layers: a core made of highly pure glass with a high refractive index for the light to travel, a middle layer of glass with a lower refractive index known as the cladding which protects the core glass from scratches and other surface imperfections, and an out polymer jacket to protect the fiber from damage.光導(dǎo)纖維有三層:核心由高折射指數(shù)高純光傳輸玻璃制成,中間層為低折射指數(shù)玻璃,是保護(hù)核心玻璃表面不被擦傷和完整性不被破壞的所謂覆層,外層是聚合物護(hù)套,用于保護(hù)光導(dǎo)纖維不受損。
In order for the core glass to have a higher refractive index than the cladding, the core glass is doped with a small, controlled amount of an impurity, or dopant, which causes light to travel slower, but does not absorb the light.為了使核心玻璃有比覆層大的折射指數(shù),在其中摻入微小的、可控?cái)?shù)量的能減緩光速而不會(huì)吸收光線的雜質(zhì)或攙雜劑。
Because the refractive index of the core glass is greater than that of the cladding, light traveling in the core glass will remain in the core glass due to total internal reflection as long as the light strikes the core/cladding interface at an angle greater than the critical angle.由于核心玻璃的折射指數(shù)比覆層大,只要在全內(nèi)反射過(guò)程中光線照射核心/覆層分界面的角度比臨界角大,在核心玻璃中傳送的光線將仍保留在核心玻璃中。
The total internal reflection phenomenon, as well as the high purity of the core glass, enables light to travel long distances with little loss of intensity.全內(nèi)反射現(xiàn)象與核心玻璃的高純度一樣,使光線幾乎無(wú)強(qiáng)度損耗傳遞長(zhǎng)距離成為可能。? Composites 復(fù)合材料
Composites are formed from two or more types of materials.Examples include polymer/ceramic and metal/ceramic composites.Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components.復(fù)合材料由兩種或更多材料構(gòu)成。例子有聚合物/陶瓷和金屬/陶瓷復(fù)合材料。之所以使用復(fù)合材料是因?yàn)槠淙嫘阅軆?yōu)于組成部分單獨(dú)的性能。
For example: polymer/ceramic composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component, but aren’t as brittle as ceramics.Two types of composites are: fiber-reinforced composites and particle-reinforced composites.例如:聚合物/陶瓷復(fù)合材料具有比聚合物成分更大的模量,但又不像陶瓷那樣易碎。
復(fù)合材料有兩種:纖維加強(qiáng)型復(fù)合材料和微粒加強(qiáng)型復(fù)合材料。Fiber-reinforced Composites Reinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers that have been turned into graphite and known as carbon fibers.Fibers increase the modulus of the matrix material.纖維加強(qiáng)型復(fù)合材料
加強(qiáng)纖維可以是金屬、陶瓷、玻璃或是已變成石墨的被稱為碳纖維的聚合物。纖維能加強(qiáng)基材的模量。
The strong covalent bonds along the fiber’s length give them a very high modulus in this direction because to break or extend the fiber the bonds must also be broken or moved.沿著纖維長(zhǎng)度有很強(qiáng)結(jié)合力的共價(jià)結(jié)合在這個(gè)方向上給予復(fù)合材料很高的模量,因?yàn)橐獡p壞或拉伸纖維就必須破壞或移除這種結(jié)合。
Fibers are difficult to process into composites, making fiber-reinforced composites relatively expensive.把纖維放入復(fù)合材料較困難,這使得制造纖維加強(qiáng)型復(fù)合材料相對(duì)昂貴。Fiber-reinforced composites are used in some of the most advanced, and therefore most expensive sports equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame which consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset polymer matrix.纖維加強(qiáng)型復(fù)合材料用于某些最先進(jìn)也是最昂貴的運(yùn)動(dòng)設(shè)備,例如計(jì)時(shí)賽競(jìng)賽用自行車(chē)骨架就是用含碳纖維的熱固塑料基材制成的。
Body parts of race cars and some automobiles are composites made of glass fibers(or fiberglass)in a thermoset matrix.競(jìng)賽用汽車(chē)和某些機(jī)動(dòng)車(chē)的車(chē)體部件是由含玻璃纖維(或玻璃絲)的熱固塑料基材制成的。Fibers have a very high modulus along their axis, but have a low modulus perpendicular to their axis.Fiber composite manufacturers often rotate layers of fibers to avoid directional variations in the modulus.纖維在沿著其軸向有很高的模量,但垂直于其軸向的模量卻較低。纖維復(fù)合材料的制造者往往旋轉(zhuǎn)纖維層以防模量產(chǎn)生方向變化。Particle-reinforced composites Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminum, and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black.微粒加強(qiáng)型復(fù)合材料
用于加強(qiáng)的微粒包含了陶瓷和玻璃之類的礦物微粒,鋁之類的金屬微粒以及包括聚合物和碳黑的非結(jié)晶質(zhì)微粒。
Particles are used to increase the modulus of the matrix, to decrease the permeability of the matrix, to decrease the ductility of the matrix.An example of particle-reinforced composites is an automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a matrix of polyisobutylene elastomeric polymer.微粒用于增加基材的模量、減少基材的滲透性和延展性。微粒加強(qiáng)型復(fù)合材料的一個(gè)例子是機(jī)動(dòng)車(chē)胎,它就是在聚異丁烯人造橡膠聚合物基材中加入了碳黑微粒。? Polymers 聚合材料
A polymer has a repeating structure, usually based on a carbon backbone.The repeating structure results in large chainlike molecules.Polymers are useful because they are lightweight, corrosion resistant, easy to process at low temperatures and generally inexpensive.聚合物具有一般是基于碳鏈的重復(fù)結(jié)構(gòu)。這種重復(fù)結(jié)構(gòu)產(chǎn)生鏈狀大分子。由于重量輕、耐腐蝕、容易在較低溫度下加工并且通常較便宜,聚合物是很有用的。
Some important characteristics of polymers include their size(or molecular weight), softening and melting points, crystallinity, and structure.The mechanical properties of polymers generally include low strength and high toughness.Their strength is often improved using reinforced composite structures.聚合材料具有一些重要特性,包括尺寸(或分子量)、軟化及熔化點(diǎn)、結(jié)晶度和結(jié)構(gòu)。聚合材料的機(jī)械性能一般表現(xiàn)為低強(qiáng)度和高韌性。它們的強(qiáng)度通常可采用加強(qiáng)復(fù)合結(jié)構(gòu)來(lái)改善。
Important Characteristics of Polymers Size.Single polymer molecules typically have molecular weights between 10,000 and 1,000,000g/mol—that can be more than 2,000 repeating units depending on the polymer structure!聚合材料的重要特性
尺寸:?jiǎn)蝹€(gè)聚合物分子一般分子量為10,000到1,000,000g/mol之間,具體取決于聚合物的結(jié)構(gòu)—這可以比2,000個(gè)重復(fù)單元還多。The mechanical properties of a polymer are significantly affected by the molecular weight, with better engineering properties at higher molecular weights.聚合物的分子量極大地影響其機(jī)械性能,分子量越大,工程性能也越好。Thermal transitions.The softening point(glass transition temperature)and the melting point of a polymer will determine which it will be suitable for applications.These temperatures usually determine the upper limit for which a polymer can be used.熱轉(zhuǎn)換性:聚合物的軟化點(diǎn)(玻璃狀轉(zhuǎn)化溫度)和熔化點(diǎn)決定了它是否適合應(yīng)用。這些溫度通常決定聚合物能否使用的上限。For example, many industrially important polymers have glass transition temperatures near the boiling point of water(100℃, 212℉), and they are most useful for room temperature applications.Some specially engineered polymers can withstand temperatures as high as 300℃(572℉).例如,許多工業(yè)上的重要聚合物其玻璃狀轉(zhuǎn)化溫度接近水的沸點(diǎn)(100℃, 212℉),它們被廣泛用于室溫下。而某些特別制造的聚合物能經(jīng)受住高達(dá)300℃(572℉)的溫度。
Crystallinity.Polymers can be crystalline or amorphous, but they usually have a combination of crystalline and amorphous structures(semi-crystalline).結(jié)晶度:聚合物可以是晶體狀的或非結(jié)晶質(zhì)的,但它們通常是晶體狀和非結(jié)晶質(zhì)結(jié)構(gòu)的結(jié)合物(半晶體)。
Interchain interactions.The polymer chains can be free to slide past one another(thermo-plastic)or they can be connected to each other with crosslinks(thermoset or elastomer).Thermo-plastics can be reformed and recycled, while thermosets and elastomers are not reworkable.原子鏈間的相互作用:聚合物的原子鏈可以自由地彼此滑動(dòng)(熱可塑性)或通過(guò)交鍵互相連接(熱固性或彈性)。熱可塑性材料可以重新形成和循環(huán)使用,而熱固性與彈性材料則是不能再使用的。
Intrachain structure.The chemical structure of the chains also has a tremendous effect on the properties.Depending on the structure the polymer may be hydrophilic or hydrophobic(likes or hates water), stiff or flexible, crystalline or amorphous, reactive or unreactive.鏈內(nèi)結(jié)構(gòu):原子鏈的化學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)對(duì)性能也有很大影響。根據(jù)各自的結(jié)構(gòu)不同,聚合物可以是親水的或憎水的(喜歡或討厭水)、硬的或軟的、晶體狀的或非結(jié)晶質(zhì)的、易起反應(yīng)的或不易起反應(yīng)的。
第二單元
The understanding of heat treatment is embraced by the broader study of metallurgy.Metallurgy is the physics, chemistry, and engineering related to metals from ore extraction to the final product.對(duì)熱處理的理解包含于對(duì)冶金學(xué)較廣泛的研究。冶金學(xué)是物理學(xué)、化學(xué)和涉及金屬?gòu)牡V石提煉到最后產(chǎn)物的工程學(xué)。
Heat treatment is the operation of heating and cooling a metal in its solid state to change its physical properties.According to the procedure used, steel can be hardened to resist cutting action and abrasion, or it can be softened to permit machining.熱處理是將金屬在固態(tài)加熱和冷卻以改變其物理性能的操作。按所采用的步驟,鋼可以通過(guò)硬化來(lái)抵抗切削和磨損,也可以通過(guò)軟化來(lái)允許機(jī)加工。
With the proper heat treatment internal stresses may be removed, grain size reduced, toughness increased, or a hard surface produced on a ductile interior.The analysis of the steel must be known because small percentages of certain elements, notably carbon, greatly affect the physical properties.使用合適的熱處理可以去除內(nèi)應(yīng)力、細(xì)化晶粒、增加韌性或在柔軟材料上覆蓋堅(jiān)硬的表面。因?yàn)槟承┰?尤其是碳)的微小百分比極大地影響物理性能,所以必須知道對(duì)鋼的分析。Alloy steel owe their properties to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon, namely nickel, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, tungsten, silicon, vanadium, and copper.Because of their improved physical properties they are used commercially in many ways not possible with carbon steels.合金鋼的性質(zhì)取決于其所含有的除碳以外的一種或多種元素,如鎳、鉻、錳、鉬、鎢、硅、釩和銅。由于合金鋼改善的物理性能,它們被大量使用在許多碳鋼不適用的地方。The following discussion applies principally to the heat treatment of ordinary commercial steels known as plain carbon steels.With this process the rate of cooling is the controlling factor, rapid cooling from above the critical range results in hard structure, whereas very slow cooling produces the opposite effect.下列討論主要針對(duì)被稱為普通碳鋼的工業(yè)用鋼而言。熱處理時(shí)冷卻速率是控制要素,從高于臨界溫度快速冷卻導(dǎo)致堅(jiān)硬的組織結(jié)構(gòu),而緩慢冷卻則產(chǎn)生相反效果。? A Simplified Iron-carbon Diagram 簡(jiǎn)化鐵碳狀態(tài)圖
If we focus only on the materials normally known as steels, a simplified diagram is often used.如果只把注意力集中于一般所說(shuō)的鋼上,經(jīng)常要用到簡(jiǎn)化鐵碳狀態(tài)圖。
Those portions of the iron-carbon diagram near the delta region and those above 2% carbon content are of little importance to the engineer and are deleted.A simplified diagram, such as the one in Fig.2.1, focuses on the eutectoid region and is quite useful in understanding the properties and processing of steel.鐵碳狀態(tài)圖中靠近三角區(qū)和含碳量高于2%的那些部分對(duì)工程師而言不重要,因此將它們刪除。如圖2.1所示的簡(jiǎn)化鐵碳狀態(tài)圖將焦點(diǎn)集中在共析區(qū),這對(duì)理解鋼的性能和處理是十分有用的。
The key transition described in this diagram is the decomposition of single-phase austenite(γ)to the two-phase ferrite plus carbide structure as temperature drops.在此圖中描述的關(guān)鍵轉(zhuǎn)變是單相奧氏體(γ)隨著溫度下降分解成兩相鐵素體加滲碳體組織結(jié)構(gòu)。
Control of this reaction, which arises due to the drastically different carbon solubility of austenite and ferrite, enables a wide range of properties to be achieved through heat treatment.控制這一由于奧氏體和鐵素體的碳溶解性完全不同而產(chǎn)生的反應(yīng),使得通過(guò)熱處理能獲得很大范圍的特性。To begin to understand these processes, consider a steel of the eutectoid composition, 0.77% carbon, being slow cooled along line x-x’ in Fig.2.1.At the upper temperatures, only austenite is present, the 0.77% carbon being dissolved in solid solution with the iron.When the steel cools to 727℃(1341℉), several changes occur simultaneously.為了理解這些過(guò)程,考慮含碳量為0.77%的共析鋼,沿著圖2.1的x-x’線慢慢冷卻。在較高溫度時(shí),只存在奧氏體,0.77%的碳溶解在鐵里形成固溶體。當(dāng)鋼冷卻到727℃(1341℉)時(shí),將同時(shí)發(fā)生若干變化。
The iron wants to change from the FCC austenite structure to the BCC ferrite structure, but the ferrite can only contain 0.02% carbon in solid solution.鐵需要從面心立方體奧氏體結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)轶w心立方體鐵素體結(jié)構(gòu),但是鐵素體只能容納固溶體狀態(tài)的0.02%的碳。
The rejected carbon forms the carbon-rich cementite intermetallic with composition Fe3C.In essence, the net reaction at the eutectoid is austenite 0.77%C→ferrite 0.02%C+cementite 6.67%C.被析出的碳與金屬化合物Fe3C形成富碳的滲碳體。本質(zhì)上,共析體的基本反應(yīng)是奧氏體0.77%的碳→鐵素體0.02%的碳+滲碳體6.67%的碳。
Since this chemical separation of the carbon component occurs entirely in the solid state, the resulting structure is a fine mechanical mixture of ferrite and cementite.Specimens prepared by polishing and etching in a weak solution of nitric acid and alcohol reveal the lamellar structure of alternating plates that forms on slow cooling.由于這種碳成分的化學(xué)分離完全發(fā)生在固態(tài)中,產(chǎn)生的組織結(jié)構(gòu)是一種細(xì)致的鐵素體與滲碳體的機(jī)械混合物。通過(guò)打磨并在弱硝酸酒精溶液中蝕刻制備的樣本顯示出由緩慢冷卻形成的交互層狀的薄片結(jié)構(gòu)。
This structure is composed of two distinct phases, but has its own set of characteristic properties and goes by the name pearlite, because of its resemblance to mother-of-pearl at low magnification.這種結(jié)構(gòu)由兩種截然不同的狀態(tài)組成,但它本身具有一系列特性,且因與低倍數(shù)放大時(shí)的珠母層有類同之處而被稱為珠光體。Steels having less than the eutectoid amount of carbon(less than 0.77%)are known as hypo-eutectoid steels.Consider now the transformation of such a material represented by cooling along line y-y’ in Fig.2.1.含碳量少于共析體(低于0.77%)的鋼稱為亞共析鋼?,F(xiàn)在來(lái)看這種材料沿著圖2.1中y-y’ 線冷卻的轉(zhuǎn)變情況。
At high temperatures, the material is entirely austenite, but upon cooling enters a region where the stable phases are ferrite and austenite.Tie-line and level-law calculations show that low-carbon ferrite nucleates and grows, leaving the remaining austenite richer in carbon.在較高溫度時(shí),這種材料全部是奧氏體,但隨著冷卻就進(jìn)入到鐵素體和奧氏體穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)的區(qū)域。由截線及杠桿定律分析可知,低碳鐵素體成核并長(zhǎng)大,剩下含碳量高的奧氏體。
At 727℃(1341℉), the austenite is of eutectoid composition(0.77% carbon)and further cooling transforms the remaining austenite to pearlite.The resulting structure is a mixture of primary or pro-eutectoid ferrite(ferrite that formed above the eutectoid reaction)and regions of pearlite.在727℃(1341℉)時(shí),奧氏體為共析組成(含碳量0.77%),再冷卻剩余的奧氏體就轉(zhuǎn)化為珠光體。作為結(jié)果的組織結(jié)構(gòu)是初步的共析鐵素體(在共析反應(yīng)前的鐵素體)和部分珠光體的混合物。
Hypereutectoid steels are steels that contain greater than the eutectoid amount of carbon.When such steel cools, as shown in z-z’ of Fig.2.1 the process is similar to the hypo-eutectoid case, except that the primary or pro-eutectoid phase is now cementite instead of ferrite.過(guò)共析鋼是含碳量大于共析量的鋼。當(dāng)這種鋼冷卻時(shí),就像圖2.1的z-z’線所示,除了初步的共析狀態(tài)用滲碳體取代鐵素體外,其余類似亞共析鋼的情況。
As the carbon-rich phase forms, the remaining austenite decreases in carbon content, reaching the eutectoid composition at 727℃(1341℉).As before, any remaining austenite transforms to pearlite upon slow cooling through this temperature.隨著富碳部分的形成,剩余奧氏體含碳量減少,在727℃(1341℉)時(shí)達(dá)到共析組織。就像以前說(shuō)的一樣,當(dāng)緩慢冷卻到這溫度時(shí)所有剩余奧氏體轉(zhuǎn)化為珠光體。
It should be remembered that the transitions that have been described by the phase diagrams are for equilibrium conditions, which can be approximated by slow cooling.With slow heating, these transitions occur in the reverse manner.應(yīng)該記住由狀態(tài)圖描述的這種轉(zhuǎn)化只適合于通過(guò)緩慢冷卻的近似平衡條件。如果緩慢加熱,則以相反的方式發(fā)生這種轉(zhuǎn)化。However, when alloys are cooled rapidly, entirely different results may be obtained, because sufficient time is not provided for the normal phase reactions to occur, in such cases, the phase diagram is no longer a useful tool for engineering analysis.然而,當(dāng)快速冷卻合金時(shí),可能得到完全不同的結(jié)果。因?yàn)闆](méi)有足夠的時(shí)間讓正常的狀態(tài)反應(yīng)發(fā)生,在這種情況下對(duì)工程分析而言狀態(tài)圖不再是有用的工具。? Hardening 淬火
Hardening is the process of heating a piece of steel to a temperature within or above its critical range and then cooling it rapidly.淬火就是把鋼件加熱到或超過(guò)它的臨界溫度范圍,然后使其快速冷卻的過(guò)程。If the carbon content of the steel is known, the proper temperature to which the steel should be heated may be obtained by reference to the iron-iron carbide phase diagram.However, if the composition of the steel is unknown, a little preliminary experimentation may be necessary to determine the range.如果鋼的含碳量已知,鋼件合適的加熱溫度可參考鐵碳合金狀態(tài)圖得到。然而當(dāng)鋼的成分不知道時(shí),則需做一些預(yù)備試驗(yàn)來(lái)確定其溫度范圍。
A good procedure to follow is to heat-quench a number of small specimens of the steel at various temperatures and observe the result, either by hardness testing or by microscopic examination.When the correct temperature is obtained, there will be a marked change in hardness and other properties.要遵循的合適步驟是將這種鋼的一些小試件加熱到不同的溫度后淬火,再通過(guò)硬度試驗(yàn)或顯微鏡檢查觀測(cè)結(jié)果。一旦獲得正確的溫度,硬度和其它性能都將有明顯的變化。
In any heat-treating operation the rate of heating is important.Heat flows from the exterior to the interior of steel at a definite rate.If the steel is heated too fast, the outside becomes hotter than the interior and uniform structure cannot be obtained.在任何熱處理作業(yè)中,加熱的速率都是重要的。熱量以一定的速率從鋼的外部傳導(dǎo)到內(nèi)部。如果鋼被加熱得太快,其外部比內(nèi)部熱就不能得到均勻的組織結(jié)構(gòu)。
If a piece is irregular in shape, a slow rate is all the more essential to eliminate warping and cracking.The heavier the section, the longer must be the heating time to achieve uniform results.如果工件形狀不規(guī)則,為了消除翹曲和開(kāi)裂最根本的是加熱速率要緩慢。截面越厚,加熱的時(shí)間就要越長(zhǎng)才能達(dá)到均勻的結(jié)果。
Even after the correct temperature has been reached, the piece should be held at that temperature for a sufficient period of time to permit its thickest section to attain a uniform temperature.即使加熱到正確的溫度后,工件也應(yīng)在此溫度下保持足夠時(shí)間以讓其最厚截面達(dá)到相同溫度。The hardness obtained from a given treatment depends on the quenching rate, the carbon content, and the work size.In alloy steels the kind and amount of alloying element influences only the hardenability(the ability of the workpiece to be hardened to depths)of the steel and does not affect the hardness except in unhardened or partially hardened steels.通過(guò)給定的熱處理所得到的硬度取決于淬火速率、含碳量和工件尺寸。除了非淬硬鋼或部分淬硬鋼外,合金鋼中合金元素的種類及含量?jī)H影響鋼的淬透性(工件被硬化到深層的能力)而不影響硬度。
Steel with low carbon content will not respond appreciably to hardening treatment.As the carbon content in steel increases up to around 0.60%, the possible hardness obtainable also increases.含碳量低的鋼對(duì)淬火處理沒(méi)有明顯的反應(yīng)。隨著鋼的含碳量增加到大約0.60%,可能得到的硬度也增加。
Above this point the hardness can be increased only slightly, because steels above the eutectoid point are made up entirely of pearlite and cementite in the annealed state.Pearlite responds best to heat-treating operations;and steel composed mostly of pearlite can be transformed into a hard steel.高于此點(diǎn),由于超過(guò)共析點(diǎn)鋼完全由珠光體和退火狀態(tài)的滲碳體組成,硬度增加并不多。珠光體對(duì)熱處理作業(yè)響應(yīng)最好;基本由珠光體組成的鋼能轉(zhuǎn)化成硬質(zhì)鋼。As the size of parts to be hardened increases, the surface hardness decreases somewhat even though all other conditions have remained the same.There is a limit to the rate of heat flow through steel.即使所有其它條件保持不變,隨著要淬火的零件尺寸的增加其表面硬度也會(huì)有所下降。熱量在鋼中的傳導(dǎo)速率是有限的。No matter how cool the quenching medium may be, if the heat inside a large piece cannot escape faster than a certain critical rate, there is a definite limit to the inside hardness.However, brine or water quenching is capable of rapidly bringing the surface of the quenched part to its own temperature and maintaining it at or close to this temperature.無(wú)論淬火介質(zhì)怎么冷,如果在大工件中的熱量不能比特定的臨界速率更快散發(fā),那它內(nèi)部硬度就會(huì)受到明確限制。然而鹽水或水淬火能夠?qū)⒈淮懔慵谋砻嫜杆倮鋮s至本身溫度并將其保持或接近此溫度。Under these circumstances there would always be some finite depth of surface hardening regardless of size.This is not true in oil quenching, when the surface temperature may be high during the critical stages of quenching.在這種情況下不管零件尺寸如何,其表面總歸有一定深度被硬化。但油淬情況就不是如此,因?yàn)橛痛銜r(shí)在淬火臨界階段零件表面的溫度可能仍然很高。? Tempering 回火
Steel that has been hardened by rapid quenching is brittle and not suitable for most uses.By tempering or drawing, the hardness and brittleness may be reduced to the desired point for service conditions.
快速淬火硬化的鋼是硬而易碎的,不適合大多數(shù)場(chǎng)合使用。通過(guò)回火,硬度和脆性可以降低到使用條件所需要的程度。
As these properties are reduced there is also a decrease in tensile strength and an increase in the ductility and toughness of the steel.The operation consists of reheating quench-hardened steel to some temperature below the critical range followed by any rate of cooling.隨著這些性能的降低,拉伸強(qiáng)度也降低而鋼的延展性和韌性則會(huì)提高。回火作業(yè)包括將淬硬鋼重新加熱到低于臨界范圍的某一溫度然后以任意速率冷卻。
Although this process softens steel, it differs considerably from annealing in that the process lends itself to close control of the physical properties and in most cases does not soften the steel to the extent that annealing would.The final structure obtained from tempering a fully hardened steel is called tempered martensite.雖然這過(guò)程使鋼軟化,但它與退火是大不相同的,因?yàn)榛鼗疬m合于嚴(yán)格控制物理性能并在大多數(shù)情況下不會(huì)把鋼軟化到退火那種程度?;鼗鹜耆阌蹭摰玫降淖罱K組織結(jié)構(gòu)被稱為回火馬氏體。
Tempering is possible because of the instability of the martensite, the principal constituent of hardened steel.Low-temperature draws, from 300℉ to 400℉(150℃~205℃), do not cause much decrease in hardness and are used principally to relieve internal strains.由于馬氏體這一淬硬鋼主要成分的不穩(wěn)定性,使得回火成為可能。低溫回火,300℉到400℉(150℃~205℃),不會(huì)引起硬度下降很多,主要用于減少內(nèi)部應(yīng)變。As the tempering temperatures are increased, the breakdown of the martensite takes place at a faster rate, and at about 600℉(315℃)the change to a structure called tempered martensite is very rapid.The tempering operation may be described as one of precipitation and agglomeration or coalescence of cementite.隨著回火溫度的提高,馬氏體以較快的速率分解,并在大約600℉(315℃)迅速轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)楸环Q為回火馬氏體的結(jié)構(gòu)?;鼗鹱鳂I(yè)可以描述為滲碳體析出和凝聚或聚結(jié)的過(guò)程。
A substantial precipitation of cementite begins at 600℉(315℃), which produces a decrease in hardness.Increasing the temperature causes coalescence of the carbides with continued decrease in hardness.滲碳體的大量析出開(kāi)始于600℉(315℃),這使硬度下降。溫度的上升會(huì)使碳化物聚結(jié)而硬度繼續(xù)降低。
In the process of tempering, some consideration should be given to time as well as to temperature.Although most of the softening action occurs in the first few minutes after the temperature is reached, there is some additional reduction in hardness if the temperature is maintained for a prolonged time.在回火過(guò)程中,不但要考慮溫度而且要考慮時(shí)間。雖然大多數(shù)軟化作用發(fā)生在達(dá)到所需溫度后的最初幾分鐘,但如果此溫度維持一段延長(zhǎng)時(shí)間,仍會(huì)有些額外的硬度下降。Usual practice is to heat the steel to the desired temperature and hold it there only long enough to have it uniformly heated.通常的做法是將鋼加熱到所需溫度并且僅保溫到正好使其均勻受熱。
Two special processes using interrupted quenching are a form of tempering.In both, the hardened steel is quenched in a salt bath held at a selected lower temperature before being allowed to cool.These processes, known as austempering and martempering, result in products having certain desirable physical properties.兩種采用中斷淬火的特殊工藝也是回火的形式。這兩種工藝中,淬硬鋼在其被允許冷卻前先在一選定的較低溫度鹽浴淬火。這兩種分別被稱為奧氏體回火和馬氏體回火的工藝,能使產(chǎn)品具有特定所需的物理性能。? Annealing 退火
The primary purpose of annealing is to soften hard steel so that it may be machined or cold worked.退火的主要目的是使堅(jiān)硬的鋼軟化以便機(jī)加工或冷作。
This is usually accomplished by heating the steel too slightly above the critical temperature, holding it there until the temperature of the piece is uniform throughout, and then cooling at a slowly controlled rate so that the temperature of the surface and that of the center of the piece are approximately the same.通常是非常緩慢地將鋼加熱到臨界溫度以上,并將其在此溫度下保持到工件全部均勻受熱,然后以受控的速率慢慢地冷卻,這樣使得工件表面和內(nèi)部的溫度近似相同。
This process is known as full annealing because it wipes out all trace of previous structure, refines the crystalline structure, and softens the metal.Annealing also relieves internal stresses previously set up in the metal.這過(guò)程被稱為完全退火,因?yàn)樗コ艘郧敖M織結(jié)構(gòu)的所有痕跡、細(xì)化晶粒并軟化金屬。退火也釋放了先前在金屬中的內(nèi)應(yīng)力。
The temperature to which a given steel should be heated in annealing depends on its composition;for carbon steels it can be obtained readily from the partial iron-iron carbide equilibrium diagram.When the annealing temperature has been reached, the steel should be held there until it is uniform throughout.給定的鋼其退火溫度取決于它的成分;對(duì)碳鋼而言可容易地從局部的鐵碳合金平衡圖得到。達(dá)到退火溫度后,鋼應(yīng)當(dāng)保持在此溫度等到全部均勻受熱。This usually takes about 45min for each inch(25mm)of thickness of the largest section.For maximum softness and ductility the cooling rate should be very slow, such as allowing the parts to cool down with the furnace.The higher the carbon content, the slower this rate must be.加熱時(shí)間一般以工件的最大截面厚度計(jì)每英寸(25mm)大約需45min。為了得到最大柔軟性和延展性冷卻速率應(yīng)該很慢,比如讓零件與爐子一起冷下來(lái)。含碳量越高,冷卻的速率必須越慢。
The heating rate should be consistent with the size and uniformity of sections, so that the entire part is brought up to temperature as uniformly as possible.加熱的速率也應(yīng)與截面的尺寸及均勻程度相協(xié)調(diào),這樣才能使整個(gè)零件盡可能均勻地加熱。? Normalizing and Spheroidizing 正火和球化
The process of normalizing consists of heating the steel about 50℉ to 100℉(10℃~40℃)above the upper critical range and cooling in still air to room temperature.正火處理包括先將鋼加熱到高于上臨界區(qū)50℉到100℉(10℃~40℃)然后在靜止的空氣中冷卻到室溫。
This process is principally used with low-and medium-carbon steels as well as alloy steels to make the grain structure more uniform, to relieve internal stresses, or to achieve desired results in physical properties.Most commercial steels are normalized after being rolled or cast.退火主要用于低碳鋼、中碳鋼及合金鋼,使晶粒結(jié)構(gòu)更均勻、釋放內(nèi)應(yīng)力或獲得所需的物理特性。大多數(shù)商業(yè)鋼材在軋制或鑄造后都要退火。
Spheroidizing is the process of producing a structure in which the cementite is in a spheroidal distribution.If steel is heated slowly to a temperature just below the critical range and held there for a prolonged period of time, this structure will be obtained.球化是使?jié)B碳體產(chǎn)生成類似球狀分布結(jié)構(gòu)的工藝。如果把鋼緩慢加熱到恰好低于臨界溫度并且保持較長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間,就能得到這種組織結(jié)構(gòu)。
The globular structure obtained gives improved machinability to the steel.This treatment is particularly useful for hypereutectoid steels that must be machined.所獲得的球狀結(jié)構(gòu)改善了鋼的可切削性。此處理方法對(duì)必須機(jī)加工的過(guò)共析鋼特別有用。? Surface Hardening 表面硬化 Carburizing The oldest known method of producing a hard surface on steel is case hardening or carburizing.Iron at temperatures close to and above its critical temperature has an affinity for carbon.滲碳
最早的硬化鋼表面的方法是表面淬火或滲碳。鐵在靠近并高于其臨界溫度時(shí)對(duì)碳具有親合力。
The carbon is absorbed into the metal to form a solid solution with iron and converts the outer surface into high-carbon steel.The carbon is gradually diffused to the interior of the part.The depth of the case depends on the time and temperature of the treatment.碳被吸收進(jìn)金屬與鐵形成固溶體使外表面轉(zhuǎn)變成高碳鋼。碳逐漸擴(kuò)散到零件內(nèi)部。滲碳層的深度取決于熱處理的時(shí)間和溫度。
Pack carburizing consists of placing the parts to be treated in a closed container with some carbonaceous material such as charcoal or coke.It is a long process and used to produce fairly thick cases of from 0.03 to 0.16 in.(0.76~4.06mm)in depth.固體滲碳的方法是將要處理的零件與木炭或焦炭這些含碳的材料一起放入密閉容器。這是一個(gè)較長(zhǎng)的過(guò)程,用于產(chǎn)生深度為0.03到0.16 英寸(0.76~4.06mm)這么厚的硬化層。Steel for carburizing is usually a low-carbon steel of about 0.15% carbon that would not in itself responds appreciably to heat treatment.In the course of the process the outer layer is converted into high-carbon steel with a content ranging from 0.9% to 1.2% carbon.用于滲碳的一般是含碳量約為0.15%、本身不太適合熱處理的低碳鋼。在處理過(guò)程中外層轉(zhuǎn)化為含碳量從0.9%到1.2%的高碳鋼。
A steel with varying carbon content and, consequently, different critical temperatures requires a special heat treatment.含碳量變化的鋼具有不同的臨界溫度,因此需要特殊的熱處理。
Because there is some grain growth in the steel during the prolonged carburizing treatment, the work should be heated to the critical temperature of the core and then cooled, thus refining the core structure.The steel should then be reheated to a point above the transformation range of the case and quenched to produce a hard, fine structure.由于在較長(zhǎng)的滲碳過(guò)程中鋼內(nèi)部會(huì)有些晶粒生長(zhǎng),所以工件應(yīng)該加熱到核心部分的臨界溫度再冷卻以細(xì)化核心部分的組織結(jié)構(gòu)。然后重新加熱到高于外層轉(zhuǎn)變溫度再淬火以生成堅(jiān)硬、細(xì)致的組織結(jié)構(gòu)。
The lower heat-treating temperature of the case results from the fact that hypereutectoid steels are normally austenitized for hardening just above the lower critical point.A third tempering treatment may be used to reduce strains.由于恰好高于低臨界溫度通常使過(guò)共析鋼奧氏體化而硬化,所以對(duì)外層采用較低的熱處理溫度。第三次回火處理可用于減少應(yīng)變。Carbonitriding Carbonitriding, sometimes known as dry cyaniding or nicarbing, is a case-hardening process in which the steel is held at a temperature above the critical range in a gaseous atmosphere from which it absorbs carbon and nitrogen.碳氮共滲
碳氮共滲,有時(shí)也稱為干法氰化或滲碳氮化,是一種表面硬化工藝。通過(guò)把鋼放在高于臨界溫度的氣體中,讓它吸收碳和氮。
Any carbon-rich gas with ammonia can be used.The wear-resistant case produced ranges from 0.003 to 0.030 inch(0.08~ 0.76mm)in thickness.An advantage of carbonitriding is that the hardenability of the case is significantly increased when nitrogen is added, permitting the use of low-cost steels.可以使用任何富碳?xì)怏w加氨氣,能生成厚度從0.003到0.030英寸(0.08~ 0.76mm)的耐磨外層。碳氮共滲的優(yōu)點(diǎn)之一是加入氮后外層的淬透性極大增加,為使用低價(jià)鋼提供條件。Cyaniding Cyaniding, or liquid carbonitriding as it is sometimes called, is also a process that combines the absorption of carbon and nitrogen to obtain surface hardness in low-carbon steels that do not respond to ordinary heat treatment.氰化
氰化,有時(shí)稱為液體碳氮共滲,也是一種結(jié)合了吸收碳和氮來(lái)獲得表面硬度的工藝,它主要用于不適合通常熱處理的低碳鋼。
The part to be case hardened is immersed in a bath of fused sodium cyanide salts at a temperature slightly above the Ac1 range, the duration of soaking depending on the depth of the case.The part is then quenched in water or oil to obtain a hard surface.需表面硬化的零件浸沒(méi)在略高于Ac1溫度熔化的氰化鈉鹽溶液中,浸泡的持續(xù)時(shí)間取決于硬化層的深度。然后將零件在水或油中淬火。Case depths of 0.005 to 0.015in.(0.13~0.38mm)may be readily obtained by this process.Cyaniding is used principally for the treatment of small parts.通過(guò)這樣處理可以容易地獲得0.005到0.015英寸(0.13~0.38mm)的硬化深度。氰化主要用于處理小零件。Nitriding Nitriding is somewhat similar to ordinary case hardening, but it uses a different material and treatment to create the hard surface constituents.滲氮
滲氮有些類似普通表面硬化,但它采用不同的材料和處理方法來(lái)產(chǎn)生堅(jiān)硬表面成分。In this process the metal is heated to a temperature of around 950℉(510℃)and held there for a period of time in contact with ammonia gas.Nitrogen from the gas is introduced into the steel, forming very hard nitrides that are finely dispersed through the surface metal.這種工藝中金屬加熱到約950℉(510℃),然后與氨氣接觸一段時(shí)間。氨氣中的氮進(jìn)入鋼內(nèi),形成細(xì)微分布于金屬表面又十分堅(jiān)固的氮化物。Nitrogen has greater hardening ability with certain elements than with others, hence, special nitriding alloy steels have been developed.氮與某些元素的硬化能力比其它元素大,因此開(kāi)發(fā)了專用的滲氮合金鋼。
Aluminum in the range of 1% to 1.5% has proved to be especially suitable in steel, in that it combines with the gas to form a very stable and hard constituent.The temperature of heating ranges from 925℉ to 1,050℉(495℃~565℃).在鋼中含鋁1%到1.5%被證明特別合適,它能與氨氣結(jié)合形成很穩(wěn)定堅(jiān)固的成分。其加熱溫度范圍為925℉到1,050℉(495℃~565℃)。
Liquid nitriding utilizes molten cyanide salts and, as in gas nitriding, the temperature is held below the transformation range.Liquid nitriding adds more nitrogen and less carbon than either cyaniding or carburizing in cyanide baths.液體滲氮利用熔化的氰化物鹽,就像氣體滲氮,溫度保持在低于轉(zhuǎn)化范圍內(nèi)。液體滲氮時(shí)在氰化物溶液中加入比氰化及滲碳都較多的氮和較少的碳。
Case thickness of 0.001 to 0.012in.(0.03~0.30mm)is obtained, whereas for gas nitriding the case may be as thick as 0.025 in.(0.64mm).In general the uses of the two-nitriding processes are similar.液體滲氮可以獲得厚度為0.001到0.012英寸(0.03~0.30mm)的硬化層,然而氣體滲氮?jiǎng)t能獲得厚0.025英寸(0.64mm)的硬化層。一般而言兩種滲氮方法的用途是類似的。
Nitriding develops extreme hardness in the surface of steel.This hardness ranges from 900 to 1,100 Brinell, which is considerably higher than that obtained by ordinary case hardening.滲氮在鋼表面獲得遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超出正常標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的硬度。其硬度范圍為900到1,100布氏硬度,這遠(yuǎn)高于普通表面硬化所獲得的硬度。
Nitriding steels, by virtue of their alloying content, are stronger than ordinary steels and respond readily to heat treatment.It is recommended that these steels be machined and heat-treated before nitriding, because there is no scale or further work necessary after this process.由于滲氮鋼的合金比例,它們比普通鋼更強(qiáng),也容易熱處理。建議對(duì)這種鋼在滲氮前先機(jī)加工和熱處理,因?yàn)闈B氮后沒(méi)有剝落并不需要更多的加工。
Fortunately, the interior structure and properties are not affected appreciably by the nitriding treatment and, because no quenching is necessary, there is little tendency to warp, develop cracks, or change condition in any way.The surface effectively resists corrosive action of water, saltwater spray, alkalies, crude oil, and natural gas.值得慶幸的是由于滲氮處理一點(diǎn)都不影響內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)和性能,也無(wú)需淬火,所以幾乎沒(méi)有任何產(chǎn)生翹曲、裂縫及變化條件的趨勢(shì)。這種表面能有效地抵御水、鹽霧、堿、原油和天然氣的腐蝕反應(yīng)。
第八單元
Grinding is a manufacturing process that involves the removal of metal by employing a rotating abrasive wheel.The latter simulates a milling cutter with an extremely large number of miniature cutting edges.磨削是通過(guò)采用旋轉(zhuǎn)磨輪去除金屬的制造工藝。磨輪用非常大量的微型切削刃模仿銑刀進(jìn)行切削。
Generally, grinding is considered to be a finishing process that is usually used for obtaining high-dimensional accuracy and better surface finish.Grinding can be performed on flat, cylindrical, or even internal surfaces by employing specialized machine tools, which are referred to as grinding machines.一般而言,磨削被認(rèn)為是一種通常用于獲得高尺寸精度和較好表面光潔度的精加工作業(yè)。磨削通過(guò)采用被稱為磨床的特殊機(jī)床能在平面、圓柱面甚至內(nèi)表面上進(jìn)行。
Obviously, grinding machines differ in construction as well as capabilities, and the type to be employed is determined mainly by the geometrical shape and nature of the surface to be ground, e.g., cylindrical surfaces are ground on cylindrical grinding machines.顯然,磨床根據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu)和功能的不同有所區(qū)別,使用何種形式的磨床主要取決于被磨削表面的幾何形狀和物理性質(zhì)。例如,圓柱面在外圓磨床上磨削。? Type of Grinding Operations 磨削作業(yè)的類型
1.Surface grinding.As the name surface grinding suggests, this operation involves grinding of flat or plane surfaces.Fig.8.1 indicates the two possible variations, either a horizontal or vertical machine spindle.1.表面磨削:就像其名稱暗示的那樣,表面磨削和平面磨削直接有關(guān)。圖8.1表示了兩種可能的變化:臥式磨床主軸或立式磨床主軸。
In the first case(horizontal spindle), the machine usually has a planer-type reciprocating table on which the workpiece is held.However, grinding machines with vertical spindles can have either a planer type table like that of the horizontal-spindle machine or a rotating worktable.在第一種情況(臥式主軸),臥式磨床通常具有安裝工件的刨床式往復(fù)工作臺(tái)。而立式主軸磨床既可以像臥式主軸磨床那樣具有刨床式工作臺(tái)也可以具有旋轉(zhuǎn)工作臺(tái)。
Also, the grinding action in this case is achieved by the end face of the grinding wheel(Fig.8.1b), contrary to the case of horizontal-spindle machines, where the workpieces ground by the periphery of the grinding wheel.而且在這種情況下,磨削動(dòng)作是通過(guò)砂輪端面完成的(圖8.1b),這與通過(guò)砂輪周邊磨削工件的臥式主軸磨床正好相反。
Fig.8.1a and b also indicate the equations to be used for estimating the different parameters of the grinding operation, such as the machining time and the rate of metal removal.圖8.1a和b同時(shí)簡(jiǎn)述了用于估計(jì)諸如加工時(shí)間和金屬去除率之類的磨削作業(yè)不同參數(shù)的方程式。During the surface-grinding operations, heavy workpieces are either held in fixtures or clamped on the machine table by strap clamps and the like, whereas smaller workpieces are usually held by magnetic chucks.在平面磨削時(shí),重的工件用夾具固定或用壓板等夾緊在磨床工作臺(tái)上,而小的工件則通常是用電磁卡盤(pán)固定的。
2.Cylindrical grinding.In cylindrical grinding, the workpiece is held between centers during the grinding operation, and the wheel rotation is the source and cause for the rotary cutting motion, as shown in Fig.8.2.In fact, cylindrical grinding can be carried out by employing any of the following methods: 2.圓柱面磨削:在圓柱面磨削中,作業(yè)時(shí)工件支撐在兩頂尖之間,砂輪轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)是導(dǎo)致回轉(zhuǎn)切削運(yùn)動(dòng)的動(dòng)力源,如圖8.2所示。實(shí)際上,圓柱面磨削能通過(guò)采用下列任意方法來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn):(1)The transverse method, in which both the grinding wheel and the workpiece rotate and longitudinal linear feed is applied to enable grinding of the whole length.The depth of cut is adjusted by the cross feed of the grinding wheel into the workpiece.(1)橫向方法:這種方法中砂輪與工件均旋轉(zhuǎn)且采用線性縱向進(jìn)給以保證能磨削整個(gè)長(zhǎng)度。切削深度通過(guò)改變砂輪對(duì)工件的橫向進(jìn)給來(lái)進(jìn)行調(diào)整。
(2)The plunge-cut method, in which grinding is achieved through the cross feed of the grinding wheel and no axial feed is applied.As you can see, this method can be applied only when the surface to be ground is shorter than the width of the grinding wheel used.(2)插入-切削方法:這種方法通過(guò)砂輪的橫向進(jìn)給完成磨削而不采用軸向進(jìn)給。正如料想的那樣,這種方法只在要磨削表面比所用砂輪寬度短時(shí)才使用。(3)The full-depth method, which is similar to the transverse method except that the grinding allowance is removed in a single pass.This method is usually recommended when grinding short rigid shafts.(3)全深度方法:這種方法除了一次加工就能去除磨削余量外其它與橫向方法相同。這種方法通常在磨削較短剛性軸時(shí)推薦使用。
Internal grinding.Internal grinding is employed for grinding relatively short holes, as shown in Fig.8.3.The workpiece is held in a chuck or a special fixture.Both the grinding wheel and the workpiece rotate during the operation and feed is applied in the longitudinal direction.內(nèi)表面磨削:內(nèi)表面磨削用于相對(duì)較短的孔,如圖8.3所示。工件安裝在卡盤(pán)或特殊夾具上。作業(yè)時(shí)砂輪和工件都回轉(zhuǎn)并且采用縱向進(jìn)給。
Any desired depth of cut can be obtained by the cross feed of the grinding wheel.A variation from this type is planetary internal grinding, which is recommended for heavy workpieces that cannot be held in chucks.通過(guò)砂輪的橫向進(jìn)給能得到任意所需的切削深度。這種方法的一個(gè)變體是行星式內(nèi)表面磨削,當(dāng)工件較重不能用卡盤(pán)固定時(shí)推薦使用。
In that case, the grinding wheel not only spins around its own axis but also rotates around the centerline of the hole that is being ground.在這種情況下,砂輪不但繞自身軸線回轉(zhuǎn),同時(shí)還繞被磨削孔的中心線旋轉(zhuǎn)。
Centerless grinding.Centerless grinding involves passing a cylindrical workpiece, which is supported by a rest blade, between two wheels, i.e., the grinding wheel and the regulating or feed wheel.無(wú)心磨削:無(wú)心磨削用于加工圓柱形工件,工件由托板支撐,在兩輪即砂輪和調(diào)節(jié)或進(jìn)給輪之間通過(guò)去。The grinding wheel does the actual grinding, while the regulating wheel is responsible for rotating the workpiece as well as generating the longitudinal feed.This is possible because of the frictional characteristics of that wheel, which is usually made of rubber-bonded abrasive.砂輪完成實(shí)際磨削,而調(diào)節(jié)輪負(fù)責(zé)旋轉(zhuǎn)工件和產(chǎn)生縱向進(jìn)給。由于調(diào)節(jié)輪通常用橡膠粘結(jié)的磨料制成,其摩擦特性使這成為可能。
As can be seen in Fig.8.4, the axis of the regulating wheel is tilted at a slight angle with the axis of the grinding wheel.Consequently, the peripheral velocity of the regulating wheel can be resolved into two components, namely, workpiece rotational speed and longitudinal feed.正如在圖8.4中所看到的那樣,調(diào)節(jié)輪的軸與砂輪軸傾斜一個(gè)微小角度。因此調(diào)節(jié)輪的圓周速度可以分解為兩個(gè)分量,即工件回轉(zhuǎn)速度和縱向進(jìn)給。These can be given by the following equations: Vworkpiece=Vregulating wheel×cosα Axial feed=Vregulating wheel×c×sinα
Where c is a constant coefficient to account for the slip between the workpiece and the regulating wheel(c=0.94~0.98).其值可由下列公式給出:
V工件=V調(diào)節(jié)輪×cosα
軸向進(jìn)給=V調(diào)節(jié)輪×c×sinα 式中c是考慮工件和調(diào)節(jié)輪之間滑動(dòng)的恒定系數(shù)(c=0.94~0.98)。
The velocity of the regulating wheel is controllable and is used to achieve any desired rotational speed of the workpiece.The angleαis usually taken from 1°to 5°and the larger the angle, the larger the longitudinal feed would be.調(diào)節(jié)輪的速度是可控的并被用于實(shí)現(xiàn)工件任意所需的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)速度。α角通常取1到 5°,這角度越大則縱向進(jìn)給也將越大。
Whenαis taken as 0°, i.e., the two axes of the grinding and regulating wheels are parallel, there is no longitudinal feed of the workpiece.當(dāng)α取0°時(shí),即砂輪和調(diào)節(jié)輪軸線平行時(shí),則工件沒(méi)有縱向進(jìn)給。? Grinding Wheels 砂輪
Grinding wheels are composed of abrasive grains having similar size and a binder.The actual grinding process is performed by the abrasive grains.Pores between the grains within the binder enable the grains to act as separate single-point cutting tools.砂輪由具有相近尺寸的磨料顆粒和粘合劑組成。實(shí)際磨削作業(yè)由磨粒完成。在粘合劑中磨粒之間的孔隙使磨粒能象獨(dú)立的單刃切削刀具一樣工作。
These pores also provide space for the generated chips, thus preventing the wheel from clogging.In addition, pores assist the easy flow of coolants to enable efficient and prompt removal of the heat generated during the grinding process.這些孔隙同時(shí)還為產(chǎn)生的切屑提供空間以防砂輪堵塞。另外孔隙幫助冷卻液容易流動(dòng),從而使在磨削作業(yè)中產(chǎn)生的熱量能有效而迅速地散發(fā)。Grinding wheels are identified based on their shape and size, kind of abrasive, grain size, binder, grade(hardness), and structure.砂輪根據(jù)它們的形狀和尺寸、磨料的類型、磨粒的大小、粘合劑、等級(jí)(硬度)和結(jié)構(gòu)組織來(lái)分類。
Shape and size of grinding wheels.Grinding wheels differ in shape and size, depending upon the purpose for which they are to be used.Various shapes are shown in Fig.8.5 and include the following types: 砂輪的形狀和尺寸:根據(jù)砂輪的用途,它們的形狀和尺寸是不同的。各種形狀如圖8.5所示,其中包括:
1)Straight wheels used for surface, cylindrical, internal, and centerless grinding.2)Bevelled-face or tapered wheels used for grinding threads, gear teeth, and the like.3)Straight recessed wheels for cylindrical grinding and facing.1)用于表面、圓柱面、內(nèi)部和無(wú)心磨削的直輪。2)用于磨削螺紋、齒輪輪齒之類的斜面或錐形輪。3)用于圓柱面和端面磨削的直凹輪。
4)Abrasive disks for cutoff and slotting operations.(thickness 0.02 up to 0.2in.(0.5 to 5mm)).5)Cylinders, straight cups, and flaring cups are used for surface grinding with the end face of the wheel.4)用于切斷和開(kāi)槽作業(yè)的砂輪片(其厚度從0.02到0.2英寸(0.5到5毫米))。5)用其端面進(jìn)行表面磨削的圓柱、直杯及外展杯狀砂輪。
The main dimensions of a grinding wheel are the outside diameter D, the bore diameter d, and the height H.These dimensions vary widely, depending upon the grinding process for which the wheel is to be used.砂輪的主要尺寸有外徑D、孔徑d和厚度H。根據(jù)采用砂輪的磨削工藝,這些尺寸變化很大。
Kind of abrasive.Grinding wheels can be made of natural abrasives such as quartz, emery, and corundum or of industrially prepared chemical compounds such as aluminum oxide or silicon carbide(known as carborundum).磨料的類型:砂輪可以由象石英、金剛砂、剛玉之類的自然磨料制成,或者由象氧化鋁或碳化硅(也稱人造金剛砂)之類的工業(yè)制備的化學(xué)化合物制成。
Generally, silicon carbide grinding wheels are used when grinding low-tensile-strength materials like cast iron, whereas aluminum oxide wheels are employed for grinding high-strength metals such as alloy steel, hardened steel, and the like.當(dāng)磨削象鑄鐵類低拉伸強(qiáng)度材料時(shí),一般采用碳化硅砂輪,而磨削合金鋼、淬火鋼等高強(qiáng)度金屬則要用氧化鋁砂輪。
Grain size of abrasive used.As you may expect, the grain size of the abrasive particles of the wheel plays a fundamental role in determining the quality of ground surface obtained.所用磨粒的尺寸:正如料想的那樣,砂輪磨粒的尺寸對(duì)決定所得磨削表面的質(zhì)量起著根本的作用。
The finer the grains, the smoother the ground surface is.Therefore, coarse-grained grinding wheels are used for roughing operations, whereas fine-grained wheels are employed in final finishing operations.磨粒越細(xì),磨削表面越光滑。所以,粗粒砂輪用于粗加工,而細(xì)粒砂輪則用于最后精加工。The grade of the bond.The grade of the bond is actually an indication of the resistance of the bond to pulling off the abrasive grains from the grinding wheel.Generally, wheels having hard grades are used for grinding soft materials and vice versa.粘結(jié)體的等級(jí):粘結(jié)體的等級(jí)實(shí)際上是其抵抗將磨粒從砂輪上拉脫的指標(biāo)。一般而言,具有較硬等級(jí)的砂輪用于磨削較軟材料,反之亦然。
If a hard-grade wheel were to be used for grinding a hard material, the dull grains would not be pulled off from the bond quickly enough, thus impeding the self-dressing process of the surface of the wheel and finally resulting in clogging of the wheel and burns on the ground surface.如果較硬等級(jí)的砂輪用于磨削較硬材料,磨鈍的磨粒將不能足夠快地脫離粘結(jié)體,這會(huì)妨礙砂輪表面的自修復(fù),最終導(dǎo)致砂輪的堵塞并在被磨表面留下灼斑。
In fact, the cutting properties of all grinding wheels must be restored periodically by dressing with a cemented carbide roller or a diamond tool to give the wheel the exact desired shape and remove all worn abrasive grains.實(shí)際上,所有砂輪的磨削性能都必須定期地通過(guò)使用硬質(zhì)合金滾輪或金剛石修整器修整而被恢復(fù),以求很準(zhǔn)確地把砂輪加工成要求的形狀,并去除已磨鈍的磨粒。
Structure.Structure refers to the amount of void space between the abrasive grains.When grinding softer metals, larger void space are needed to facilitate the flow of the removed chips.結(jié)構(gòu)組織:結(jié)構(gòu)組織與磨粒間的空隙量有關(guān)。當(dāng)磨削較軟金屬時(shí),需要較大的空隙以便去除切屑的流動(dòng)。
The binder.Abrasive particles are bonded together in many different ways.These include bond, silicate, rubber, resinoid, shellac, and oxychloride.Nevertheless, the bond is the most commonly used one.粘合劑:磨??捎枚喾N不同方法粘結(jié)在一起。其中包括粘合劑、硅酸鹽、橡膠、樹(shù)脂、蟲(chóng)膠和氯氧化物。然而,粘合劑是最常用的。
In fact, the standard marking system is employed for distinguishing grinding wheels, by providing all the preceding parameters in a specific sequence.在實(shí)際生產(chǎn)中,為了區(qū)分砂輪采用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)標(biāo)注系統(tǒng),通過(guò)用一特定順序?qū)⑺猩鲜鰠?shù)都表示出來(lái)。
第十一單元
? The Lathe and Its Construction 車(chē)床及其結(jié)構(gòu)
A lathe is a machine tool used primarily for producing surfaces of revolution and flat edges.車(chē)床是主要用于生成旋轉(zhuǎn)表面和平整邊緣的機(jī)床。
Based on their purpose, construction, number of tools that can simultaneously be mounted, and degree of automation, lathes-or, more accurately, lathe-type machine tools can be classified as follows: 根據(jù)它們的使用目的、結(jié)構(gòu)、能同時(shí)被安裝刀具的數(shù)量和自動(dòng)化的程度,車(chē)床—或更確切地說(shuō)是車(chē)床類的機(jī)床,可以被分成以下幾類:
(1)Engine lathes(2)Toolroom lathes(3)Turret lathes(4)Vertical turning and boring mills(5)Automatic lathes(6)Special-purpose lathes(1)普通車(chē)床(2)萬(wàn)能車(chē)床(3)轉(zhuǎn)塔車(chē)床(4)立式車(chē)床(5)自動(dòng)車(chē)床(6)特殊車(chē)床
In spite of that diversity of lathe-type machine tools, they all have common features with respect to construction and principle of operation.These features can best be illustrated by considering the commonly used representative type, the engine lathe.Following is a description of each of the main elements of an engine lathe, which is shown in Fig.11.1.雖然車(chē)床類的機(jī)床多種多樣,但它們?cè)诮Y(jié)構(gòu)和操作原理上具有共同特性。這些特性可以通過(guò)普通車(chē)床這一最常用的代表性類型來(lái)最好地說(shuō)明。下面是關(guān)于圖11.1所示普通車(chē)床的主要部分的描述。
Lathe bed.The lathe bed is the main frame, involving a horizontal beam on two vertical supports.It is usually made of grey or nodular cast iron to damp vibrations and is made by casting.車(chē)床床身:車(chē)床床身是包含了在兩個(gè)垂直支柱上水平橫梁的主骨架。為減振它一般由灰鑄鐵或球墨鑄鐵鑄造而成。
It has guideways to allow the carriage to slide easily lengthwise.The height of the lathe bed should be appropriate to enable the technician to do his or her job easily and comfortably.它上面有能讓大拖板輕易縱向滑動(dòng)的導(dǎo)軌。車(chē)床床身的高度應(yīng)適當(dāng)以讓技師容易而舒適地工作。
Headstock.The headstock is fixed at the left hand side of the lathe bed and includes the spindle whose axis is parallel to the guideways(the slide surface of the bed).The spindle is driven through the gearbox, which is housed within the headstock.主軸箱:主軸箱固定在車(chē)床床身的左側(cè),它包括軸線平行于導(dǎo)軌的主軸。主軸通過(guò)裝在主軸箱內(nèi)的齒輪箱驅(qū)動(dòng)。The function of the gearbox is to provide a number of different spindle speeds(usually 6 up to 18 speeds).Some modern lathes have headstocks with infinitely variable spindle speeds, which employ frictional ,electrical ,or hydraulic drives.齒輪箱的功能是給主軸提供若干不同的速度(通常是6到18速)。有些現(xiàn)代車(chē)床具有采用摩擦、電力或液壓驅(qū)動(dòng)的無(wú)級(jí)調(diào)速主軸箱。The spindle is always hollow, i.e., it has a through hole extending lengthwise.Bar stocks can be fed through that hole if continuous production is adopted.主軸往往是中空的,即縱向有一通孔。如果采取連續(xù)生產(chǎn),棒料能通過(guò)此孔進(jìn)給。Also, that hole has a tapered surface to allow mounting a plain lathe center.The outer surface of the spindle is threaded to allow mounting of a chuck, a face plate, or the like.同時(shí),此孔為錐形表面可以安裝普通車(chē)床頂尖。主軸外表面是螺紋可以安裝卡盤(pán)、花盤(pán)或類似的裝置。
Tailstock.The tailstock assembly consists basically of three parts, its lower base, an intermediate part, and the quill.The lower base is a casting that can slide on the lathe bed along the guideways, and it has a clamping device to enable locking the entire tailstock at any desired location, depending upon the length of the workpiece.尾架:尾架總成基本包括三部分,底座、尾架體和套筒軸。底座是能在車(chē)床床身上沿導(dǎo)軌滑動(dòng)的鑄件,它有一定位裝置能讓整個(gè)尾架根據(jù)工件長(zhǎng)度鎖定在任何需要位置。The intermediate part is a casting that can be moved transversely to enable alignment of the axis of the tailstock with that of the headstock.The third part, the quill, is a hardened steel tube, which can be moved longitudinally in and out of the intermediate part as required.尾架體為一能橫向運(yùn)動(dòng)的鑄件,它可以調(diào)整尾架軸線與主軸箱軸線成一直線。第三部分,套筒軸是一淬硬鋼管,它能根據(jù)需要在尾架體中縱向進(jìn)出移動(dòng)。
This is achieved through the use of a handwheel and a screw, around which a nut fixed to the quill is engaged.The hole in the open side of the quill is tapered to enable mounting of lathe centers or other tools like twist drills or boring bars.The quill can be locked at any point along its travel path by means of a clamping device.這通過(guò)使用手輪和螺桿來(lái)達(dá)到,與螺桿嚙合的是一固接在套筒軸上的螺母。套筒軸開(kāi)口端的孔是錐形的,能安裝車(chē)床頂尖或諸如麻花鉆和鏜桿之類的工具。套筒軸通過(guò)定位裝置能沿著它的移動(dòng)路徑被鎖定在任何點(diǎn)。The carriage.The main function of the carriage is mounting of the cutting tools and generating longitudinal and/or cross feeds.It is actually an H-shaped block that slides on the lathe bed between the headstock and tailstock while being guided by the V-shaped guideways of the bed.大拖板:大拖板的主要功能是安裝刀具和產(chǎn)生縱向和/或橫向進(jìn)給。它實(shí)際上是一由車(chē)床床身V形導(dǎo)軌引導(dǎo)的、能在車(chē)床床身主軸箱和尾架之間滑動(dòng)的H形滑塊。
The carriage can be moved either manually or mechanically by means of the apron and either the feed rod or the lead screw.大拖板能手動(dòng)或者通過(guò)溜板箱和光桿(進(jìn)給桿)或絲桿(引導(dǎo)螺桿)機(jī)動(dòng)。
When cutting screw threads, power is provided to the gearbox of the apron by the lead screw.In all other turning operations, it is the feed rod that drives the carriage.The lead screw goes through a pair of half nuts, which are fixed to the rear of the apron.在切削螺旋時(shí),動(dòng)力通過(guò)絲桿提供給溜板箱上的齒輪箱。在其余車(chē)削作業(yè)中,都由光桿驅(qū)動(dòng)大拖板。絲桿穿過(guò)一對(duì)固定在溜板箱后部的剖分螺母。
When actuating a certain lever, the half nuts are clamped together and engage with the rotating lead screw as a single nut, which is fed, together with the carriage, along the bed.When the lever is disengaged, the half nuts are released and the carriage stops.當(dāng)開(kāi)動(dòng)特定操作桿時(shí),剖分螺母夾在一起作為單個(gè)螺母與旋轉(zhuǎn)的絲桿嚙合,并帶動(dòng)拖板沿著床身提供進(jìn)給。當(dāng)操作桿脫離時(shí),剖分螺母釋放同時(shí)大拖板停止運(yùn)動(dòng)。
On the other hand, when the feed rod is used, it supplies power to the apron through a worm gear.The latter is keyed to the feed rod and travels with the apron along the feed rod, which has a keyway extending to cover its whole length.另一方面,當(dāng)使用光桿時(shí)則通過(guò)蝸輪給溜板箱提供動(dòng)力。蝸輪用鍵連接在光桿上,并與溜板箱一起沿光桿運(yùn)動(dòng),光桿全長(zhǎng)范圍開(kāi)有鍵槽。
A modern lathe usually has a quick-change gearbox located under the headstock and driven from the spindle through a train of gears.It is connected to both the feed rod and the lead screw and enables selecting a variety of feeds easily and rapidly by simply shifting the appropriate levers.現(xiàn)代車(chē)床一般在主軸箱下裝備快速變換齒輪箱,通過(guò)一系列齒輪由主軸驅(qū)動(dòng)。它與光桿和絲桿連接,能容易并快速地通過(guò)簡(jiǎn)單轉(zhuǎn)換適當(dāng)?shù)牟僮鳁U選擇各種進(jìn)給。
The quick-change gearbox is employed in plain turning, facing and thread cutting operations.Since that gearbox is linked to the spindle, the distance that the apron(and the cuttingtool)travels for each revolution of the spindle can be controlled and is referred to as the feed.快速變換齒輪箱可用于普通車(chē)削、端面切削和螺旋切削作業(yè)中。由于這種齒輪箱與主軸相連,主軸每轉(zhuǎn)一圈溜板箱(和切削刀具)運(yùn)動(dòng)的距離能被控制,這距離就可以被認(rèn)為是進(jìn)給。? Lathe Cutting Tools 車(chē)床切削刀具
The shape and geometry of the lathe tools depend upon the purpose for which they are employed.車(chē)床刀具的形狀和幾何參數(shù)取決于它們的使用目的。
Turning tools can be classified into two main groups, namely, external cutting tools and internal cutting tools.Each of these two groups include the following types of tools: 車(chē)削刀具可以分為兩個(gè)主要組別,即外部切削刀具和內(nèi)部切削刀具。這兩組中的每一組都包括以下類型刀具: Turning tools.Turning tools can be either finishing or rough turning tools.Rough turning tools have small nose radii and are employed when deep cuts are made.車(chē)削刀具:車(chē)削刀具可以是精車(chē)刀具或粗車(chē)刀具。粗車(chē)刀具刀尖半徑較小,用于深切削。
On the other hand, finishing tools have larger nose radii and are used for obtaining the final required dimensions with good surface finish by making slight depths of cut.Rough turning tools can be right-hand or left-hand types, depending upon the direction of feed.They can have straight, bent, or offset shanks.而精車(chē)刀具刀尖半徑較大,用于通過(guò)微量進(jìn)刀深度來(lái)獲得具有較好表面光潔度的最終所需尺寸。粗車(chē)刀具按其進(jìn)給方向可以是右手型的或是左手型的。它們可以有直的、彎的或偏置的刀桿。
Facing tools.Facing tools are employed in facing operations for machining plane side or end surfaces.There are tools for machining left-hand-side surfaces and tools for right-hand-side surfaces.Those side surfaces are generated through the use of the cross feed, contrary to turning operations, where the usual longitudinal feed is used.端面刀具:端面刀具用在端面作業(yè)中加工平板側(cè)面或端部表面,也有加工左右側(cè)表面之分。與一般采用縱向進(jìn)給的車(chē)削作業(yè)相反,那些側(cè)表面通過(guò)采用橫向進(jìn)給產(chǎn)生。
Cutoff tools.Cutoff tools, which are sometimes called parting tools, serve to separate the workpiece into parts and/or machine external annular grooves.切斷刀具:切斷刀具,有時(shí)也稱為分割刀具,用于將工件分割成若干部分和/或加工外部環(huán)形槽。
Thread-cutting tools.Thread-cutting tools have either triangular, square, or trapezoidal cutting edges, depending upon the cross section of the desired thread.Also, the plane angles of these tools must always be identical to those of the thread forms.螺紋切削刀具:螺紋切削刀具根據(jù)所需螺紋的橫截面,有三角形的、矩形的或梯形的切削刃。同時(shí),這些刀具的平面角必須始終與螺紋形狀的平面角保持一致。
Thread-cutting tools have straight shanks for external thread cutting and are of the bent-shank type when cutting internal threads.車(chē)外螺紋的螺紋切削刀具為直刀桿,而車(chē)內(nèi)螺紋的螺紋切削刀具則是彎刀桿。
Form tools.Form tools have edges especially manufactured to take a certain form, which is opposite to the desired shape of the machined workpiece.成形刀具:成形刀具有專門(mén)制成特定形狀的刀刃,這種刀刃形狀與被加工工件所需外形正好相反。An HSS tool is usually made in the form of a single piece, contrary to cemented carbides or ceramic, which are made in the form of tips.The latter are brazed or mechanically fastened to steel shanks.
高速鋼刀具通常以單件形式制造,而硬質(zhì)合金或陶瓷刀具則以刀尖形式制造。后者用銅焊或機(jī)械方法固定于鋼質(zhì)刀桿上。
Fig.11.2 indicates an arrangement of this latter type, which includes the carbide tip, the chip breaker, the pad, the clamping screw(with a washer and a nut), and the shank.圖11.2所示為機(jī)械式固定布置方式,它包括了硬質(zhì)合金刀尖、斷屑槽、襯墊、卡裝螺桿(帶有墊圈和螺母)及刀桿。
As the name suggests, the function of the chip breaker is to break long chips every now and then, thus preventing the formation of very long twisted ribbons that may cause problems during the machining operation.顧名思義,斷屑槽的功能就是不時(shí)地折斷長(zhǎng)切屑,以防形成很長(zhǎng)的可能會(huì)在機(jī)加工操作中引起問(wèn)題的纏繞切屑條。
The carbide tips(or ceramic tips)can have different shapes, depending upon the machining operations for which they are to be employed.The tips can either be solid or with a central through hole, depending on whether brazing or mechanical clamping is employed for mounting the tip on the shank.硬質(zhì)合金刀尖(或陶瓷刀尖)根據(jù)采用它們的機(jī)加工操作,可以有不同的形狀。根據(jù)將刀尖裝配在刀桿上是通過(guò)用銅焊還是機(jī)械卡裝,刀尖可以是實(shí)心的或是帶有中心通孔的。? Lathe Operations 車(chē)床操作
In the following section, we discuss the various machining operations that can be performed on a conventional engine lathe.在下面這節(jié)中,要討論的是能在傳統(tǒng)普通車(chē)床上進(jìn)行的各種機(jī)加工作業(yè)。
It must be borne in mind, however, that modern computerized numerically controlled lathes have more capabilities and can do other operations, such as contouring, for example.Following are conventional lathe operations.然而,必須記住現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)控車(chē)床具有更多的功能并且可以進(jìn)行其它操作,例如仿型。下面是傳統(tǒng)車(chē)床的操作。
Cylindrical turning.Cylindrical turning is the simplest and the most common of all lathe operations.A single full turn of the workpiece generates a circle whose center falls on the lathe axis;this motion is then reproduced numerous times as a result of the axial feed motion of the tool.圓柱面車(chē)削:圓柱面車(chē)削是所有車(chē)床操作中最簡(jiǎn)單也是最普通的。工件旋轉(zhuǎn)一整圈產(chǎn)生一個(gè)圓心落在車(chē)床主軸上的圓;由于刀具的軸向進(jìn)給運(yùn)動(dòng)這種動(dòng)作重復(fù)許多次。The resulting machining marks are, therefore, a helix having a very small pitch, which is equal to the feed.Consequently, the machined surface is always cylindrical.所以,由此產(chǎn)生的機(jī)加工痕跡是一條具有很小節(jié)距的螺旋線,該節(jié)距等于進(jìn)給。因此機(jī)加工表面始終是圓柱形的。
The axial feed is provided by the carriage or the compound rest, either manually or automatically, whereas the depth of cut is controlled by the cross slide.軸向進(jìn)給通過(guò)大拖板或復(fù)式刀架手動(dòng)或自動(dòng)提供,然而切削深度則由橫向滑板控制。In roughing cuts, it is recommended that large depths of cuts(up to 0.25in.or 6mm, depending upon the workpiece material)and smaller feeds would be used.On the other hand, very fine feeds, smaller depths of cut(less than 0.05in, or 0.4mm), and high cutting speeds are preferred for finishing cuts.粗車(chē)中,推薦使用較大切削深度(根據(jù)工件材料可達(dá)0.25英寸或6毫米)和較小進(jìn)給。另一方面,精車(chē)則最好采用很小的進(jìn)給、較小的切削深度(小于0.05英寸或0.4毫米)和較高的切削速度。
Facing.The result of a facing operation is a flat surface that is either the whole end surface of the workpiece or an annular intermediate surface like a shoulder.During a facing operation, feed is provided by the cross slide, whereas the depth of cut is controlled by the carriage or compound rest.端面車(chē)削:端面車(chē)削操作的結(jié)果是將工件整個(gè)端部表面或者像軸肩之類的中間環(huán)形表面加工平整。在端面車(chē)削操作中,進(jìn)給由橫向滑板提供,而切削深度則通過(guò)大拖板或復(fù)式刀架控制。
Facing can be carried out either from the periphery inward or from the center of the workpiece outward.It is obvious that the machining marks in both cases take the form of a spiral.端面車(chē)削既可以從外表面向內(nèi)切削也可以從工件中心往外切削。很明顯在這兩種情況下機(jī)加工痕跡都是螺線形式。
Usually, it is preferred to clamp the carriage during a facing operation, since the cutting force tends to push the tool(and, of course, the whole carriage)away from the workpiece.In most facing operations, the workpiece is held in a chuck or on a face plate.通常在端面車(chē)削作業(yè)時(shí)習(xí)慣于采用夾住大拖板,這是因?yàn)榍邢髁A向于將刀具(當(dāng)然包括整個(gè)大拖板)推離工件。在大多數(shù)端面車(chē)削作業(yè)中,工件被支撐在卡盤(pán)或花盤(pán)上。
Groove cutting.In cut-off and groove-cutting operations, only cross feed of the tool is employed.The cut-off and grooving tools, which were previously discussed, are employed.開(kāi)槽:在切斷和開(kāi)槽操作中,刀具只有橫向進(jìn)給。要采用前面已經(jīng)討論過(guò)的切斷和開(kāi)槽刀具。
Boring and internal turning.Boring and internal turning are performed on the internal surfaces by a boring bar or suitable internal cutting tools.If the initial workpiece is solid, a drilling operation must be performed first.The drilling tool is held in the tailstock, and the latter is then fed against the workpiece.鏜孔和內(nèi)部車(chē)削:鏜孔和內(nèi)部車(chē)削通過(guò)鏜桿或合適的內(nèi)部切削刀具在內(nèi)表面進(jìn)行。如果初始工件是實(shí)心的,則必須首先進(jìn)行鉆孔作業(yè)。鉆孔刀具安裝在尾架上,然后對(duì)著工件進(jìn)給。
Taper turning.Taper turning is achieved by driving the tool in a direction that is not parallel to the lathe axis but inclined to it with an angle that is equal to the desired angle of the taper.Following are the different methods used in taper-turning practice: 錐面車(chē)削:錐面車(chē)削通過(guò)沿著與車(chē)床主軸不平行而傾斜成一個(gè)等于錐面所需角度的方向進(jìn)刀來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)。下面是在實(shí)際錐面車(chē)削中采用的不同方法:
(1)Rotating the disc of the compound rest with an angle equal to half the apex angle of the cone.Feed is manually provided by cranking the handle of the compound rest.This method is recommended for taper turning of external and internal surfaces when the taper angle is relatively large.(1)將復(fù)式刀架盤(pán)旋轉(zhuǎn)一個(gè)等于圓錐體頂角一半的角度。通過(guò)搖動(dòng)復(fù)式刀架操縱柄手動(dòng)提供進(jìn)給。當(dāng)錐角相對(duì)較大時(shí)切削外錐面和內(nèi)錐面推薦使用這種方法。(2)Employing special form tools for external, very short, conical surfaces.The width of the workpiece must be slightly smaller than that of the tool, and the workpiece is usually held in a chuck or clamped on a face plate.In this case, only the cross feed is used during the machining process and the carriage is clamped to the machine bed.(2)對(duì)很短的外錐面采用特殊的成型刀具。工件的寬度必須略小于刀具的寬度,并且工件通常由卡盤(pán)支撐或夾緊在花盤(pán)上。在這種情況下,機(jī)加工作業(yè)時(shí)只有橫向進(jìn)給而大拖板則夾緊在床身上。
(3)Offsetting the tailstock center.This method is employed for external taper turning of long workpieces that are required to have small taper angles(less than 8°).The workpiece is mounted between the two centers;then the tailstock center is shifted a distance S in the direction normal to the lathe axis.(3)偏移尾架頂尖。對(duì)需要較小錐角(小于8°)的較長(zhǎng)工件外錐面車(chē)削采用這種方法。工件安裝于兩頂尖之間;然后將尾架頂尖朝垂直于車(chē)床主軸方向移動(dòng)一距離S。
(4)Using the taper-turning attachment.This method is used for turning very long workpieces, when the length is larger than the whole stroke of the compound rest.The procedure followed in such cases involves complete disengagement of the cross slide from the carriage, which is then guided by the taper-turning attachment.(4)采用錐面車(chē)削附加裝置。這種方法用于車(chē)削很長(zhǎng)的工件,其長(zhǎng)度大于復(fù)式刀架的整個(gè)行程。在這種場(chǎng)合下要遵循的步驟是將橫向滑板完全脫離大拖板,然后通過(guò)錐面車(chē)削附加裝置進(jìn)行引導(dǎo)。
During this process, the automatic axial feed can be used as usual.This method is recommended for very long workpieces with a small cone angle, i.e., 8°through 10°.在此作業(yè)中,能照常使用自動(dòng)軸向進(jìn)給。對(duì)具有較小錐角(即8°到10°)的很長(zhǎng)工件推薦采用這種方法。
Thread cutting.When performing thread cutting, the axial feed must be kept at a constant rate, which is dependent upon the rotational speed(rpm)of the workpiece.The relationship between both is determined primarily by the desired pitch of the thread to be cut.螺紋切削:在螺紋切削作業(yè)時(shí),軸向進(jìn)給必須保持恒定速率,這取決于工件的轉(zhuǎn)速(rpm)。兩者之間的關(guān)系基本上由被切削螺紋所需的節(jié)距決定。
As previously mentioned, the axial feed is automatically generated when cutting a thread by means of the lead screw, which drives the carriage.When the lead screw rotates a single revolution, the carriage travels a distance equal to the pitch of the lead screw.如前所述,當(dāng)依靠驅(qū)動(dòng)大拖板的絲桿切削螺紋時(shí)軸向進(jìn)給是自動(dòng)產(chǎn)生的。絲桿旋轉(zhuǎn)一圈,大拖板就行進(jìn)等于絲桿節(jié)距的一段距離。Consequently, if the rotational speed of the lead screw is equal to that of the spindle(i.e., that of the workpiece), the pitch of the resulting cut thread is exactly equal to that of the lead screw.因此如果絲桿的旋轉(zhuǎn)速度等于心軸的轉(zhuǎn)速(即工件的轉(zhuǎn)速),生成切削螺紋的節(jié)距就正好等于絲桿的節(jié)距。
The pitch of the resulting thread being cut therefore always depends upon the ratio of the rotational speeds of the lead screw and the spindle: Pitch of the lead screw/ Desired pitch of workpiece=rpm of the workpiece/rpm of lead screw=spindle-to-carriage gearing ratio.所以被切削生成螺紋的節(jié)距總是取決于絲桿和心軸的轉(zhuǎn)速比:絲桿的節(jié)距/工件所需節(jié)距=工件轉(zhuǎn)速/絲桿轉(zhuǎn)速=心軸到大拖板的傳動(dòng)比。This equation is useful in determining the kinematic linkage between the lathe spindle and the lead screw and enables proper selection of the gear train between them.這公式在決定車(chē)床心軸和絲桿之間的運(yùn)動(dòng)學(xué)關(guān)系時(shí)很有用,并且提供了正確挑選它們之間輪系的方法。
In thread cutting operations, the workpiece can either be held in the chuck or mounted between the two lathe centers for relatively long workpieces.The form of the tool used must exactly coincide with the profile of the thread to be cut, i.e., triangular tools must be used for triangular threads, and so on.在螺紋切削作業(yè)中,工件既能支撐于卡盤(pán)中,對(duì)相對(duì)較長(zhǎng)的工件也能安裝在兩個(gè)車(chē)床頂尖之間。使用的刀具外形必須正好與要切削螺紋的輪廓一致,即三角形刀具必須用于三角形螺紋等等。
Knurling.Knurling is mainly a forming operation in which no chips are produced.It involves pressing two hardened rolls with rough filelike surfaces against the rotating workpiece to cause plastic deformation of the workpiece metal.滾花:滾花主要是一種不產(chǎn)生切屑的成型操作。它使用兩個(gè)帶有粗銼式表面的淬火滾輪壓在旋轉(zhuǎn)的工件上使工件金屬產(chǎn)生塑性變形。
Knurling is carried out to produce rough, cylindrical(or conical)surfaces, which are usually used as handles.Sometimes, surfaces are knurled just for the sake of decoration;there are different types of patterns of knurls from which to choose.滾花用于生成粗糙的圓柱(或圓錐)面,通常用來(lái)作手柄。有時(shí)表面滾花只為裝飾之故;有不同的滾花圖案類型可供選擇。? Cutting Speeds and Feed 切削速度和進(jìn)給
The cutting speed, which is usually given in surface feet per minute(SFM), is the number of feet traveled in the circumferential direction by a given point on the surface(being cut)of the workpiece in 1 minute.切削速度,通常用每分鐘表面英尺給出,就是一分鐘內(nèi)工件(被切削)表面給定點(diǎn)在圓周方向上行進(jìn)的英尺數(shù)。
The relationship between the surface speed and rpm can be given by the following equation: SFM=πDN Where D=the diameter of the workpiece in feet N=the rpm 表面速度與轉(zhuǎn)速之間的關(guān)系可以用下式給出: SFM=πDN 式中
D=用英尺表示的工件直徑 N=轉(zhuǎn)速
The surface cutting speed is dependant primarily upon the material being machined as well as the material of the cutting tool and can be obtained from handbooks, information provided by cutting tool manufacturers, and the like.表面切削速度主要由被切削材料和切削刀具材料決定,可以從手冊(cè)、切削刀具生產(chǎn)商提供的資料及類似的東西上查取。Generally, the SFM is taken as 100 when machining cold-rolled or mild steel, as 50 when machining tougher metals, and as 200 when machining softer materials.For aluminum, the SFM is usually taken as 400 or above.There are also other variables that affect the optimal value of the surface cutting speed.一般而言,SFM當(dāng)機(jī)加工冷軋或低碳鋼時(shí)取100,機(jī)加工較堅(jiān)韌的金屬時(shí)取50,而機(jī)加工較軟材料時(shí)取200。對(duì)鋁而言,SFM通??扇?00以上。也還存在其它一些變量影響表面切削速度的最佳值。
These include the tool geometry, the type of lubricant or coolant, the feed, and the depth of cut.As soon as the cutting speed is decided upon, the rotational speed(rpm)of the spindle can be obtained as follows: N=SFM/(πD)其中包括刀具形狀、潤(rùn)滑劑或冷卻液的類型、進(jìn)給和切削深度。切削速度一旦確定,心軸轉(zhuǎn)速(rpm)就能按下式得到: N=SFM/(πD)The selection of a suitable feed depends upon many factors, such as the required surface finish, the depth of cut, and the geometry of the tool used.Finer feeds produce better surface finish, whereas higher feeds reduce the machining time during which the tool is in direct contact with the workpiece.合適進(jìn)給的選擇取決于許多因素,例如所需表面光潔度、切削深度和所用刀具的幾何形狀。進(jìn)給越小生成的光潔度越好,而在刀具與工件直接接觸時(shí)進(jìn)給越大則可以減少機(jī)加工時(shí)間。
Therefore, it is generally recommended to use high feeds for roughing operations and finer feeds for finishing operations.Again, recommended values for feeds, which can be taken as guidelines, are found in handbooks and in information booklets provided by cutting tool manufacturers.所以對(duì)粗車(chē)一般推薦使用較大進(jìn)給,而精車(chē)則用較小進(jìn)給。再者,作為指導(dǎo)方針的進(jìn)給推薦值可以從手冊(cè)和切削刀具生產(chǎn)商提供的資料小冊(cè)子上找到。
第三篇:機(jī)械類專業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)方法
機(jī)械類專業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)方法
一、從全局看問(wèn)題,從主干到細(xì)節(jié),從模糊到清晰。
二、通過(guò)哲學(xué)和邏輯去判斷,而不是才技術(shù)本身去判斷。
三、從簡(jiǎn)單問(wèn)題上找答案,判斷問(wèn)題的原因。
四、獨(dú)立思考能力。
五、獨(dú)立動(dòng)手去看看。不要事事依賴。數(shù)富李工有一篇文章說(shuō):每個(gè)人都認(rèn)為自己的想法是對(duì)的,并且會(huì)通過(guò)溝通影響其他人。但是世界上人的層次那么大的差別,說(shuō)明99%的人的想法是錯(cuò)的,所以,當(dāng)別人給你建議的時(shí)候,你要想想他的觀點(diǎn)是不是可靠和有詳細(xì)的數(shù)據(jù)說(shuō)明,是一個(gè)極端的看法,還是一個(gè)隨感想而發(fā)的不穩(wěn)定的結(jié)論。如果你因?yàn)樗脑捀淖兡愕乃悸贰D阏J(rèn)為他很成功嗎?值得接受嗎?
六、學(xué)歷的重要性在于學(xué)習(xí)方法的鍛煉。
七、賺錢(qián)了讀些哲學(xué)和辯證法的書(shū)籍。
八、不要認(rèn)為什么不可能,不要自我設(shè)置障礙和條條框框,把自己定性后再封閉自己,不去突破,要相信智慧的力量是什么都可以攻破的。不是你學(xué)歷高低的問(wèn)題,是在于你駕馭的處理問(wèn)題的方法。所有能力,就是突破;所有戰(zhàn)略,就是專業(yè)。
九、專心致志,修養(yǎng)內(nèi)功,我建議很多人去讀《鬼谷子》,這是修煉內(nèi)功和智慧的書(shū)。
十、突破“那東西沒(méi)用的,和我現(xiàn)在學(xué)的不相關(guān)”的觀點(diǎn),萬(wàn)事萬(wàn)物的高層次都是一致的,特別是自然科學(xué),你看的越高,你就學(xué)的越快。如果你報(bào)著這樣的觀點(diǎn),最后限制你的前途和發(fā)展的,可能就是你的這個(gè)觀點(diǎn),它決定你一生能跑多遠(yuǎn)。這是致命的。
十一,改正:模具和數(shù)控沒(méi)實(shí)踐根本就是紙上談兵的錯(cuò)誤觀點(diǎn)。
十二,跳出思想頑固,不接受新事物,新思想,片面極端看問(wèn)題的心理。
十三,養(yǎng)志,拿就業(yè)做目標(biāo)的,只能是二流人才,雖然說(shuō)是這樣說(shuō),我溫飽都沒(méi)解決,還哪里去想那么遠(yuǎn),但是事實(shí)上,現(xiàn)在社會(huì)解決吃住都不是問(wèn)題了,做事情需要個(gè)長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)的思路。把就業(yè)做目標(biāo),是壓力不是動(dòng)力,如果你把做一個(gè)“人人欣賞,老板不肯放手”的高手作為目標(biāo),這個(gè)美好的愿景會(huì)一直吸引你,你學(xué)的是樂(lè)趣了,反而使你的目標(biāo)變的崇高,給你自己感動(dòng),你就發(fā)現(xiàn),你真的不相信,自己怎么發(fā)展的那么快。世界上很多東西都是矛盾的統(tǒng)一。
十四,不要逃避英文,不要逃避其他的問(wèn)題,要學(xué)會(huì)面對(duì),你越逃避,你退,你的空間就越小,別人逃避的時(shí)候,對(duì)你就是機(jī)會(huì),不能人家如何你就如何,將來(lái)你就沒(méi)有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。
那我依次把以上的十幾點(diǎn),詳細(xì)用案例去分析
一,全局的看問(wèn)題,從主干到細(xì)節(jié),從模糊到清晰。
說(shuō)的是接受一個(gè)新事物的方法,針對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)UG我個(gè)人的學(xué)習(xí)方法是:1,先去書(shū)店,把所有的書(shū)的目錄和介紹看一下,哦,原來(lái)就這幾點(diǎn)。UG可以做這些用。2,既然是軟件,就要為工業(yè)服務(wù),如果學(xué)的是加工,就在頭腦中把加工過(guò)程想一遍,看看那些部分我還不明白,包括UG的命令位置和思想。比如如何傳到機(jī)器里面,就專門(mén)把這個(gè)關(guān)于加工的書(shū)都拿來(lái),幾本,一起看看,OK了。3,之后看教程,所有教程全部看,不管懂不懂,看三遍,就了解了UG的整體思路了,因?yàn)閁G是個(gè)整體,你看任何教程的時(shí)候其實(shí)都是所有命令綜合運(yùn)用,所以你不看全局,想在一個(gè)教程里面走很深入,就是不可能也浪費(fèi)時(shí)間。4,有了全局之后各個(gè)突破。這方法就如同我們走進(jìn)入一個(gè)新的地方,你要想熟悉這個(gè)地方,最好的方法是坐飛機(jī)在天上俯瞰一下,分區(qū),分街道,之后再一個(gè)個(gè)的建筑了解。飛機(jī)在天上看肯定看不清楚,就和你瀏覽UG是一樣的,我要的不是清楚,是瀏覽輪廓和整體。記?。喝趾途植浚且粚?duì)矛盾,全局是整體而模糊的,具體是局部和清晰的,從全局到具體,這是任何人都不能違背的人腦接受事物的最快的方法,違背了不是學(xué)不成,你開(kāi)始就在一個(gè)巷子里面走的很深,之后一個(gè)個(gè)巷子了解,相信有一天你也可以了解整個(gè)城市,但是時(shí)間要多久大家也一定明白,一樣的道理。
二,從哲學(xué)和邏輯層次考慮技術(shù)問(wèn)題。比如你一個(gè)命令不懂了,換個(gè)角度,想想軟件是為什么服務(wù)的?比如以下的問(wèn)題可以這樣去想: 1,UG裝配需要學(xué)什么呢?想想汽車(chē)零件裝配的時(shí)候,用什么工具,零件裝配的時(shí)候哪里控制了,估計(jì)你就找到問(wèn)題的答案了。2,UG是波音公司設(shè)計(jì)飛機(jī)的,后來(lái)是西門(mén)子公司產(chǎn)品,那飛機(jī)需要哪些技術(shù)要軟件配合,估計(jì)你就找到UG的應(yīng)用范圍和大致功能。3,UG是人開(kāi)發(fā)的,如果開(kāi)發(fā)的人是你,你會(huì)如何安排設(shè)計(jì)這個(gè)命令的菜單位置和如何給使用者方便呢?估計(jì)你就可以猜到很多UG命令菜單的位置。4,UG這個(gè)命令,比如說(shuō)做面的偏距的,你可以想一個(gè)面偏距需要幾個(gè)定位尺寸,估計(jì)你就可以猜到菜單里面細(xì)節(jié)的功能了,站在哲學(xué)和邏輯高度,你就不會(huì)被動(dòng)的給軟件牽著思想走,哲學(xué)在希臘的意思就是:充聰明的學(xué)問(wèn)。
三,從簡(jiǎn)單問(wèn)題上找答案,判斷問(wèn)題的原因,測(cè)試命令的原理。太多可能的時(shí)候,人們判斷的難度就加大。簡(jiǎn)單化問(wèn)題,之后通過(guò)更改參數(shù)看結(jié)果的變化,就可以判斷這個(gè)參數(shù)的用途。這時(shí)候,可以把復(fù)雜問(wèn)題簡(jiǎn)單化,比如很多朋友總問(wèn)教程有多大,多少個(gè)案例,從加工角度來(lái)說(shuō),如果你把一個(gè)復(fù)雜的局部搞定,就可以搞定復(fù)雜工件的全部,對(duì)嗎?只是刀具多了一些,每刀加工的位置多連接幾個(gè),整體思路復(fù)雜些而已。對(duì)嗎?懂思想和戰(zhàn)略的,在學(xué)習(xí)速度上遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過(guò)局部鉆牛角的人。
四,獨(dú)立思考能力。
很多問(wèn)題盡量自己多嘗試,去測(cè)試,很多人會(huì)問(wèn),UG該怎么學(xué),買(mǎi)個(gè)軟件裝上去看看先,就這么簡(jiǎn)單。還有的問(wèn):模具工資高嗎?聽(tīng)說(shuō)現(xiàn)在模具工資高是嗎? 其實(shí) 市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì),行業(yè)工資會(huì)隨著人才的自然流動(dòng),趨向一致,你的工資高與否,要看你在行業(yè)內(nèi)部的地位和能力,任何行業(yè)都有幾萬(wàn)元的工資,也都有找不到事情做的。學(xué)習(xí)技術(shù)相當(dāng)于學(xué)一門(mén)手藝,手藝高拿高薪,低了就先拿低薪。老板也不會(huì)只要手藝高的,所以,誰(shuí)都有機(jī)會(huì)。五,獨(dú)立動(dòng)手去看看,不要事事依賴,就不用說(shuō)了,缺少親自動(dòng)手能力不行。
六,學(xué)歷的重要性在于經(jīng)歷了幾年學(xué)習(xí)方法的鍛煉,這里不是對(duì)學(xué)歷的強(qiáng)調(diào),是對(duì)一種學(xué)習(xí)方法的強(qiáng)調(diào),一般高校里面的授課方式就是老師漫天的講,國(guó)內(nèi)到國(guó)外,這里到哪里,之后大家做筆記,找資料,幾年一百多門(mén)課程,已經(jīng)習(xí)慣了一種學(xué)習(xí)的方法了,有些朋友沒(méi)經(jīng)過(guò)這個(gè)方式的,可以自己試試這個(gè)思路。
七,多讀些哲學(xué)、辯證法和思維方式的書(shū)籍。
八,不要認(rèn)為什么不可能,不要自我設(shè)置障礙和條條框框,這是自我設(shè)限。
九,修身,治家,平天下,說(shuō)的是修身技巧,內(nèi)功養(yǎng)性,和如何專心發(fā)散威力的學(xué)說(shuō),二十幾歲的朋友讀了受益會(huì)很高。
十,說(shuō)的也是突破思維的限制,相信智慧的力量。
十一,改正:模具和數(shù)控沒(méi)實(shí)踐根本就是紙上談兵的錯(cuò)誤觀點(diǎn)。很多東西,如果你判斷準(zhǔn)確的,是完全可以獨(dú)立的。衛(wèi)星上天??康氖蔷艿挠?jì)算,不是靠發(fā)射失敗的多次嘗試,物理學(xué)依賴數(shù)學(xué)的精密才準(zhǔn)確。任何東西,一旦上升到數(shù)學(xué)高度,都可以找到方法。比如設(shè)計(jì)和加工,其實(shí)對(duì)殘料的計(jì)算,刀具的選擇,都可以依賴數(shù)學(xué)解決,李工95年在深圳平湖奧特模具廠第一份工作,完全沒(méi)見(jiàn)過(guò)數(shù)控機(jī)床,也沒(méi)有實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn),憑著對(duì)mastercam刀路的詳細(xì)計(jì)算,三個(gè)月沒(méi)有出過(guò)錯(cuò)誤,所以現(xiàn)在深信這點(diǎn),當(dāng)然,這不是說(shuō)叫大家不去實(shí)踐,有條件的還是要實(shí)踐的,實(shí)踐可以令你確定自己這樣做是對(duì)的。并檢驗(yàn)也沒(méi)有更好的方法。十二,跳出思想頑固,不接受新事物,新思想,片面極端看問(wèn)題的心理。本人去過(guò)小欖書(shū)店,剛好有個(gè)人在看書(shū),就聊天了。我說(shuō)我有視頻教程,比書(shū)好,直觀。他馬上露出鄙夷的神情,說(shuō)那東西,是沒(méi)用的。我情愿在廠里看一年,都不愿意買(mǎi)你的教程。我說(shuō)為什么?為什么不嘗試一下,他馬上非常自信而且傲慢的說(shuō),不用談了。這個(gè)東西我明白,是騙人的。我從來(lái)不相信這些東西。哎,我也是只有無(wú)話可說(shuō)了,這就是大家常說(shuō)的,不容易溝通。走在自己的思想里。不懂的理解和接受其他的事物。也不會(huì)嘗試去理解。限制了溝通的思想交流的巨大影響。
十三,養(yǎng)志。說(shuō)的志向?qū)W(xué)習(xí)速度的影響。
十四,不要逃避英文。1,語(yǔ)言是人類的天性,小孩子都會(huì)。只要你面對(duì)它,它跳出來(lái)的時(shí)候看它一眼,相信一段時(shí)間后,你就習(xí)慣了 2,語(yǔ)言不是學(xué)出來(lái)的,是用出來(lái)的,一般人如果能連續(xù)用英文版軟件2年,英文的感覺(jué)基本過(guò)關(guān)。就會(huì)有語(yǔ)言情趣了。幾年后基本可以讀原著。這里一個(gè)師傅,6年文化,現(xiàn)在用proe cimatron powermill mastercam都是高手。都用英文版的?,F(xiàn)在可以讀外貿(mào)原著,自己的生存和發(fā)展空間遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過(guò)同樣學(xué)歷的人。他也沒(méi)有專門(mén)學(xué)過(guò)。
以上總結(jié)幾點(diǎn)。代表個(gè)人的觀點(diǎn)。畢竟每個(gè)人的歷程不同,算是交流了。
第四篇:機(jī)械類專業(yè)介紹
機(jī)械類專業(yè)介紹
機(jī)械類專業(yè)介紹:
一、師資力量
專兼職教師15名,其中高級(jí)講師1名,講師8名,95%以上具有本科學(xué)歷,“雙師型”教師8名。
二、實(shí)習(xí)實(shí)訓(xùn)
機(jī)械類專業(yè)擁有實(shí)訓(xùn)車(chē)間(機(jī)械加工車(chē)間,鉗工車(chē)間,焊接車(chē)間)3個(gè),可同時(shí)滿足300多個(gè)學(xué)生實(shí)訓(xùn),計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)室2個(gè)、機(jī)械拆裝和模具拆裝室各一個(gè)。
三、獲得證書(shū)
參加職業(yè)認(rèn)證考試合格者,可獲得中華人民共和國(guó)制造業(yè)類中級(jí)職業(yè)等級(jí)證書(shū)。
四、專業(yè)介紹:
1、機(jī)械加工技術(shù)
培養(yǎng)目標(biāo):
培養(yǎng)學(xué)生具備良好職業(yè)道德和個(gè)人品質(zhì),掌握機(jī)械加工技術(shù)所必需的專業(yè)基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)、基本理論和現(xiàn)代制造技術(shù);主要從事普通機(jī)械加工的工藝實(shí)施、加工質(zhì)量檢測(cè)和機(jī)械加工設(shè)備的調(diào)試、操作、保養(yǎng)等工作。
主要課程:
機(jī)械制圖、電工與電子技術(shù)、金屬工藝學(xué)、極限配合與技術(shù)測(cè)量、機(jī)械基礎(chǔ)、機(jī)械加工技術(shù)、機(jī)械設(shè)備控制技術(shù)、數(shù)控機(jī)床加工技術(shù)、機(jī)械CAD/CAM等。適應(yīng)崗位:
本專業(yè)畢業(yè)生適合于制造業(yè)所需要的車(chē)工、銑工、刨工、磨工、鉗工、鉆工、數(shù)控機(jī)床操作等崗位需求。
2、數(shù)控技術(shù)應(yīng)用
培養(yǎng)目標(biāo):
本專業(yè)培養(yǎng)掌握數(shù)控技術(shù)及應(yīng)用等方面的專業(yè)知識(shí)和必要的文化基礎(chǔ)知識(shí),具有數(shù)控機(jī)床、加工中心等設(shè)備的操作、安裝、調(diào)試、維護(hù)的能力,能適應(yīng)社會(huì)主義市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)的生產(chǎn)、建設(shè)、服務(wù)、管理等一線需要的德、智、體、美、全面發(fā)展的中、初級(jí)數(shù)控技術(shù)實(shí)用性專門(mén)人才。機(jī)械制圖、機(jī)械基礎(chǔ)、金屬加工技術(shù)、電工技術(shù)、電氣控制技術(shù)、公差配合與測(cè)量技術(shù)、CAD/CAM、數(shù)控技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)、數(shù)控仿真加工技術(shù)、數(shù)控加工工藝與工裝、數(shù)控專業(yè)外語(yǔ)等課程。
適應(yīng)崗位:
主要從事數(shù)控設(shè)備的操作、安裝、調(diào)試、編程、維護(hù)工作、CAD/CAM軟件的應(yīng)用工作、車(chē)間生產(chǎn)和技術(shù)管理等工作。/
2機(jī)械類專業(yè)介紹
3、模具設(shè)計(jì)與制造專業(yè)
培養(yǎng)目標(biāo):
培養(yǎng)學(xué)生成為具有較強(qiáng)的模具設(shè)計(jì)、制造、維修能力及相關(guān)設(shè)備的操作、維護(hù)技能的應(yīng)用型人才。
主要課程:
機(jī)械制圖、機(jī)械基礎(chǔ)、模具材料、模具制造、模具結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)、電工基礎(chǔ)、ProE、金屬工藝學(xué)、模具CAD/CAM。
適應(yīng)崗位:
從事模具的設(shè)計(jì)和制造;金屬材料、塑料等制品的成型、工藝規(guī)程編制;沖壓與塑料成型機(jī)械的安裝、調(diào)試、維護(hù)等工作。
4、焊接專業(yè)
培養(yǎng)目標(biāo):
本專業(yè)主要培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)是培養(yǎng)掌握金屬材料焊接技術(shù)基本理論,熟練運(yùn)用焊接操作技術(shù),具有分析和解決生產(chǎn)現(xiàn)場(chǎng)工藝和質(zhì)量問(wèn)題的能力,具備從事焊接技術(shù)工作所需要的理論知識(shí)和應(yīng)用能力,適應(yīng)生產(chǎn)、建設(shè)、管理、服務(wù)第一線需要的技術(shù)應(yīng)用型專門(mén)人才。
主要課程:
計(jì)算機(jī)應(yīng)用基礎(chǔ)、機(jī)械制圖、電工與電子技術(shù)、機(jī)械基礎(chǔ)、焊接工藝學(xué)、焊接方法與設(shè)備、結(jié)構(gòu)生產(chǎn)工藝與工裝、焊接檢驗(yàn)、焊接結(jié)構(gòu)、焊接質(zhì)量管理、鋼結(jié)構(gòu)等。
適應(yīng)崗位:
從事鉗工、機(jī)械制造和焊工及設(shè)備的安裝、調(diào)試、維修及管理等。
五、機(jī)電技術(shù)應(yīng)用專業(yè)
培養(yǎng)目標(biāo):
本專業(yè)培養(yǎng)具有從事機(jī)電技術(shù)必需的理論知識(shí)和綜合職業(yè)能力的機(jī)電設(shè)備、自動(dòng)化設(shè)備和生成線的運(yùn)行與維護(hù)人員。該專業(yè)學(xué)生需掌握機(jī)械、電工與電子技術(shù)、自動(dòng)控制等方面的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)及典型機(jī)電設(shè)備的結(jié)構(gòu)與工作原理,具有一般機(jī)械加工操作能力和編制簡(jiǎn)單零件工藝流程的能力,具有機(jī)電自動(dòng)化設(shè)備安裝、調(diào)試、運(yùn)行和維修的基本能力。
主要課程:
機(jī)械基礎(chǔ)、機(jī)械制圖、電子與電子技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)、金屬工藝學(xué)、機(jī)電設(shè)備概論、鉗工工藝與技能訓(xùn)練、車(chē)工、機(jī)床數(shù)控技術(shù)、家電維修、金屬加工與熱處理。
適應(yīng)崗位:
車(chē)工、鉗工、機(jī)修工、電工、電氣裝配與維護(hù)。/ 2
第五篇:機(jī)械專業(yè)英語(yǔ)翻譯
第一單元 極限與公差
幾何精度設(shè)計(jì)是在機(jī)械制圖上使用的一個(gè)三維國(guó)際工程設(shè)計(jì)語(yǔ)言。這個(gè)語(yǔ)言主要由符號(hào)組成,這些符號(hào)是清楚地定義在由美國(guó)機(jī)械工程協(xié)會(huì)出版的ASME Y14.5M-1994中。這個(gè)制圖標(biāo)準(zhǔn)在北美使用和全世界都認(rèn)同。它代替了更早的ANSI Y14.5M-1982標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和已經(jīng)發(fā)展到幾乎等同于它的ISO副本。這個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)在確定使用各種幾何符號(hào)的方式和在清楚地展示設(shè)計(jì)者的意圖的其他方法上是完善的。
幾何精度設(shè)計(jì)的合理使用保證了工程設(shè)計(jì)想要的形狀、配合和功能,沒(méi)有在車(chē)間的假想或每個(gè)人都詮釋不同的精細(xì)制作的筆記。幾何精度設(shè)計(jì)將通過(guò)在整個(gè)工程設(shè)計(jì)、制造和品質(zhì)功能中提供相同的解釋,增加制造公差,提升效率和品質(zhì)來(lái)節(jié)約公司花銷。我們的經(jīng)驗(yàn)表明許多設(shè)計(jì)者、車(chē)間和品質(zhì)控制人員,盡管在幾何精度設(shè)計(jì)工作了許多年,但還是沒(méi)有完全了解要求和沒(méi)有利用到幾何精度設(shè)計(jì)的所有優(yōu)點(diǎn)。
設(shè)計(jì)和生產(chǎn)系統(tǒng),復(fù)雜性,電算化,和全球制造對(duì)準(zhǔn)確的工程圖紙?zhí)岢隽藦?qiáng)制性要求。功能測(cè)量,刀具,零件尺寸和制造受益于幾何精度設(shè)計(jì)。幾何精度設(shè)計(jì)的學(xué)習(xí)是重要的,因?yàn)樗窃O(shè)計(jì)、制造過(guò)程和質(zhì)量三者溝通的粘合劑。
制造,設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)需要一個(gè)易懂的語(yǔ)言,否則,它是不一致的和不可用的。一門(mén)技術(shù)語(yǔ)言被定義為一個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),這個(gè)被廣泛使用的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是ASME Y14.5M-1994。我們的目的是讓幾何精度設(shè)計(jì)和制造過(guò)程協(xié)調(diào)一致。你可以已經(jīng)在計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)課或制圖課上接觸到幾何精度設(shè)計(jì)。
第二單元
力學(xué)概論
力學(xué)的基本概念:
力學(xué)是用來(lái)處理運(yùn)動(dòng),時(shí)間和力的科學(xué)分析的分支,它由靜力學(xué)和動(dòng)力學(xué)組成。靜力學(xué)研究靜態(tài)系統(tǒng)的分析,這時(shí),時(shí)間不是一個(gè)考慮的因素;動(dòng)力學(xué)則是隨時(shí)間變化的系統(tǒng)。力是通過(guò)相配合的表面?zhèn)鬟f到機(jī)器各個(gè)構(gòu)件的。例如,從齒輪到軸或一個(gè)齒輪通過(guò)嚙合齒傳動(dòng)到另一個(gè)齒輪或連桿通過(guò)軸承傳到杠桿,從V帶到滾輪或從凸輪到傳動(dòng)件。有許多理由都必須知道力的大小。力在邊界及配合表面的分布必須要合理,其強(qiáng)度必須在構(gòu)成表面的材料的工作極限內(nèi)。例如,如果作用在套筒軸承上的力太大,將會(huì)把油膜擠出,并導(dǎo)致金屬表面的膠合,過(guò)熱和軸承過(guò)快失效,動(dòng)力學(xué)的研究主要是確定李的大小、時(shí)間和位置。
下面將說(shuō)明一下我們這方面的研究
力:我們最早的關(guān)于力的想法是源于我們對(duì)推、舉和拉河中物體的需要。因此力是一個(gè)物體對(duì)另一個(gè)物體的作用。自覺(jué)對(duì)力的聯(lián)系包括力作用的位置,方向和大小,這些稱為力的特性。
物質(zhì):物質(zhì)是一種材料或?qū)嵨?,如果它完全封閉則稱為物體。
質(zhì)量:牛頓吧質(zhì)量定義為物體的數(shù)量,由體積和密度來(lái)衡量。這定義并不是很多人滿意的,因?yàn)槊芏仁菃挝惑w積的質(zhì)量。通過(guò)猜想我們可以諒解牛頓,可能他并不認(rèn)為那是個(gè)定義。然而,他已經(jīng)認(rèn)識(shí)到了一個(gè)事實(shí),那就是所有的物體都具有不同于重量的內(nèi)在性質(zhì)。所以,盡管月球重量不同于地球重量,但一塊月球上的巖石仍有特定不變的本質(zhì)數(shù)量。這個(gè)恒定的本質(zhì)數(shù)量或物質(zhì)食糧就是巖石的質(zhì)量。
國(guó)際單位制最大的有點(diǎn)事它對(duì)任何物體有且僅有一個(gè)單位。長(zhǎng)度的單位為米,質(zhì)量的單位為千克,力的單位為牛頓,時(shí)間的單位為秒等等。為了和這種特性保持一致,就要求一個(gè)給定的單位或詞不能僅一個(gè)被認(rèn)可的技術(shù)名稱在二個(gè)物理量中使用。然而,習(xí)慣叫做“重量”的這個(gè)詞已經(jīng)在技術(shù)和非技術(shù)領(lǐng)域廣泛使用,表示著物體所受的引力和其本身質(zhì)量。
粒子:粒子就是指尺寸小到可以忽略的物體。
剛體:物體要么是彈性的,要么是塑性的,只要作用上力都會(huì)產(chǎn)生變形。當(dāng)物體形變量很小時(shí),通常將其假想為剛體,即沒(méi)有變形的能力,作此假想以便簡(jiǎn)化分析。
可變形的物體,作為應(yīng)力和應(yīng)變是由將要分析的作用力所提供的,則剛體假說(shuō)將不再適用。因此我們認(rèn)為物體時(shí)可變形的。這種分析常稱為彈性物體分析,兵并應(yīng)用這附加的假說(shuō),即在力作用范圍內(nèi),物體仍保持彈性。
牛頓定律,牛頓三大定律是:
牛頓第一定律:如果一對(duì)平衡力作用在一個(gè)質(zhì)點(diǎn)上,那么這個(gè)質(zhì)點(diǎn)仍將保持靜止或勻速直線運(yùn)動(dòng)。
牛頓第二定律:如果作用在質(zhì)點(diǎn)上的力不是平衡的,則該質(zhì)點(diǎn)將經(jīng)歷一個(gè)加速度且加速度與合理大小成比例,沿合力方向。
牛頓第三定律:當(dāng)一對(duì)質(zhì)點(diǎn)相互作用,作用力與反作用力其大小相同,方向相反,作用在過(guò)二個(gè)質(zhì)點(diǎn)的直線上。
2,力和力矩:
當(dāng)一個(gè)物體從一個(gè)組成系統(tǒng)中聚集到一起,任意兩物體間相互作用的力稱為約束力。約束力使物體以特定的方式運(yùn)動(dòng)。作用在系統(tǒng)上的力稱為作用力。
有的力在作用中并沒(méi)有實(shí)際的物理接觸。例如,電力磁力和引力。有許多,但不是大多數(shù)的力我們會(huì)涉及到。這些力是通過(guò)物理的或機(jī)械上的接觸相互作用的。
力是個(gè)矢量,力的要素是:力的大小,方向和作用點(diǎn)。力的方向包括那條沿力的指向?yàn)榉较虻闹本€。因此力可能沿直線正向,也可能沿直線反向。二個(gè)大小相等,方向相反,作用不共線的合力。任意二個(gè)這種力作用在物體上將會(huì)形成一個(gè)力偶,力臂是作用線的垂直距離,作用和面是通過(guò)二個(gè)作用力的平面。
第三單元
簡(jiǎn)單機(jī)械
圖3-1給出了直杠的三種布置情況,每個(gè)例子中F是支點(diǎn);P是作用力,作用在b點(diǎn)上;W是載荷,作用在c點(diǎn)上,當(dāng)杠桿處于平衡時(shí),為P使杠桿繞f轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)的趨勢(shì)必須與載荷w使杠桿往反方向旋轉(zhuǎn)的趨勢(shì)相平衡。忽略在支點(diǎn)上的摩擦力,以上關(guān)系可用數(shù)學(xué)式表達(dá)為:P*BF=WX從上式可以看出,施加的作用力乘以支點(diǎn)到一作用點(diǎn)應(yīng)等于另一側(cè)的乘積,從這可以導(dǎo)出“機(jī)械效率”這個(gè)量,它等于載荷除以作用力:
機(jī)械效率=W/P=bf/cf
圖3-1A中如果bf/cf=3,就意味著30磅的載荷能被10磅的為所平衡。如果力稍超過(guò)這個(gè)數(shù)值,杠桿將會(huì)隨著為P的增大而繞點(diǎn)f旋轉(zhuǎn),為P比載荷W增加得更快更大,這也是機(jī)械效率,但應(yīng)忽略摩擦力的作用,顯然,f、c間的距離越短,杠桿的力放大八月入越大。
圖3-1A的布置情況可在鉗子和剪刀上找到,而圖3-1B的情況可在手推車(chē)中找到,f相相當(dāng)是車(chē)輪,W為載荷,力P由操作者施加在手柄上。圖3-1C中,杠桿的作用于是作為一種運(yùn)動(dòng)放大裝置,它用在腳踏板上來(lái)驅(qū)動(dòng)一些小機(jī)械。腳踏板上b的小運(yùn)動(dòng)可在c產(chǎn)生大運(yùn)動(dòng)。
圖3-1D中所示的差動(dòng)滑輪就是基于杠桿原理。半徑為R的輪A和半徑為r的輪B固定在軸上,并可以轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。力P是由一條位于輪邊緣一個(gè)槽中的繩子所提供的,載荷 W由繞在驅(qū)動(dòng)軸上的繩子來(lái)提升。當(dāng)驅(qū)動(dòng)軸靜止時(shí),力P促使軸的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)趨勢(shì)與W促使軸的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)趨勢(shì)相等,且方向相反。忽略軸承摩擦力的話,力P和大輪半徑R的乘積將等于載荷W與驅(qū)動(dòng)軸半徑的乘積:P*R=w*r 機(jī)械效率還是等于W/P,也等于輪R與驅(qū)動(dòng)軸R的比值。
這種情況和杠桿類似。然而杠桿只能移動(dòng)載荷很短的距離。而差動(dòng)滑輪能移動(dòng)開(kāi)荷 的距離,只限制于線強(qiáng)長(zhǎng)度。
當(dāng)輪A和繩由裝輻條的輪代替時(shí),差動(dòng)涔輪就僅適于從井里提升一桶桶的水。然而更重要的是差動(dòng)滑輪的原理在許多工具和機(jī)械中是很顯而易見(jiàn)的。例如,螺刀,由手提供的力作用在大半徑上就能在小半徑上轉(zhuǎn)化出很大的力作用在螺釘上。
滑輪是一種最基本的簡(jiǎn)單機(jī)械之一。它從根本上說(shuō)是由一個(gè)輪子和一個(gè)支承組成,輪子的輪邊帶有槽,槽上繞著柔軟的繩子,而支承有如固定的或可動(dòng)的軸承組,一個(gè)往下的拉力會(huì)產(chǎn)生一個(gè)大小相同的向上的力。圖3-1E中滑輪和可動(dòng)組B結(jié)合時(shí),如果飯略摩察力的話,繩中所有點(diǎn)的張力P是一樣的,因此在繩松開(kāi)的這邊給定一個(gè)向下的拉力,將可以提起這個(gè)拉力兩倍的重物W,而重物W的上升速度交為繩移動(dòng)速度的一半。因此機(jī)械效率為2倍,若使用種種帶有固定的和可動(dòng)的軸承組的滑輪組合,那機(jī)械效率將比2倍還要大。例如熟知的軸承級(jí)和滑車(chē)組合就是一種基本的力放大裝置。
現(xiàn)在來(lái)考慮一下圖3-2中楔的運(yùn)動(dòng)。它由力P向左邊擊打。當(dāng)角度Q越小,摩擦力F也越小時(shí),以r表示的分力N將會(huì)越大。對(duì)于任一楔表面的粗糙度以及對(duì)奕的摩托車(chē)擦力,如果角Q大于一個(gè)給定值,即使力P撤掉后,楔仍會(huì)保持原位或像粘住了。
可楔緊的錐度在機(jī)床主軸中常用來(lái)夾撫持切削刀具,如鉆頭鉸刀。其它應(yīng)用楔原理的機(jī)械裝置有木刨,子,刀,金屬世削刀具和凸輪
絲杠可以認(rèn)為是楔錐在一個(gè)圓柱體上。絲杠是由在實(shí)心圓柱上切削出連續(xù)不斷的槽所形成的,這些被實(shí)心材料分開(kāi)的,連續(xù)的,圓周的槽稱為螺紋。螺紋和槽都是螺旋形的。
如果將圖3-3右側(cè)所示的圖ACC`A`H上線段AB`和BD 在左側(cè)直徑為d的圓柱上,將會(huì)形成1。5圖的螺旋。其對(duì)應(yīng)的軸向距離l稱為導(dǎo)程。導(dǎo)程角λ是用來(lái)度量螺旋的傾斜角。
一些早期的螺釘,其切削方法類似于用展開(kāi)的如圖3-3左邊的螺旋一條柔軟的金屬薄板,以右螺角形式,纏繞在圓柱形毛坯上,以便右角的一臂能平行于軸線,斜邊用在圓柱上形成螺旋,用作切削螺旋槽的導(dǎo)向。
如果滑動(dòng)無(wú)件被約束為沿平行圓柱軸線運(yùn)動(dòng),如圖3-3中的F,沿著軸線00`運(yùn)動(dòng),它就能被圓柱體的旋轉(zhuǎn)、螺旋或是拉直螺旋的平移所驅(qū)動(dòng)。另一種情況,楔的運(yùn)動(dòng)是很明顯的。如果螺帽的一部分構(gòu)件F,它限制了旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)但軸向運(yùn)動(dòng)是自由的,絲桿螺帽組合將會(huì)把螺旋運(yùn)動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)化成
第四單元
機(jī)構(gòu)
基本類型
機(jī)構(gòu)的目的是為了傳遞運(yùn)動(dòng),而不管機(jī)構(gòu)有沒(méi)有變更。雖然機(jī)構(gòu)有許多中組成形式,但總的來(lái)說(shuō)只有三種分類,如圖4-1所示
圖中的每種機(jī)構(gòu),桿2和桿4都是通過(guò)O點(diǎn)和Q點(diǎn)聯(lián)接到桿1的。這兩種機(jī)構(gòu)的運(yùn)動(dòng)傳遞方式如圖4-1所示:(A)通過(guò)柔性的包裹聯(lián)接器傳遞,如皮帶,繩子,纜和鏈條等;(B)通過(guò)直接接觸傳遞,如用凸輪,齒輪或是摩擦輪;(C)用剛性的聯(lián)接桿或聯(lián)軸器傳遞。在各種情況中桿2都是驅(qū)動(dòng)件,它以每分鐘n2轉(zhuǎn)的轉(zhuǎn)速轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng),而桿4是從動(dòng)件,以每分鐘n4的轉(zhuǎn)速轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng),對(duì)于這三種情況,桿2和桿4的轉(zhuǎn)速比是由Of的長(zhǎng)度與Qf的長(zhǎng)度比值所決定的。圖4-1A中由于點(diǎn)f固定與OQ的中心,所以它的速率是一個(gè)常量,在圖4-1B和4-1C中,由于點(diǎn)f將會(huì)隨著物體的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)而移動(dòng),故其速率是變化的。直接接觸的物體能設(shè)計(jì)成只會(huì)擺動(dòng),如圖4-1B,或只會(huì)持續(xù)轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。在所有的情況中,點(diǎn)f都是位于有公法線和中心線的交點(diǎn)上。
直接接觸機(jī)構(gòu)
在大多數(shù)的情況中,直接接觸的表面互相之間是滑動(dòng)的,并僅僅只有滑動(dòng)運(yùn)動(dòng)。這樣表面情況是很容易惡化的。而在特定的條件下,表面磨損不厲害的純滾動(dòng)接觸具有更高的效率。如果其他條件滿足了,物體將會(huì)以勻速傳遞運(yùn)動(dòng)。這些特定的情況在齒輪聯(lián)接和凸輪聯(lián)接中是很有用的。純滾動(dòng)的條件是接觸點(diǎn)位于中心線上。
共有三種純滾動(dòng)接觸的情況,當(dāng)兩物體是圓柱體時(shí),公法線和中心線是重合的,所能傳遞的載荷是由其表面摩擦所決定的,這就是所謂的基于摩擦的滾動(dòng)。對(duì)于不依賴于摩擦的驅(qū)動(dòng),其公法線一定不能穿過(guò)驅(qū)動(dòng)件或從動(dòng)件的中心。忽略摩擦,且兩相互接觸物體間的力沿著法線作用時(shí),當(dāng)力的作用線沒(méi)有穿過(guò)從動(dòng)件的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)樞軸線時(shí),從動(dòng)件將被主動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)。圖4-1B中的物體,接觸點(diǎn)在P,提供主動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)。
任一直接接觸物體,其速率比的公式中唯一的變量就是圖4-1B中點(diǎn)f的位置。因此,保持勻速或恒定速率比的條件是公法線在一些固定點(diǎn)上通過(guò)中心線。盡管法線可能會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng),但只要它在相同點(diǎn)通過(guò)中心線,速率比將會(huì)保持恒定。
對(duì)于大多數(shù)給定的物體形狀或輪廓,另一物體的,輪廓都能被構(gòu)造出來(lái),用于以勻速速率傳遞運(yùn)動(dòng)。這就是共軛輪廓。其本身就是存在能傳遞共軛運(yùn)動(dòng)的數(shù)學(xué)曲線;擺線和漸進(jìn)線就是其中的兩種;用于齒輪輪齒中。擺線就是跟蹤空間中滾動(dòng)輪邊緣的一點(diǎn)所形成的軌跡。輪齒的輪廓是跟蹤小圓邊緣的一點(diǎn)在大圓內(nèi)外側(cè)滾動(dòng)所形成的軌跡。漸開(kāi)線就是處于大圓的內(nèi)外側(cè),漸開(kāi)線就是跟蹤小圓邊緣一點(diǎn)沿大圓內(nèi)外側(cè)滾動(dòng)所形成的軌跡。漸開(kāi)線也是跟蹤從圓柱體上展開(kāi)的線上的一點(diǎn)所形成的軌跡。通過(guò)研究一對(duì)漸開(kāi)線的接觸能很好地理解兩漸開(kāi)線輪齒表面的相互作用方式。圖4-2中,由基圓1和基圓2產(chǎn)生的兩條漸開(kāi)線通過(guò)點(diǎn)m、f和n想聯(lián)接,且應(yīng)注意到由于基圓2比基圓1大,漸開(kāi)線便有不同的形狀。
第五單元
連桿機(jī)構(gòu)
連桿機(jī)構(gòu)也許可以定義為實(shí)體物體或連桿的載體,其中每根桿件通過(guò)銷聯(lián)接(鉸鏈)或滑動(dòng)接頭至少和其他兩個(gè)桿件相聯(lián)接。為了滿足這個(gè)定義,連桿機(jī)構(gòu)必須形成一個(gè)無(wú)限的封閉的鏈或一系列封閉的鏈。很明顯,由很多桿聯(lián)接的鏈與只有一個(gè)桿相比,其性能是不同的。這在機(jī)械上就提出了一個(gè)非常重要的問(wèn)題,那就是為傳遞運(yùn)動(dòng)而給定機(jī)構(gòu)的適應(yīng)性問(wèn)題。其適應(yīng)性取決于桿件和街頭的數(shù)量。
自由度,三桿機(jī)構(gòu)(包括三桿聯(lián)接在一起的)很明顯是一個(gè)剛性框架;連桿之間不可能有相對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng),為了表達(dá)四桿機(jī)構(gòu)中連桿的相對(duì)位置,只需知道任意兩桿間的夾角。(算上固定連桿OQ,圖5-1C所示機(jī)構(gòu)有4個(gè)連桿,因此是四桿機(jī)構(gòu)。)這個(gè)連桿機(jī)構(gòu)有一個(gè)自由度。要確定五桿機(jī)構(gòu)中連桿的相對(duì)位置需要兩個(gè)角度,也就是它有兩個(gè)自由度。
帶有一個(gè)自由度的連桿機(jī)構(gòu),其運(yùn)動(dòng)是有約束的。例如,連桿所有點(diǎn)在其它連桿上的軌跡是固定而又確定的。通過(guò)假定連桿上所求軌跡是固定的,并移動(dòng)與約束相協(xié)調(diào)的連桿,軌跡是很容易得到的或很容易可視化觀察到。
四桿機(jī)構(gòu)。當(dāng)所受約束的連桿機(jī)構(gòu)中的一個(gè)構(gòu)件固定時(shí),這個(gè)連桿機(jī)構(gòu)將變成一個(gè)在機(jī)械中能夠完成有用的機(jī)械功能的機(jī)構(gòu),在銷連接的連桿機(jī)構(gòu)中,輸入桿(主動(dòng)桿)和輸出桿(從動(dòng)桿)通常是以樞軸的連接方式連接到固定桿上的;這個(gè)連接桿(連接件)通常既不是輸入桿,也不是輸出桿。由于任意連桿都能固定。如果四種機(jī)構(gòu)中,連桿都不等長(zhǎng),并且都有不同的輸入-輸出關(guān)系,那么就能得到四桿機(jī)構(gòu)。這四種機(jī)構(gòu)也就是所謂的基本連桿機(jī)構(gòu)的轉(zhuǎn)換。
當(dāng)圖5-1左邊中最短桿a固定時(shí),桿b和桿d就能完成整圈的旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)。這就是雙曲柄機(jī)構(gòu)。若曲柄b以恒定的速度轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng),則曲柄d將以變化的速度作同向轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。雙曲柄機(jī)構(gòu)本身,或者和別機(jī)構(gòu)聯(lián)接起來(lái)時(shí),其曲柄都能提供有用的運(yùn)動(dòng)效果,圖中,曲柄b是主動(dòng)桿,它以勻速率逆時(shí)針旋轉(zhuǎn);曲柄d為從動(dòng)件;三者都能同時(shí)完成整圈的旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)。但當(dāng)b轉(zhuǎn)過(guò)150°的角度是,從動(dòng)桿d只能轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)50°的角度。這就是意味著從B運(yùn)動(dòng)到B’時(shí),曲柄d將比b轉(zhuǎn)得慢,而從B’運(yùn)動(dòng)到B時(shí),d比b轉(zhuǎn)得快。如果將同樣比例的曲柄d聯(lián)接到包裝機(jī)械的主軸上,例如聯(lián)接運(yùn)動(dòng)較慢的軸上,那它將會(huì)暫停運(yùn)動(dòng)或者停頓。這在必須慢速的地方將派上用場(chǎng)。
通過(guò)將最短桿a作為主動(dòng)桿能得到四桿機(jī)構(gòu)的第二種轉(zhuǎn)換。如圖5-1右所示,在桿a做整圈旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)的同時(shí);其相對(duì)的桿,可能在桿b,c,或桿d,卻只能在φ角的范圍內(nèi)擺動(dòng)。這稱為曲柄搖桿機(jī)構(gòu)。它是產(chǎn)生帶有急回動(dòng)作的擺動(dòng)運(yùn)動(dòng)的有用裝置。產(chǎn)生急回運(yùn)動(dòng)的原因是:當(dāng)桿a逆時(shí)針旋轉(zhuǎn)時(shí),會(huì)帶動(dòng)桿 c從B擺動(dòng)到B’,其擺過(guò)角度為θ1,而桿c從B’擺動(dòng)到B時(shí),其擺過(guò)的角度為θ2。由于曲柄a的轉(zhuǎn)速是恒定的,且θ1大于θ2,因此搖桿從右擺動(dòng)到左的時(shí)間將長(zhǎng)于其它擺動(dòng)途徑。只有當(dāng)活動(dòng)桿件沿一個(gè)方向移動(dòng),急回裝置快速將桿件送回初始位置時(shí),機(jī)械才是做有用功。
圖5-1右所示的極端位置,曲柄a與連接桿b共線,且假定搖桿c為主動(dòng)桿時(shí),就必須提供方法使從動(dòng)桿a通過(guò)死點(diǎn)。在用腳踏式操作的磨刀機(jī)上,腳踏板連接著桿c,磨刀機(jī)主軸連接著桿a,就是靠著磨刀機(jī)的角動(dòng)量使桿通過(guò)死點(diǎn)。
在四桿機(jī)構(gòu)的第三種轉(zhuǎn)換中,最短桿a為連接桿,其它的桿件只能擺動(dòng),這就是雙搖桿機(jī)構(gòu)。
連桿機(jī)構(gòu)的綜合,在連桿機(jī)構(gòu)中,用圖形法和分析法很容易測(cè)定出桿件的位移,速度和加速度。設(shè)計(jì)或綜合連桿來(lái)滿足特定要求就難得多了。還沒(méi)有可用的方法來(lái)設(shè)計(jì)雙曲柄機(jī)構(gòu)以滿足給定的輸入-輸出的關(guān)系譜。能做的就是調(diào)查一些選定的特定結(jié)構(gòu)的性能特性。并挑選出其中最佳的
在曲柄搖桿機(jī)構(gòu)中,設(shè)計(jì)者能控制搖桿的擺動(dòng)角度,并在一定的程度上控制急回。而曲柄和要干的位移,速度和加速度卻無(wú)法關(guān)聯(lián)起來(lái)。
若四桿機(jī)構(gòu)中的連桿總是以相同或相反的方向轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng),并且他們的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)范圍遠(yuǎn)小于180°,那么就有可能將曲柄轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)在3點(diǎn),4點(diǎn),5點(diǎn)或者甚至更多的位置關(guān)聯(lián)起來(lái)。圖形法和分析法都能建立這種關(guān)聯(lián)。
第六單元 飛輪
飛輪是一個(gè)連接到機(jī)械主軸上的重的輪子,它的目的是為了抵消和減輕在機(jī)械速度上由所提供的或所需要的動(dòng)力的造成的速度不均勻性引起的任何波動(dòng)。飛輪也被用來(lái)測(cè)試制動(dòng)器和儲(chǔ)存可以在緊急情況下使用的能量,或者可以在快速釋放時(shí)提供大的力。
抵抗一個(gè)旋轉(zhuǎn)物體使其速度發(fā)生變化的辦法是改變它的慣性矩。這個(gè)性質(zhì)取決于對(duì)旋轉(zhuǎn)軸的材料的處置上。慣性矩是與物體的每個(gè)構(gòu)件的重量和它們到旋轉(zhuǎn)軸的距離的平方獲得的乘積成正比。普通幾何形狀物體的慣性矩可以在手冊(cè)中得到;對(duì)于非普通的形狀,它們可以由整體的積分或者通過(guò)經(jīng)驗(yàn)來(lái)確定。從慣性矩的性質(zhì)可知,一個(gè)飛輪的材質(zhì)在盡可能離旋轉(zhuǎn)軸遠(yuǎn)的地方集中是最有效的。因此最好的飛輪有一個(gè)通過(guò)輪輻或圓盤(pán)連接到中心輪轂重的輪緣。
一個(gè)飛輪的運(yùn)行情況完全取決于扭矩或作用在它身上的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)力。如果一個(gè)順時(shí)針的扭矩作用在一個(gè)固定的飛輪一段時(shí)間,這個(gè)飛輪將獲得一個(gè)順時(shí)針角度方向的速度,它與平均扭矩乘以時(shí)間段的積成正比,與飛輪的慣性矩成反比。如果一個(gè)旋轉(zhuǎn)飛輪受到與它旋轉(zhuǎn)方向相同的一個(gè)扭矩作用,它的速度將提升;反之,速度將下降。飛輪的慣性矩越大,由一個(gè)給定的扭矩引起的速度變化將越小。如果沒(méi)有扭矩作用在飛輪上,它的速度將不會(huì)改變。
在一個(gè)往復(fù)式發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的每個(gè)旋轉(zhuǎn)期間作用在曲柄軸上的扭矩都會(huì)變化。這種變化是由于在汽缸中的蒸汽或氣壓的不均勻性和連桿(將活塞壓力轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榍S扭矩)與曲柄軸之間的變化的夾角造成的。當(dāng)曲柄和連桿是共線的,這時(shí)將沒(méi)有扭矩傳遞給曲柄,每次旋轉(zhuǎn)這種情況會(huì)發(fā)生兩次。在發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)上飛輪的一個(gè)附帶的功能是帶領(lǐng)曲柄軸經(jīng)過(guò)這些死點(diǎn)位置。
所有的旋轉(zhuǎn)機(jī)械都構(gòu)件都具有慣性矩和像飛輪一樣都會(huì)對(duì)扭矩變化作出反應(yīng)。這些構(gòu)件啟動(dòng)、暫?;蛩俣茸兓枰呐ぞ乇环Q之為慣性扭矩或慣性載荷。慣性載荷存在于所有機(jī)械中,當(dāng)機(jī)械啟動(dòng)時(shí)它們的存在尤其明顯。
飛輪在間歇地傳遞機(jī)械功的機(jī)械上是特別有用的。例如,在沖床上,在活塞的下行沖程期間沖壓或成型金屬盤(pán)所需的大的力才會(huì)發(fā)生。在下行沖程的剩余時(shí)間,整個(gè)上行沖程和沖程之間的時(shí)段,機(jī)器是空轉(zhuǎn)的,來(lái)自驅(qū)動(dòng)馬達(dá)的所需的動(dòng)力是很低的。使用一個(gè)具有傳遞足夠大的扭矩去創(chuàng)造沖孔成型所需的大的力的驅(qū)動(dòng)馬達(dá)是不經(jīng)濟(jì)的。飛輪作用于儲(chǔ)存在機(jī)器空轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)由低動(dòng)力馬達(dá)造成的能量和在下行沖程做工部分釋放部分能量。
在1880年代,一個(gè)快速旋轉(zhuǎn)的飛輪被用作魚(yú)雷推動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的動(dòng)力源;據(jù)報(bào)道,在450米的距離將獲得24海里/時(shí)的速度。在飛機(jī)上,直徑25厘米,轉(zhuǎn)速52000轉(zhuǎn)/分鐘的飛輪有足夠的能量去升起和降下起落架。這個(gè)飛輪儲(chǔ)能系統(tǒng)重90千克,低于完成相同功能的液壓系統(tǒng)。在公交運(yùn)輸方面的一個(gè)近來(lái)(1970年)的應(yīng)用是在無(wú)軌電車(chē)上使用飛輪的提議。新型的高密度的鋼輪,重300千克,轉(zhuǎn)速為每分鐘20000轉(zhuǎn),它將允許電車(chē)離開(kāi)電線行駛在臨近十公里的區(qū)域內(nèi)。在飛輪上獲得高密度儲(chǔ)能能力的關(guān)鍵在于由材料可以帶動(dòng)的旋轉(zhuǎn)引起的離心應(yīng)力的大小。相同的材料,平的圓盤(pán)可以比輪緣形的輪子多儲(chǔ)能百分之50,而錐形的等壓力盤(pán)可以比輪緣形的輪子多儲(chǔ)能百分之100。
第八單元 材料的熱處理
熱處理是在固態(tài)下加熱和冷卻材料來(lái)改變它的的物理性質(zhì)的工藝。根據(jù)所使用的工序,鋼可以被硬化來(lái)抵抗切割運(yùn)動(dòng)和磨損,或者它可以被軟化來(lái)進(jìn)行進(jìn)一步加工。結(jié)合適當(dāng)?shù)臒崽幚恚梢韵齼?nèi)部應(yīng)力,細(xì)化晶粒,增加韌性,或生產(chǎn)一個(gè)韌性的內(nèi)部和硬的表面的材料。直到熱處理之前,在機(jī)械車(chē)間制造的大部分產(chǎn)物只有很少的價(jià)值或沒(méi)有價(jià)值。熱處理不僅可以用于鋼上面,也可以用在許多非鐵金屬上面,例如鋁,銅和黃銅。鋼熱處理的工序包括硬化淬火,回火,退火和表面淬火。
在許多人處理工藝上,加熱的速度是重要的。熱度以一定的速率從鋼的外部傳導(dǎo)到內(nèi)部。如果鋼加熱太快,外部將會(huì)比內(nèi)部更熱,不會(huì)得到均勻的結(jié)構(gòu)。如果工件在形狀上是不規(guī)則的,為了消除變形和裂紋,緩慢的加熱速度是更加必要的。工件越重,為了達(dá)到均勻的結(jié)果,加熱時(shí)間必須更久。盡管已經(jīng)達(dá)到了正確的溫度,工件也應(yīng)該保持在這個(gè)溫度相當(dāng)一段時(shí)間來(lái)使它最厚的截面達(dá)到相同的溫度。
1硬化
硬化是一個(gè)加熱和冷卻的過(guò)程來(lái)增加它的硬度和拉伸強(qiáng)度,降低延展性,和得到一個(gè)良好的晶粒結(jié)構(gòu)。這工序包括在溫度的臨界點(diǎn)加熱金屬,隨后快速冷卻。隨著金屬被加熱,鐵和碳之間發(fā)生物理和化學(xué)的改變。這個(gè)臨界點(diǎn)或臨界溫度是鋼具有最理想特性的點(diǎn)。當(dāng)鋼達(dá)到在1400到1600華氏度間的某個(gè)溫度,如果它被快速冷卻,這個(gè)變化對(duì)制出硬,又強(qiáng)的材料是理想的。如果金屬緩慢冷卻,它將會(huì)變回原本的狀態(tài)。通過(guò)把熱的金屬投入水,油或鹽水中(淬火),可以得到所想要的特性。金屬對(duì)比之前是非常強(qiáng)和硬的和有更少的延展性。
2回火
已經(jīng)通過(guò)快速淬火硬化的鋼是脆的和不適合于大部分用途。通過(guò)回火,硬度和脆性將減少到耐用條件所需要的點(diǎn)。隨著這些性質(zhì)減少,鋼的抗拉強(qiáng)度也會(huì)減小,而在延展性和韌性會(huì)增加。這個(gè)工藝包括了淬硬鋼再加熱到低于臨界范圍的某個(gè)溫度,隨后以任何速度冷卻。雖然這個(gè)過(guò)程軟化了金屬,但它完全不同于退火,在這個(gè)過(guò)程中回火有助于對(duì)物理性質(zhì)的精細(xì)控制,和在大部分過(guò)程中,回火不會(huì)把金屬軟化到退火將達(dá)到的程度。最后從硬化金屬完全回火所得到的結(jié)構(gòu)被稱為回火馬氏體。
因?yàn)橛不饘俚闹饕煞竹R氏體的不穩(wěn)定性,所以回火是合理的。從300到400華氏度的低溫不會(huì)造成硬度降低,它主要用于消除內(nèi)部應(yīng)變。隨著回火溫度的增高,馬氏體的分解將以更快的速度發(fā)生,和在大約600華氏度,變成被稱為回火馬氏體的結(jié)構(gòu)是非??斓?。
回火工藝可以被描述成沉淀和結(jié)塊,或滲碳體聚結(jié)的工藝。大量滲碳體的沉淀是在600華氏度,這會(huì)產(chǎn)生硬度降低。溫度升高會(huì)造成碳化物的聚結(jié),而硬度會(huì)繼續(xù)降低。
3退火
退火的主要目的是軟化硬的鋼以致使它可以被機(jī)加工和冷加工。通常這是通過(guò)加熱金屬到稍稍在形成奧氏體的臨界溫度之上,并保持這個(gè)溫度直到工件的溫度處處相同,和那時(shí)以一個(gè)緩慢的可控速度冷卻以致使工件的表面溫度和中心溫度近似相等來(lái)完成的。這個(gè)過(guò)程被稱為完全退火,因?yàn)樗酥敖Y(jié)構(gòu)的所有的痕跡,提純了結(jié)晶結(jié)構(gòu),和軟化了金屬。退火也消除了以前在金屬產(chǎn)生的內(nèi)部應(yīng)力。
當(dāng)硬化的金屬二次加熱到臨界范圍之上,組織將變回奧氏體,和緩慢冷卻,那時(shí)將提供足夠的時(shí)間完成奧氏體到更軟的結(jié)構(gòu)的轉(zhuǎn)變。對(duì)于亞共析鋼,這些結(jié)構(gòu)是珠光體和鐵素體。通過(guò)參考平衡態(tài)圖標(biāo),可以注意到過(guò)共析鋼退火溫度是更低的,稍稍在A線之上。沒(méi)有理由去加熱到A線之上,因?yàn)樵谶@個(gè)點(diǎn)硬的組織滲碳體開(kāi)始析出。通過(guò)加熱到更低的臨界范圍之上和緩慢冷卻,所有的馬氏體會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)變成珠光體。在鋼里面任何自由的滲碳體都不收這些處理的影響。
第九單元 材料的選擇與機(jī)械零件的強(qiáng)度
1材料的選擇
這些年來(lái),工程材料的選擇已經(jīng)顯得非常重要。此外,選擇過(guò)程應(yīng)該是一個(gè)對(duì)材料的連續(xù)不斷的重新評(píng)價(jià)過(guò)程。新材料不斷出現(xiàn),而一些原有的材料的可以被利用的數(shù)量可能會(huì)減少。環(huán)境污染,材料的回收利用.工人的健康及安全等方面的關(guān)心經(jīng)常會(huì)對(duì)材料選擇附加新的限制條件。為了減輕重量或者節(jié)約能源,可能會(huì)要求使用不同的材料,來(lái)自國(guó)內(nèi)和國(guó)際的競(jìng)爭(zhēng).對(duì)產(chǎn)品維修方便性要求的提高和顧客的反饋等方面的壓力。此外,材料與材料加工之間的相互依賴關(guān)系已經(jīng)被人們認(rèn)識(shí)得更清楚,新的加工方法的出現(xiàn)通常會(huì)促使人們對(duì)被加工材料進(jìn)行重新評(píng)價(jià)。因此,為了能在合理的成本和確保質(zhì)量的前提下獲得滿意的結(jié)果,設(shè)計(jì)工程師和制造工程師都必須認(rèn)真仔細(xì)地選擇,確定和使用材料。
制造任何產(chǎn)品的第一步工作都是設(shè)計(jì),設(shè)計(jì)通??梢苑譃閹讉€(gè)明確的階段,(a)總體設(shè)計(jì)b)功能設(shè)計(jì)c)生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)。在總體設(shè)計(jì)階段,設(shè)計(jì)者著重考慮產(chǎn)品應(yīng)該具有的功能。通常要設(shè)想和考慮幾個(gè)方案,然后決定這種想法是否可行;如果可行,則應(yīng)該對(duì)其中一個(gè)或幾個(gè)方案作進(jìn)一步的改進(jìn),在此階段,關(guān)于材料選擇唯一要考慮的問(wèn)題是:是否有性能符合要求的材料可供選用,如果沒(méi)有的話,是否有較大的把握在成本和時(shí)間都允許的限度內(nèi)研制出一種新材料。
在功能設(shè)計(jì)或工程設(shè)計(jì)階段,要做出一個(gè)切實(shí)可行的設(shè)計(jì),在這個(gè)階段要繪制出和相當(dāng)完整的圖紙,選擇并確定各種零件的材料,通常要制造出樣機(jī)或者實(shí)物模型,并對(duì)其進(jìn)行試驗(yàn),評(píng)價(jià)產(chǎn)品的功能,可靠性,外觀和適用性等,雖然這種試驗(yàn)可能會(huì)表明,在產(chǎn)品進(jìn)入到生產(chǎn)階段之間,應(yīng)該更換某些材料,但是,絕對(duì)不能將這一點(diǎn)作為不認(rèn)真選擇材料的借口,應(yīng)該結(jié)合產(chǎn)品的功能,認(rèn)真仔細(xì)地考慮產(chǎn)品外觀,成本和可靠性。一個(gè)很有成就的公司在制造所有樣機(jī)時(shí),所選用的材料應(yīng)該和其在生產(chǎn)中使用的材料相同,并盡可能使用同樣的制造技術(shù),這樣做對(duì)公司是很有的。功能完備的樣機(jī)如果不能根據(jù)預(yù)期的銷售量經(jīng)濟(jì)地制造出來(lái),或者是樣機(jī)與正式生產(chǎn)的裝置在質(zhì)量和可靠性方面有很大不同,則這種樣機(jī)就沒(méi)有多大的價(jià)值。設(shè)計(jì)工程師最好能在這一階段全部完成材料的分析,選擇和和確定工作,而不是將其留到生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段去做。因?yàn)椋谏a(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段材料的更換是由其他人進(jìn)行的,這些人對(duì)產(chǎn)品的所有功能的了解可能不如設(shè)計(jì)工程師。
在生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段中,與材料有關(guān)的主要問(wèn)題是應(yīng)該把材料完全確定下來(lái),使它與現(xiàn)有的設(shè)備相一對(duì)一,能夠利用現(xiàn)有設(shè)備經(jīng)濟(jì)地進(jìn)行加工,材料的數(shù)量能夠比較容易地保證供應(yīng)。
在制造過(guò)程中,不可避免地會(huì)出現(xiàn)對(duì)使用中的材料作一些更改的情況,經(jīng)驗(yàn)表明,可以采用某些理家材料作為替代品。然而,在大多數(shù)情況下,在進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)以后改換材料要比在開(kāi)始生產(chǎn)前改換材料所花費(fèi)的代價(jià)要高在生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段做好材料選擇工作,可以避免大多數(shù)的這種材料更換情況,在生產(chǎn)制造開(kāi)始后出現(xiàn)了可供使用的新材料的。當(dāng)然,這些新核燃料可能降低成本,改進(jìn)產(chǎn)品性能。但是,必須對(duì)新材料進(jìn)行認(rèn)真的平價(jià),以倚其所有性能都被人們所了解。應(yīng)當(dāng)時(shí)刻牢記,新材料的性能和可靠性很少能像現(xiàn)有材料那樣為人們所了解大部分的產(chǎn)品失效和產(chǎn)品責(zé)任事故案件是由于在選用新材料作為替代材料之前,沒(méi)有真正了解它們的長(zhǎng)期使用性能而引起的。
產(chǎn)品的責(zé)任訴訟迫使設(shè)計(jì)人員和公司在選擇材料時(shí),采用最好的程序,在材料選擇過(guò)程中,五個(gè)最覺(jué)的問(wèn)題為:(A)不了解或者未能利用關(guān)于材料應(yīng)用方面的最新和最好的信息資料(B)未能和考慮產(chǎn)品可以的合理用途,如有可能,設(shè)計(jì)人員還應(yīng)進(jìn)一步和考慮由于產(chǎn)品使用方法不當(dāng)造成的后果。在近年來(lái)的許多產(chǎn)品責(zé)任訴訟案件中,由于錯(cuò)誤地使用產(chǎn)品而受到傷害的控告生產(chǎn)大家,并且贏得判決(C)所使用材料的數(shù)據(jù)不全或者有些數(shù)據(jù)不確定,尤其是當(dāng)具長(zhǎng)期性能數(shù)據(jù)是如此的時(shí)候(D)質(zhì)量控制方法不適當(dāng)和經(jīng)驗(yàn)證明由一些完全 不稱職的人員選擇材料。
通過(guò)對(duì)上違一個(gè)問(wèn)題的分析,可以得出這些問(wèn)題是沒(méi)有充分理由存在的結(jié)論,對(duì)這些問(wèn)題的分析和研究以給避免這些問(wèn)題的指明方向。以往采用最好的材料選擇辦法也不能避免發(fā)生產(chǎn)品責(zé)任訴訟,設(shè)計(jì)人員工業(yè)界按照適當(dāng)?shù)某绦蜻M(jìn)行最佳選擇,可以大減少訴訟的數(shù)量。
因?yàn)樗a(chǎn)的壓痕尺寸的函數(shù),這表明由于硬度是非破壞性試驗(yàn),而且不需要專門(mén)的,因而硬度是一個(gè)容易測(cè)量的性能,通??梢灾苯釉趯?shí)際的機(jī)械零件上進(jìn)行硬度試驗(yàn)。
第十單元
車(chē)床及其他機(jī)床
車(chē)床
1.車(chē)床用于旋轉(zhuǎn)工件,并朝著生成所需要加工的表面方向進(jìn)給切削刀具。2.最常見(jiàn)的車(chē)床形式是圖10-1a中以圖解方式顯示的六角車(chē)床,它由一個(gè)支撐著床頭箱,拖板和六角刀架的水平床身組成,工件夾在卡盤(pán)和夾頭中,或者安裝在機(jī)床主軸端部的花盤(pán)上。3.工件的旋轉(zhuǎn)由一臺(tái)電機(jī)通過(guò)一個(gè)齒輪系驅(qū)動(dòng)主軸提供。4.切削刀具安裝在橫向滑板及六角刀架上,在橫向滑板上的刀具在平行于工件旋轉(zhuǎn)軸線方向或在工件旋轉(zhuǎn)軸線的法線方向驅(qū)動(dòng)或給進(jìn)。六角刀架可以通過(guò)分度頭將各種刀具定位并可以沿車(chē)床的床身方向驅(qū)動(dòng)或給進(jìn)。
5.現(xiàn)代六角車(chē)床由計(jì)算機(jī)控制所有工件和刀具運(yùn)動(dòng),這些車(chē)床稱為計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)字控制(CNC)車(chē)床,而且刀具或橫向滑板可以在水平面上的任一方向進(jìn)給以使工件上產(chǎn)生所需的廓形。6.圖10-1b說(shuō)明的是通過(guò)工件旋轉(zhuǎn)以及托板沿車(chē)床床身運(yùn)動(dòng)所產(chǎn)生的柱面,這一工序稱為外圓車(chē)削。
7.車(chē)床設(shè)定的進(jìn)給運(yùn)動(dòng)也就是工件每轉(zhuǎn)一圈刀具移動(dòng)的距離,機(jī)床的進(jìn)給量f的定義是:刀具或工件每一行程或每轉(zhuǎn)一圈,刀具相對(duì)于工件在進(jìn)給運(yùn)動(dòng)的方向的位移,這樣,為了車(chē)削長(zhǎng)度為L(zhǎng)w的柱面,工件的轉(zhuǎn)數(shù)是Lw/f,則加工時(shí)間Tm由下式給出的Tm=Lw/(fnw),式中nw是工件的旋轉(zhuǎn)速度。
8.在此應(yīng)當(dāng)強(qiáng)調(diào)t,是刀具沿工件走一次(一次切削)的時(shí)間,但是,這一次通過(guò)并不意味著加工工序的完成,如果首次切削用于以高進(jìn)給來(lái)去除大量材料(粗切),在操作過(guò)程中產(chǎn)生的力將有可能引起機(jī)床結(jié)構(gòu)的明顯撓曲,引起的精度損失可能需要以小進(jìn)給量進(jìn)一步加工(精切),使工件直徑在規(guī)定的界限內(nèi)并提供光滑的加工表面。由于這些原因,在粗切時(shí)常被加工成稍大一點(diǎn)的尺寸,留下少量材料在隨后的精加工中去除。立式鏜床
9.水平主軸的車(chē)床不適于車(chē)削沉重的大直徑工件,否則機(jī)床主軸的軸線將不得不升高到機(jī)床操作工夠不到固定刀具或固定工件的裝置的高度,此外,在垂直的花盤(pán)上安裝零件或在頂尖之間支撐零件會(huì)有困難,因此使用了一種與車(chē)窗相同的工作原理,但具有垂直軸線的機(jī)床并稱為立式鏜床(圖10-2),這種機(jī)床像車(chē)床那樣旋轉(zhuǎn)工作并向刀具施加連續(xù)的,線性的進(jìn)給運(yùn)動(dòng)。
10.(立式鏜床)使用單刃刀具,而且進(jìn)行的作業(yè)一般限于車(chē)削,端面車(chē)削和鏜削。
11.便于定位大型工件的水平工件臺(tái)由一個(gè)帶有徑向T型槽的,起夾持作用的旋轉(zhuǎn)工作臺(tái)構(gòu)成
臥式鏜床
12,這里介紹的另一種實(shí)用單刃刀具并具有旋轉(zhuǎn)主運(yùn)動(dòng)的機(jī)床是臥式鏜床(圖10-3),這種機(jī)床主要用于沉重的圓柱形工件,在這種工件內(nèi)有一個(gè)待加工的內(nèi)圓柱形表面,一般講,在描述機(jī)床時(shí),使用臥式或立式來(lái)講。兩個(gè)詞指的是提供主運(yùn)動(dòng)的機(jī)床軸(主軸)的姿態(tài),可見(jiàn),在臥式鏜床中,主軸是水平的。
13,此類機(jī)床的主要特征是,工件在加工過(guò)程中保持靜止,所有造型運(yùn)動(dòng)都施加在刀具上。最常見(jiàn)的加工工序是鏜削,如圖所示,鏜削是通過(guò)旋轉(zhuǎn)刀具來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)的,刀具安裝在與主軸相連接的鏜桿上,然后沿旋轉(zhuǎn)線進(jìn)給主軸,鏜桿和刀具的進(jìn)給是用于移動(dòng)工件的機(jī)床運(yùn)動(dòng)只是用來(lái)給工件定位,在進(jìn)行加工時(shí)一般不使用,端面車(chē)削工序可以通過(guò)使用專門(mén)刀具架(圖10-4),在其旋轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)徑向進(jìn)給刀具來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)。
此外先前推導(dǎo)的鏜削和端車(chē)加工時(shí)間和金屬切削率的公式仍將適用。刨床
14,刨床適用于在非常大的部件上加工平面,在這種機(jī)床(圖10-5)上,線性運(yùn)動(dòng)作用在工件上,二刀具則垂直于該運(yùn)動(dòng)的方向進(jìn)給,主運(yùn)動(dòng)通常利用變速馬達(dá)通過(guò)齒條與齒輪傳動(dòng)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn),而且進(jìn)給運(yùn)動(dòng)是斷續(xù)的工序用提供的T型槽固定在機(jī)床的工作臺(tái)上,加工時(shí)間tm和金屬切削率zw可以按下面公式估算:tm=bw/(fnr),式中bw是待加工面得寬度。Nr是切削行程的頻率,f是進(jìn)給量,金屬切削率zw由下式給出zw=fapv,式中v是切削速度,ap是切口深度(去除材料層的深度)
第十一單元基本的加工工序——切削、鏜削、和磨削
基本的加工工序
機(jī)床是從早期的埃及人的腳踏動(dòng)力車(chē)床和約翰。威爾金森的鏜床發(fā)展而來(lái),它們用于為工件和刀具兩者提供堅(jiān)固的支撐并且可以精確控制它們的相對(duì)位置和相對(duì)速度。基本上講,在金屬切削中一個(gè)磨尖的楔形工具以緊湊變形的切削形式從有韌性的工件表面去除一條很窄的金屬。切削是一種廢棄的產(chǎn)品,與其他工件相比它相當(dāng)短但是比未切削的部分厚度有相對(duì)的增加。機(jī)器表面的幾何形狀取決于刀具的形狀和加工操作過(guò)程中刀具的路徑。
大多數(shù)加工工序產(chǎn)出不同幾何形狀的部件。如果一個(gè)粗糙的圓柱形工件繞中心軸旋轉(zhuǎn)而且刀具穿破工件表面并與旋轉(zhuǎn)中心平行的方向前幾,就會(huì)產(chǎn)生一個(gè)旋轉(zhuǎn)面,這道工序叫做車(chē)削。如果以類似的方式加工一根空心管的內(nèi)部,則這道工序叫鏜削。制造一個(gè)直徑均勻變化的錐形外表面叫做錐體車(chē)削。短的錐面或柱面也可以仿形車(chē)削。如果刀具尖端以一條半徑可變的路徑前進(jìn),就可以制造出像保齡球桿那種仿形表面。如果工件足夠短(約1英寸)而且支撐具有足夠的剛性,仿形表面可以通過(guò)進(jìn)給一個(gè)垂直于旋轉(zhuǎn)軸的仿形刀具來(lái)制造。
常常需要的是平坦的或平的表面。它們可以通過(guò)徑向車(chē)削或端面車(chē)削來(lái)完成,期中刀具尖端沿垂直于旋轉(zhuǎn)軸的方向運(yùn)動(dòng)。在其他情況下,更方便的是固定工件不動(dòng);以一系列直線式切削的方式使刀具橫過(guò)工件作往復(fù)運(yùn)動(dòng),在每次切削行程前具有一定橫向進(jìn)給量。這一工序叫做刨削,是在牛頭刨床上進(jìn)行的。對(duì)于大一些的工件,很容易保持刀具固定不動(dòng),而像龍門(mén)刨削那樣在其廈門(mén)拉動(dòng)工件。仿形面可以通過(guò)使用仿形刀具來(lái)制造。
在每次往復(fù)時(shí)進(jìn)給刀具。也可以使用多刃刀具。鉆削使用兩刃刀具,孔深可達(dá)鉆頭直徑的5~10倍。不管是鉆頭轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)還是工件旋轉(zhuǎn),切削刃與工件間的相對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)是一個(gè)重要的因素。在銑削操作中,有許多切削刃的旋轉(zhuǎn)銑刀與工件相接合,這種工件相對(duì)銑刀運(yùn)動(dòng)緩慢。根據(jù)銑刀的幾何形狀和進(jìn)給的方式,可以加工出平面和仿形面??梢允褂盟交虼怪毙D(zhuǎn)軸,工件可以沿三個(gè)坐標(biāo)方向中的任意一個(gè)進(jìn)給。
基本的機(jī)床
機(jī)床用于以切削的形式從韌性材料上去除金屬來(lái)加工特殊幾何形狀和精密尺寸的部件。切屑是廢品,其變化形狀從像鋼這樣的韌性材料的長(zhǎng)的連續(xù)帶狀到鑄鐵形成的易于處理、徹底斷掉的切屑,就處理的觀點(diǎn)來(lái)講,不想要長(zhǎng)的連續(xù)帶狀屑。機(jī)床完成5種基本的金屬切削工藝:車(chē)削,刨削,鉆削,銑削和磨削。其他所有金屬切削工藝都是這5種基本工藝的變形。因此,僅有4種使用專用可控幾何形狀的刀具的基本機(jī)床:
1、車(chē)床
2、刨床
3、鉆床
4、磨床。例如:鏜削是內(nèi)部車(chē)削:鉸削、攻絲和平底锪孔是修改已鉆好的孔,與鉆削有關(guān);滾齒與切齒基本上是銑削作業(yè);弓鋸削和拉削是刨削和研磨的一種形式;而研磨、超精加工、拋光和磨光則是磨削和研磨切削加工作業(yè)的各種變化形式。磨削工藝形成碎屑,但是磨粒的幾何形狀不可控制。
不同加工工藝切削材料的量和速度可能很大,如在大型車(chē)削作業(yè)或極小,如研磨或超精加工作業(yè),只有表面高出的點(diǎn)被去除。
機(jī)床完成3種主要功能:
1、剛性支撐工件或工件的夾具以及切削刀具;
2、提供工件與切削工具間的相對(duì) 運(yùn)動(dòng);
3、提供了一定范圍的進(jìn)給和速度,通常每種情況有4~32種選擇。加工中的速度和進(jìn)給
切削速度、進(jìn)給和深度是經(jīng)濟(jì)加工的3個(gè)主要變量,其他變量還有工件和刀具材料,冷卻劑以及切削刀具的幾何形狀,金屬切削的速率和加工所需的功率就取決于這些變量。
切削深度,進(jìn)給和切削速率是在任何金屬切削作業(yè)中都必須建立的機(jī)器設(shè)置,它們都會(huì)影響切削力,功率和對(duì)金屬切削的速率。切削的深度是唱針進(jìn)入唱片的量或者是槽的深度。切削速度由任意時(shí)刻唱片表面和對(duì)于拾音器臂內(nèi)的唱針的速度來(lái)表示進(jìn)給由唱針每圈徑向向內(nèi)的前進(jìn)量或者把兩個(gè)相鄰槽的位置間來(lái)表示可以通過(guò)把它們與留聲機(jī)的唱針和唱片相比較給出其定義。
第十二單元 計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)
好的工程設(shè)計(jì)需要保證一個(gè)部件或機(jī)構(gòu)正確的運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)和持續(xù)相當(dāng)長(zhǎng)的一段時(shí)間。此外,在設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)程的功能性因素包含重量,強(qiáng)度,熱性能,運(yùn)動(dòng)學(xué)和動(dòng)力學(xué)。
第十五單元
柔性制造、一、柔性制造的定義
制造的演變用圖表示為一個(gè)連續(xù)統(tǒng)一體,如圖15-1所示。如此圖顯示的那樣,制造的過(guò)程和系統(tǒng)處在把手工操作到最后實(shí)現(xiàn)全盟的集成制造的過(guò)度狀態(tài)。計(jì)算機(jī)集成制造的前一步叫做柔性制造。
柔性在現(xiàn)代制造環(huán)境中是一個(gè)重要的特征。它意味著一個(gè)制造系統(tǒng)是用途多且適應(yīng)性強(qiáng),同時(shí)又能進(jìn)行產(chǎn)量相對(duì)較大的制造。柔性制造系統(tǒng)是多用途的,這是因?yàn)樗苤圃於喾N多樣的部件。它適應(yīng)性強(qiáng),因?yàn)樗芎芸斓丶右愿淖儊?lái)制造完全不同的另一種部件。這種柔性在競(jìng)爭(zhēng)激烈的國(guó)際市場(chǎng)上可能成敗有別。
這是一個(gè)平衡的問(wèn)題。獨(dú)立的計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)字控制(nc)機(jī)床有著高度的柔性,但是只能處理批量相對(duì)較小的制造。正相反,系列連鎖生產(chǎn)線能進(jìn)行批量較大的制造,但都不很靈活。柔性制造試圖運(yùn)用工業(yè)技術(shù)在靈活的與制造運(yùn)行間達(dá)到最佳的平衡。這些工業(yè)技術(shù)包括自動(dòng)化的材料、處理,成組技術(shù)及計(jì)算機(jī)和分布數(shù)字控制。
柔性制造系統(tǒng)(FMS)是一個(gè)獨(dú)立的機(jī)床或一組機(jī)床服務(wù)于一個(gè)自動(dòng)材料處理系統(tǒng)。它是由計(jì)算機(jī)控制的而且有對(duì)刀具處理的能力。由于他有刀具處理能力并受計(jì)算機(jī)控制,這樣的系統(tǒng)可以不斷的重新配置來(lái)制造更加多樣的部件,這就是它被稱作柔性制造系統(tǒng)的原因。
一個(gè)制造系統(tǒng)要成為柔性制造系統(tǒng)必須具備的要素有:
1、計(jì)算機(jī)控制
2、自動(dòng)處理材料能力
3、刀具處理能力
柔性制造向全面集成化制造的目標(biāo)邁進(jìn)了重要的一部。它實(shí)現(xiàn)了自動(dòng)制造過(guò)程的集成化。在柔性制造中,自動(dòng)化的制造機(jī)器(如車(chē)床、銑床、鉆床)和自動(dòng)化材料處理系統(tǒng)之間,通過(guò)計(jì)算機(jī)網(wǎng)絡(luò)進(jìn)行即時(shí)的溝通。這是小規(guī)模的集成,圖15-2是柔性制造系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)樣例。
二、柔性制造的概況
通過(guò)綜合幾個(gè)自動(dòng)化的制造概念,柔性制造系統(tǒng)向全面集成化的目標(biāo)邁出了重要的一步,這些觀念是:
1、獨(dú)立機(jī)床的計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)字控制
2、制造系統(tǒng)的分布式數(shù)字控制
3、自動(dòng)化的材料處理系統(tǒng)
4、成組技術(shù),零件族
當(dāng)這些自動(dòng)化工藝,機(jī)器和觀念合成到一個(gè)集成的系統(tǒng)時(shí),就產(chǎn)生柔性制造系統(tǒng)。在柔性制造系統(tǒng)中,和計(jì)算機(jī)起了重要作用,當(dāng)然大的勞動(dòng)量比手工操作的制造系統(tǒng)要小得很多。然而,人仍然在柔性制造系統(tǒng)的操作中起了至關(guān)重要的作用,人的任務(wù)包括幾個(gè)方面:
1、設(shè)備故檢、維護(hù)和修理
2、刀具的變換和設(shè)置
3、安裝和拆卸系統(tǒng)
4、數(shù)據(jù)輸入
5、部件程序的變換
6、程序的開(kāi)發(fā)
柔性制造系統(tǒng)設(shè)備像所有制造設(shè)備一樣,必須有人監(jiān)管以免出現(xiàn)失常、機(jī)器程序錯(cuò)誤,以及故障。當(dāng)發(fā)現(xiàn)問(wèn)題時(shí)檢修人員必須確定問(wèn)題的根源,然后給出正確的措施,人還要采取指定的措施來(lái)修理運(yùn)行不正常的機(jī)器。甚至當(dāng)所有系統(tǒng)正常運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)時(shí),定期的維護(hù)也是必要的。
操作人員還要根據(jù)需要設(shè)置機(jī)床,換刀具,以及重新配置系統(tǒng)。柔性制造系統(tǒng)的刀具處理能力消弱了,但并沒(méi)有消除,在刀具變換和設(shè)置上仍需要人力。在裝卸柔性制造系統(tǒng)時(shí)也是這樣,一旦原材料被送到自動(dòng)化材料處理系統(tǒng)上,它就會(huì)以規(guī)定的方式,在系統(tǒng)中移動(dòng)。然而,初裝到材料處理系統(tǒng)仍然是由人員完成的,成品的拆卸也是同樣。
與計(jì)算機(jī)的交流仍需要人力完成,人開(kāi)發(fā)零件程序,通過(guò)計(jì)算機(jī)控制柔性制造系統(tǒng)。當(dāng)重新配置FMS制造另一種類型零件時(shí),他們還在必要的時(shí)候變換程序。人在柔性制造系統(tǒng)中勞動(dòng)力密集型的成分越來(lái)越少,但仍然是很重要的。
柔性制造系統(tǒng)中的各層控制都是由計(jì)算機(jī)來(lái)完成的。在柔性制造系統(tǒng)中獨(dú)立的機(jī)床是由CNC來(lái)控制點(diǎn)。整個(gè)的系統(tǒng)是由DNC來(lái)控制的。自動(dòng)化的材料處理系統(tǒng)是計(jì)算機(jī)來(lái)控制的,其他的功能如數(shù)據(jù)收集、系統(tǒng)監(jiān)控、刀具控制、運(yùn)輸控制也是計(jì)算機(jī)控制的,人機(jī)交互是柔性制造系統(tǒng)中的關(guān)鍵。
二、柔性制造的歷史發(fā)展
柔性制造產(chǎn)生于20世紀(jì)60年代中期,當(dāng)時(shí)英國(guó)莫林斯有限公司開(kāi)發(fā)了24號(hào)系統(tǒng)。24號(hào)系統(tǒng)是一個(gè)真正的FMS。然而,它從一開(kāi)始就注定是失敗的,因?yàn)樽詣?dòng)化、集成化和計(jì)算機(jī)控制技術(shù)還沒(méi)有發(fā)展到能夠恰好支持這一系統(tǒng)的程度。第一個(gè)FMS是超前的開(kāi)發(fā)。因此,最終因不能工作而被放棄。
在20世紀(jì)60年代和70年代的其余時(shí)間里,柔性制造仍然是一個(gè)學(xué)術(shù)觀念。然而,隨著復(fù)雜計(jì)算機(jī)控制技術(shù)在20世紀(jì)70年代末和80年代初的出現(xiàn),柔性制造便成為可能。在美國(guó)最初的主要用戶是汽車(chē)、卡車(chē)和拖拉機(jī)制造商。
四、柔性制造的理由 在制造中,生產(chǎn)率和柔性之間經(jīng)常存在協(xié)調(diào)一致的問(wèn)題。在該領(lǐng)域的一端是具有高生產(chǎn)率卻低柔性的連續(xù)生產(chǎn)線,在該領(lǐng)域的另一端是能提供最大柔性的獨(dú)立的計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)字控制的機(jī)床,但它只能進(jìn)行低生產(chǎn)率的制造。柔性制造處在此連續(xù)統(tǒng)一體的中間。在制造中總是需要一個(gè)系統(tǒng),這個(gè)系統(tǒng)比單個(gè)機(jī)床能制造更大批量且用于更多制作過(guò)程,但仍保持其柔性。
連續(xù)生產(chǎn)線能以高生產(chǎn)率制造大量的零件。這條生產(chǎn)線需要大量的準(zhǔn)備工作,但卻能制造出大量的相同的零件。它的主要缺點(diǎn)是即使一個(gè)部件在設(shè)計(jì)上有小的改變都能造成整個(gè)生產(chǎn)線的停產(chǎn)和建構(gòu)改變。這是一個(gè)致命的弱點(diǎn),因?yàn)檫@意味著沒(méi)有高成本,耗時(shí)停工和變化連鎖生產(chǎn)線結(jié)構(gòu)是不能制造出不同的零件的,即使是來(lái)自同一個(gè)零件族。
傳統(tǒng)上計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)字控制機(jī)床是用來(lái)制造少量在設(shè)計(jì)上稍有不同的零件。這種機(jī)床很適合這一用途。因?yàn)樗鼈兡苎杆俚馗淖兂绦騺?lái)適應(yīng)設(shè)計(jì)上小的或者更大的改變。然而,作為獨(dú)立的機(jī)床它們不能大量地或高生產(chǎn)率地制造零件。
柔性制造系統(tǒng)比獨(dú)立的計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)控機(jī)床具有更大的生產(chǎn)能力和更高的生產(chǎn)率。它們?cè)谌嵝苑矫姹炔簧嫌?jì)算機(jī)數(shù)字控制機(jī)床,但它們卻相差不多。柔性制造的中間性能的特殊意義在于大多數(shù)制造要求中等量的生產(chǎn)率來(lái)制造中等及的產(chǎn)品。同時(shí)有足夠的柔性以快速改變結(jié)構(gòu)來(lái)制造另一個(gè)零件或產(chǎn)品。柔性制造填補(bǔ)了制造中長(zhǎng)期存在的空白。
柔性制造以其基本能力給制造者提供了許多有點(diǎn):
1、在一個(gè)零件族內(nèi)具有柔性
2、隨意進(jìn)給零件
3、同時(shí)制造不同的零件