第一篇：土木工程專業(yè)英語(蘇小卒)課文翻譯13、15、17、18單元

Unit 13 第十三單元

Survey 測量

教學(xué)目標(biāo)

了解測量的內(nèi)容、方法、范圍和原理 了解常用的測量類型

熟悉各種測量方法和類型的詞匯 熟悉科技類文獻(xiàn)的常用句型

熟悉map、chart、plot、construction、draw的含義；so far、heretofore、by far的含義；have to do with、be referred to、be related to的含義；compatible with、pertain to、application to 的含義；；layout、staking out 的含義；construction的不同含義。

Surveying has to do with（與..有關(guān)）the determination of the relative spatial location（相對空間位置）of points on or near the surface of the earth.It is the art（技術(shù)）of measuring horizontal and vertical distance between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements（角測量法和線性測量法）.測量是關(guān)于確定地球表面上或接近地球表面的點的相對空間位置。它是測量物體之間水平與垂直距離、測量線條之間夾角、確定線條方向以及通過預(yù)先確定角測量法和線性測量法來建立點的技術(shù)。

Accompanying the actual measurement（度量）of survey are mathematical calculations.Distance, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volumes are thus determined from data of survey.Also, much of the information of the survey is portrayed graphically（圖示描述）by the construction of maps, profiles（縱剖面圖）, cross sections（橫剖面圖）, and diagrams(圖表）.數(shù)學(xué)計算伴隨著測量中的實際量度。根據(jù)測量數(shù)據(jù)就可確定距離、角度、方向、位置、標(biāo)高、面積以及體積。而且，測量中的很多信息是通過繪制地圖、縱橫剖面圖和圖表，以圖示形式被描述。

The equipment available and methods applicable for measurement and calculation have changed tremendously in the past decade.Aerial photogrammetry（航空攝影測量）, satellite observation, remote sensing, inertial surveying（慣性測量）, and electronic distance measurement（電子測距）laser techniques are examples of modern systems（現(xiàn)代方法）utilized to collect data usable in the surveying process.The relatively easy access to（利用）electronic computers of all size（各種容量）facilitates the rigorous（精確的）processing and storage（處理和儲存）of large volumes of data.對測量和計算，可利用的設(shè)備和可應(yīng)用的方法在過去十年中已經(jīng)發(fā)生了驚人的變化。航空攝影測量、人造衛(wèi)星觀測、遙感、慣性測量以及電子測距激光技術(shù)是現(xiàn)代方法中的例子，被用來收集測量過程中可使用的數(shù)據(jù)。較容易地利用各種容量的電子計算機(jī)有助于精確地處理和儲存大量的數(shù)據(jù)。

With the development of these modern data acquisitions（收集）and processing systems, the duties of the surveyor have expanded beyond（超出）the traditional tasks of the field（現(xiàn)場）work of taking measurements and the office work of computing and drawing.Surveying is required not only for conventional construction engineering projects（項目）, mapping, and property（地籍）surveys, but is also used increasingly by other physical sciences, such as geology（地質(zhì)學(xué)）and geophysics（地球物理學(xué)）;biology, including agriculture, forestry, grasslands（草原）, and wildlife（野生動植物）;hydrology（水文地理學(xué)）and oceanography（海洋學(xué)）;and geography, including human and cultural resources（人文資源）.隨著現(xiàn)代數(shù)據(jù)收集和處理系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展，測量員的職責(zé)已經(jīng)超出了傳統(tǒng)的現(xiàn)場進(jìn)行測量和室內(nèi)進(jìn)行計算和制圖的任務(wù)。不僅一般的建筑工程項目、繪制地圖、地籍測量需要測量，而且也越來越多地用于其他的自然科學(xué)，如地質(zhì)學(xué)和地球物理學(xué)；生物學(xué)，包括農(nóng)業(yè)、林業(yè)、草原和野生動植物；水文地理學(xué)和海洋學(xué)；以及地理學(xué)，包括人文資源。The tasks in these physical science operations（活動）need to be redefined to include design of the surveying procedure（程序）and selection of equipment appropriate for the project;acquisition of data in the field or by way of remote station;reduction（整理）or analysis of data in the office or in the filed;storage of data in a form compatible with（適合于）feature retrieval（特征檢索）;preparation（整理）of maps or other displays in the graphical（繪圖）(including photographic攝影)or numerical form needed for the purpose of survey;and setting of monument（界標(biāo)）and boundaries in the field as well as control for construction layout（施工放樣）.Performance of these tasks requires a familiarity with the uses of surveying, knowledge of fundamentals of the surveying process（方法）, and knowledge of various means by which data can be prepared for presentation.這些自然科學(xué)活動的任務(wù)需要重新定義，包括設(shè)計測量程序和選擇適合該項目的設(shè)備；在現(xiàn)場或通過遠(yuǎn)距離的測站收集數(shù)據(jù)；在室內(nèi)或現(xiàn)場整理或分析數(shù)據(jù)；以適合于特征檢索的形式儲存數(shù)據(jù)；以測量所需的繪圖（包括攝影）或數(shù)字形式整理地圖或其他顯示；在現(xiàn)場設(shè)置界標(biāo)和邊界并控制施工放樣。這些任務(wù)的實施需要熟悉測量的使用、測量方法的基本原理的知識以及數(shù)據(jù)準(zhǔn)備表達(dá)的不同方法的知識。

The earliest surveys known were for the purpose of establishing（確定）the boundaries of land, and such surveys are still important work of many surveyors.最早了解的測量是用來確定土地的邊界，這樣的測量仍然是很多測量員的重要工作。Every construction project of any magnitude（規(guī)模）is based to some degree upon measurements taken during the progress（發(fā)展）of a survey and is constructed about lines and points established by the surveyor.Aside from land surveys, practically all surveys of a private nature（私營性質(zhì)）and most of those conducted by public agencies（公共機(jī)構(gòu)）are of assistance in the conception（規(guī)劃）, design, and execution（施工）of engineering works.在測量的發(fā)展過程中，任意規(guī)模的每個建筑項目在某種程度上都是根據(jù)所采用的測量方法，然后繪制由測量員確定的線和點。除了土地測量外，實際上所有私營性質(zhì)的測量和大多數(shù)由公共機(jī)構(gòu)經(jīng)營的測量都對工程的規(guī)劃、設(shè)計和施工有幫助。

For many years the government, and in some instances（在某些情況下）the individual states, have conducted surveys over large areas for a variety of purposes.The principal work so far（迄今為止）accomplished consists of the fixing（確定）of national and state boundaries;the charting（繪制）of coastlines（海岸線）and navigable（適于航行的）streams and lakes;the precise location（定位）of definite reference points（固定基準(zhǔn)點）throughout the country;the collection of valuable facts（論據(jù)）concerning the earth’s magnetism（磁力）at widely scattered stations;establishment（建立）and observation of a greater network of gravity station（重力站）throughout the world;the establishment and operation（運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)）of tidal and water level（潮位和水位）station;the extension（擴(kuò)充）hydrographic（與水文地理學(xué)有關(guān)）and oceanographic（與海洋學(xué)有關(guān)）charting and mapping（繪制）into the approximately three-fourths of the world which is essentially（本來）unmapped;and the extension of topographic（地形的）mapping of the land（陸地）surfaces of the earth.很多年來，政府以及在某些情況下各個州已經(jīng)對大量的各種用途的區(qū)域進(jìn)行了測量。迄今為止，已經(jīng)完成的主要工作包括確定了國家和州的邊界線；繪出了海岸線和適于航行的河流和湖泊；精確定位了遍及全國的固定基準(zhǔn)點；收集了遍布各個分散測站的關(guān)于地球磁力的有價值的論據(jù)；建立和觀測了遍布世界的較大網(wǎng)絡(luò)的重力站；建立和運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)了潮位和水位站；擴(kuò)充繪制了本來未繪制的約3/4的世界范圍內(nèi)與水文地理學(xué)和海洋學(xué)有關(guān)的圖表和地圖；擴(kuò)充繪制了地球表面陸地的地形圖。

Observations of a worldwide net of satellite triangulation stations（三角測量衛(wèi)星觀測站）were made during the decade 1964-1974.Results of the computations have been completed by 1985.They allow（有助于）determination of the shape of the earth from one to two orders of magnitude（數(shù)量級）better than has heretofore（迄今為止）been known.Consequently, surveys of global extent（全球范圍）have been performed and will become common in the future.在1964到1974年的十年間建立了全世界網(wǎng)絡(luò)的三角測量的衛(wèi)星觀測站。到1985年已經(jīng)完成了計算結(jié)果。它們有助于更精確地確定地球的形狀，其精度要比迄今為止所知的高出一到兩個數(shù)量級。因此，已經(jīng)進(jìn)行了全球范圍的測量，這在將來成為平常事。

Thus surveys are divided into three classes:(a)those for the primary purpose of establishing the boundaries of land,(b)those providing information necessary for the construction of public or private works, and(c)those of large extent and high precision conducted by the government and to some extent by the states.There is no hard and fast line of demarcation（嚴(yán)格的界線）between surveys of one class and those of another（不同類型）regarding the methods employed, results obtained, or the use of the data of the survey.因此，測量被分為三類：（a）主要用于確定土地邊界的測量；（b）為公共或私人工程的建造提供必要信息的測量；（c）由政府以及在某種程度上由州進(jìn)行的大范圍和高精度的測量。不同類型的測量在采用的方法、取得的成果或測量數(shù)據(jù)的使用方面沒有嚴(yán)格的界線。

Different types of surveying undertake（承擔(dān)）the tasks of three classes.Geodetic surveying（大地測量）is employed in the third class, which takes into account the true shape of the earth.Surveys making use of the principles of geodesy（測地學(xué)）are of high precision and generally extend（遍布）over large areas.Where the area involved is not great, as for a state, the required precision may be obtained by assuming that the earth is a perfect sphere（球體）.Where the area is large, as for a country, the true spheroidal（橢球體）shape of the earth is considered.Surveys of the latter character have been conducted primarily through the agencies of governments.In the United States such surveys have been conducted principally by the U.S.National Geodetic Survey.Geodetic surveys have also been conducted by the Great Lake Survey, the Mississippi River Commission, several boundary commissions, and others.不同類型的測量承擔(dān)著這三類任務(wù)。大地測量被用于第三類的任務(wù)，它考慮了地球的實際形狀。利用測地學(xué)原理的測量具有很高的精度，且通常遍布很大的范圍。對包含的范圍不大如一個州時，則可通過假定地球完全是個球體可以得到所需的精度。對范圍較大如一個國家時，則要考慮地球?qū)嶋H的橢球體形狀。對后者特征的測量主要通過政府機(jī)構(gòu)進(jìn)行。在美國這樣的測量主要由美國國家大地測量局進(jìn)行。大地測量也已由大湖勘測局、密西西比河委員會、一些邊界線委員會以及其他機(jī)構(gòu)進(jìn)行。

Though relatively few engineers and surveyors are employed full time in geodetic work（測量工作）, the data of the various geodetic surveys are of great importance in that they furnish（提供）precise points of reference to which the multitude of（大量）surveys of lower precision may be tied（連接）.For each state, a system of plane coordinates（平面坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng)）has been devised（建立）, to which all points in the state can be referred without an error of more than one part in 10 000 in distance or direction arising from the difference（差異）between the reference surface and the actual mean surface of the earth.盡管較少的工程師和測量員專職從事測量工作，但是各種大地測量的數(shù)據(jù)很重要，它們提供了精確的基準(zhǔn)點，大量較低精度的測量可與其聯(lián)測。每個州都已建立了一個平面坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng)，州內(nèi)各點均可以參考這一坐標(biāo)系統(tǒng)，基準(zhǔn)面與實際的地球平均面之差所引起的距離或方位的誤差不會大于1/10000。

That type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, is generally defined as plane surveying.With regard to horizontal distances and directions, a level line（水平線）is considered as mathematically straight, the direction of the plumb line（鉛垂線）is considered to be same at all points within the limits of the survey, and angles are considered to be plane angles.By far（到目前為止）the greater number of all surveys are of（屬于）this type.In general the surveys necessary for the works of human beings are plane survey.The shape of the earth must be taken into consideration only in surveys of precision covering（涉及）large areas.認(rèn)為地球的平均面是一個平面或忽略橢球體形狀的測量通常定義為平面測量。關(guān)于水平距離和方向，水平線在數(shù)學(xué)意義上被認(rèn)為是直的，鉛垂線的方向在測量限制范圍內(nèi)的所有點上被認(rèn)為是相同的，而角度被認(rèn)為是平面角。到目前為止，大多數(shù)的測量都屬于這種類型。通常對人類工程必需的測量是平面測量。地球的形狀只在涉及大范圍的精確測量時才被考慮。The operation（工作）of determining elevation is usually considered as a division（一部分）of plane surveying.Elevations are referred to（與..有關(guān)）a spheroidal surface, a tangent at any point in the surface being normal to（垂直于）the plumb line at that point.The curved surface of reference, usually mean sea level（平均海平面）, is called a “datum” or curiously and incorrectly, a “datum plane”.The procedure ordinarily used in determining elevations automatically takes into account the curvature（曲率）of the earth, and elevation referred to the curved surface of reference are secured（獲得）without extra effort on the part of the surveyor.In this procedure, the curvature of the earth’s surface can not be neglected even for very rough（粗略的）values of elevations.確定標(biāo)高的工作通常被認(rèn)為是平面測量的一部分。標(biāo)高和橢球體表面有關(guān)，該表面上任意一點的切線垂直于該點的鉛垂線。通常是平均海平面的參考曲面被稱為“基準(zhǔn)面”，或奇怪地、不恰當(dāng)?shù)胤Q為“基準(zhǔn)平面”。通常用來確定標(biāo)高的方法自動考慮了地球的曲率，而關(guān)于參考曲面的標(biāo)高，測量員沒有額外的費(fèi)力就可獲得。在該方法中，地球表面的曲率不能被忽略，即使對非常粗略的標(biāo)高值。

Here a brief description of the various types of surveys will be given.Most of them employ plane rather than geodetic techniques.這里將給出一個關(guān)于不同測量類型的簡短描述。它們中多數(shù)采用平面技術(shù)而不是大地測量技術(shù)。

Land surveys are the oldest type of survey and have been performed since earliest recorded history.They are plane surveys made for locating property lines（地籍線）, subdividing land into smaller parts（分割土地）, determining land areas and any other information involving the transfer of land from one owner to another（土地產(chǎn)權(quán)轉(zhuǎn)移）.These surveys are also called property surveys, boundary surveys, or cadastral surveys.土地測量是最老的測量類型，自從最早有歷史記載以來就已有之。它們屬于平面測量方法，用以定位地籍線、分割土地、確定土地面積以及其他包括土地產(chǎn)權(quán)轉(zhuǎn)移在內(nèi)的信息。這些測量也稱為地籍測量、邊界測量或地產(chǎn)測量。

Topographic surveys（地形測量）are made for locating objects and measuring the relief（地貌）, roughness（粗糙度）, or three-dimensional variations of the earth’s surface.Detailed information is obtained pertaining to（關(guān)于）elevations as well as to the locations of man-made and natural features（人工和自然地物）(buildings, roads, streams, and so on)and the entire information is plotted on maps(called topographic maps).地形測量用以定位物體以及測出地球表面的地貌、粗糙度或三向空間的變化。在得到了關(guān)于人工和自然地物（建筑物、道路、河流等）的標(biāo)高和位置的詳細(xì)信息后，將全部的信息繪在地圖上（稱為地形圖）。Route surveys（路線測量）involve the determination of the relief and the location of natural and artificial objects along a proposed（擬定的）route for a highway, railroad, canal, power line（輸電線）, or other utility（應(yīng)用）.They may further involve the location or staking out（放樣）of the facility and the calculation of earthwork quantities（土方工程量）.路線測量包括確定自然和人工的物體如公路、鐵路、運(yùn)河、輸電線或其他應(yīng)用沿著擬定路線的地貌和位置。它們可進(jìn)一步包括設(shè)施的定位或放樣，并計算土方工程量。

City survey are made within a given municipality for the purpose of laying out（定位）streets, planning（布置）sewer systems（排水系統(tǒng)）, preparing maps, and so on.When the term is used, it usually brings to mind（使人想起）topographic surveys in or near a city for the purpose of planning urban expansions or improvements.城市測量是在一個特定的城市范圍內(nèi)用以定位街道、布置排水系統(tǒng)以及制作地圖等。當(dāng)采用該術(shù)語時，它通常使人想起在一個城市中或城市邊進(jìn)行的地形測量，用以規(guī)劃城市的擴(kuò)張和改進(jìn)。

Construction surveys are made for purposes of locating structures and providing required elevation points during their construction.They are needed to control（指導(dǎo)）every type of construction project.建筑測量用以確定建筑的位置，并在施工期間提供所需的標(biāo)高點。它們被需要用來指導(dǎo)每種建筑工程。

Hydrographic surveys（水文測量）pertain to（適合）lakes, streams, and other bodies of water（水域）.Shore lines（海岸線）are charted, shapes of areas beneath water surface are determined, water flow（水流量）of streams is estimated, and other information needed relative to（相對于）navigation, flood control（防洪）, development of water resources, and so on, is obtained.These surveys are usually made by a governmental agency.When hydrographic and topographic surveying are combined the resulting surveys are sometimes called cartographic survey（地圖制圖測量）.水文測量適合于湖泊、河流以及其他水域。繪出海岸線、確定水面下區(qū)域的形狀、估計河流的水流量以及得到其他相對于航海、防洪、水資源發(fā)展等所需要的信息。這些測量通常由政府機(jī)構(gòu)進(jìn)行。當(dāng)水文測量與地形測量結(jié)合起來形成的測量有時稱為地圖制圖測量。

Marine surveys（海洋測量）are related to hydrographic surveys but they are thought to cover a broader area.They include the surveying necessary for offshore platforms（近海平臺）, the science of navigation, theory of tides（潮汐學(xué)說）as well as the preparation of hydrographic maps and charts（海圖）.海洋測量與水文測量有關(guān)，但被認(rèn)為包含更廣泛的區(qū)域。它們包括近海平臺、航?？茖W(xué)、潮汐學(xué)說以及制作水文圖和海圖所必需的測量。

Mine surveys（礦井測量）are made to obtain the relative positions and elevations of underground shafts（礦井）, geological formations（地質(zhì)組成）, and so on and to determine quantities and establish lines and grades for work to be done.礦井測量用以獲得地下礦井的相對位置和標(biāo)高、地質(zhì)組成等，并確定將要進(jìn)行的工作的數(shù)量、路線和等級。

Forestry and geological surveys（林地和地質(zhì)測量）are probably much more common than the average（一般的）layman realizes（了解）.Foresters（林務(wù)員）use surveying for boundary locations, timber cruising, topography, etc.Similarly, surveying has much application in the preparation of geological maps（地質(zhì)圖）.林地和地質(zhì)測量可能比一般的非專業(yè)人員所了解的普遍的多。林務(wù)員進(jìn)行邊界位置測量、森林勘測測量、地形測量等。類似的，測量在制作地質(zhì)圖時有很多應(yīng)用。Photogrammetric surveys（攝影測量）are those in which photographs(generally aerial)are used in conjunction with（加上）limited（有限的）ground surveys(used to establish or locate certain control points visible from the air).Photogrammetry is extremely valuable because of the speed with which it can be applied, the economy, the application to（適用于）areas difficult to access（達(dá)到）, the great detail provided, etc.Its uses are becoming more extensive each year.攝影測量是利用照片（通常是空中的）加上有限的地面測量進(jìn)行的測量（用以確定從空中能看見的某些控制點的位置）。攝影測量非常有價值，因為這種測量速度快、經(jīng)濟(jì)、適用于難以到達(dá)的地區(qū)以及提供大量的詳細(xì)資料等。它的使用一年比一年廣泛。

In the decades to come there will undoubtedly be the other special types of surveying which will develop.Surveyors might very well（極有可能）have to establish boundaries under the ocean, in the Arctic and Antarctic, and even on the moon and other planets.Great skill and judgment by the surveying profession（測量業(yè)）will undoubtedly be required to handle these tasks.在今后的幾十年里，毫無疑問會有其他特殊類型的測量將逐步發(fā)展。測量員極有可能不得不在海洋下、在北極和南極、甚至在月球和其他行星上確定邊界。毫無疑問測量業(yè)將需要很多的技能和判斷來處理這些任務(wù)。

Unit 15 第十五單元

Soil Mechanics 土力學(xué) 教學(xué)目標(biāo)

了解土的顆粒尺寸

熟悉土壤類型及其力學(xué)和物理性能的詞匯

熟悉科技類文獻(xiàn)的常用句型

熟悉frictional、cohesive的不同含義；drop、lower、sink、settle的不同含義。

Grain size（顆粒尺寸）is the basis of soil mechanics, since it is this which decides whether a soil is frictional（有摩阻力的）or cohesive（有粘結(jié)力的）, a sand or a clay（粘土）.Starting with the largest sizes, boulders（漂石）are larger than 10 cm, cobbles（卵石）are from 5 cm to 10 cm, gravel（礫石）or ballast（碎石）is from about 5 cm to 5 mm, grit（粗砂）is from about 5 mm to 2 mm, sand is from 2 mm to 0.06 mm.All these soils are frictional, being coarse（粗糙的）and thus non-cohesive.Their stability depends on their internal friction.For the cohesive or non-frictional soils the two main internationally accepted size limits（范圍）are: silt（淤泥）from 0.02 mm to 0.002 mm, and clay for all finer material.There are, of course, many silty clays（粉質(zhì)粘土）and clayey silts（粘質(zhì)粉土）.土力學(xué)的基礎(chǔ)是顆粒尺寸，因為是它決定了土壤是有摩阻力的還是有粘結(jié)力的，是砂還是粘土。從最大的尺寸開始，漂石大于10cm，卵石在5cm到10 cm之間，礫石或碎石約在5cm到5mm之間，粗砂約在5mm到2mm之間，砂在2mm到0.06mm 之間。所有這些土壤都是有摩阻力的，是粗糙的，因而是沒有粘結(jié)力的。它們的穩(wěn)定性依賴于內(nèi)摩擦力。對于有粘結(jié)力或無摩擦力的土壤，國際上能接受的兩個主要的尺寸范圍是：淤泥在0.01mm到0.002mm，而粘土為所有較細(xì)的材料。當(dāng)然還有很多粉質(zhì)粘土和粘質(zhì)粉土。Every large civil engineering job starts with a soil mechanics survey（地基勘測）in its early stage.The first visit on foot（踏勘）will show whether the site might be suitable, in other words, whether money should be spent on sending soil-sampling equipment out to it.The soil samples and the laboratory results obtained from the triaxial test, shear test and so on will show at what depth the soil is likely to be strong enough to take the required load.For a masonry or steel structure, this is where soil mechanics survey will end, having rarely cost more than 2 percent of the structure cost.每一項大的土木工程任務(wù)在它的早期階段是從地基勘測開始的。通過最初的踏勘顯示該場地是否適合，換句話說，是否應(yīng)該花一定的費(fèi)用運(yùn)送土壤取樣設(shè)備至現(xiàn)場。土壤樣本以及根據(jù)三向試驗、剪切試驗等所獲得的實驗室結(jié)果將顯示在哪個深度上土壤可能足夠堅固，能承受所需的荷載。對砌體或鋼結(jié)構(gòu)來說，其地基勘察將到此結(jié)束，所需費(fèi)用很少超過結(jié)構(gòu)費(fèi)用的2%。

Generally, the strength of a soil increases with depth.But it can happen that it becomes weaker with depth.Therefore, in choosing the foundation pressure（地基壓力）and level（深度）for this sort of soil, a knowledge of soil mechanics is essential, since this will give an idea of（對..有所了解）the likely settlements.通常，土的強(qiáng)度隨深度而增加。但會發(fā)生強(qiáng)度隨深度變?nèi)醯那闆r。因此，在選擇這種土的地基壓力和深度時，土力學(xué)的知識是必要的，因為這將對可能的沉降有所了解。There are, however, several other causes of settlement apart from consolidation（固結(jié)）due to load.These causes are incalculable（不可計算的）and must be carefully guarded against（預(yù)防）.They include frost（霜凍）action, chemical change in the soil, underground erosion（侵蝕）by flowing water, reduction of the ground water level, nearby construction of tunnels（隧道）or vibrating machinery（機(jī)械）such as vehicles.但是，除了荷載引起的固結(jié)外，還有其他一些沉降的原因。這些原因是不可計算的，必須小心預(yù)防。它們包括霜凍作用、土壤中的化學(xué)變化、流水引起的地下侵蝕、地下水位的減少、附近隧道的施工或者振動的機(jī)械如車輛。

Static load can cause elastic(temporary)or plastic（permanent）settlement, consolidation settlement being permanent.However, when plastic flow（塑性流）is mentioned in English, it generally means the failure of a soil by overload in shear.Consolidation settlement occurs mainly in clays or silts.靜荷載會引起彈性（暫時的）或塑性（永久的）的沉降，其中固結(jié)沉降是永久的。但是，在英語中提到塑性流，它通常意味著超載引起土壤的剪切失效。固結(jié)沉降主要發(fā)生在粘土或淤泥中。

From dynamic load alone the commonest settlements are found in sands or gravels, caused by traffic or other vibration, pile driving（打樁）or other earth shocks（沖擊）.A drop（降低）in the ground water level will often cause the soil to shrink and a rise may cause expansion（膨脹）of the soil.Ground water is lowered by the drainage（排水）which can be caused by any deep excavation（深開挖）.The shrinkage which can occur with drying（干燥）is well shown by the clay underlying Mexico City, a volcanic ash.After seven weeks drying this clay shrinks to 6.4 percent of its initial volume.It is an unusual clay with the very high voids ratio（孔隙比）of 93.6 / 6.4 = 14.6.在砂或礫石中發(fā)現(xiàn)了僅由動荷載如交通或其他振動，打樁或其他土地沖擊引起的最普通的沉降。地下水位的下降常常引起土壤的收縮，上升可能引起土壤的膨脹。由任何深開挖引起的排水可導(dǎo)致地下水位的降低。干燥引起的收縮可通過墨西哥城下的粘土即火山灰來很好地說明。在七個星期的干燥后，該粘土比它的初始體積收縮了6.4%。它是一種與眾不同的粘土，具有很高的孔隙比，為93.6/6.4=14.6。

Underground erosion is the removal of solids（固體顆粒的流失）, usually fines（細(xì)顆粒）, from the soil by the flow of underground water.The solids can be removed as solids（固態(tài)）or in solution（溶解狀態(tài)）, though only a few rocks are soluble enough（充分溶解）to be removed in this way.Rock salt（巖鹽）is the commonest example of a soluble rock.Potassium salts（鉀鹽）also are soluble.地下侵蝕是由于地下水的流動引起的固體顆粒通常是細(xì)顆粒從土壤中流失。固體顆粒能在固態(tài)或溶解狀態(tài)時流失，盡管只有一些巖石能以這種形式充分溶解后流失。巖鹽是可溶解的巖石中最普通的例子。鉀鹽也是可溶解的。

The permeability（滲透性）of a soil is important for calculations of underground flow（地下潛流）, for example of oil or water to a well, or of water into a trench（排水溝）dug for a foundation, or of water through an earth dam（土壩）.Of the loose soils which can be dug with spade（鏟）, clays are the least permeable, silts slightly more（稍大）, sands yet more（更大）, and gravels even more.In other words, the permeability is in direct proportion to（與..成正比）the grain size of the soil.土壤的滲透性對計算地下潛流是重要的，例如計算井中的石油或水，或計算為基礎(chǔ)開挖的排水溝中的水，或計算通過土壩的水。在可用鏟開挖的疏松土壤中，粘土的滲透能力是最小的，淤泥稍微大一些，砂更大一些，礫石甚至還要大。換句話說，滲透性與土壤的顆粒尺寸成正比。

When a well is being pumped（抽水）, the water flows towards（流向）it from every direction and the ground water surface(water table地下水位)around it sinks.As the distance from the well increases, the water table is lowered rather less, so that around the well it becomes shaped like a funnel（漏斗形）, though it is usually called a cone of depression（降落錐體）.當(dāng)井在抽水時，水從每個方向流向井中，在它周圍的地下水表面（地下水位）便下沉。隨著離開井的距離的增加，地下水位降低得相當(dāng)少，以致井的周圍變成漏斗形，但它通常稱為降落錐體。

Unit 17 第十七單元

Tendering Procedure 招投標(biāo) 教學(xué)目標(biāo)

了解招投標(biāo)過程

了解項目策略的確定與投標(biāo)預(yù)審程序 熟悉招投標(biāo)過程中的專業(yè)詞匯

熟悉科技類文獻(xiàn)中的常用句型 熟悉in accordance with、in connection with、in compliance with的不同含義；cover、comprise、contain的含義；anticipated、intended、envisaged、prospective的用法；tender的不同含義。This document presents（介紹）a systematic approach for tendering and awarding of contracts（簽訂合同）for international construction projects.It is intended to assist the employer / engineer to receive sound competitive tenders（公開投標(biāo)）in accordance with the tender（招標(biāo)）documents so that they can be quickly and efficiently assessed.At the same time, an effort has been made to provide the opportunity and incentive（鼓勵）to contractors to respond easily to invitations to tender for（投標(biāo)）projects which they are qualified to implement.It is hoped that the adoption of this procedure will minimize tendering costs and ensure that all tenderers receive a fair and equal（公正與公平）opportunity to submit（提交）their offers（建議）on a reasonable and comparable（同等的）basis.Introduction 本文介紹了國際間的建筑工程的招投標(biāo)和簽訂合同的系統(tǒng)方法。它用以幫助雇主/工程師收到合理的、與招標(biāo)文件一致的公開投標(biāo)，從而對它們進(jìn)行快速和有效地評估。同時，努力地給予承包商機(jī)會和鼓勵，使他們順利地接受邀請而對他們有資格履行的工程進(jìn)行投標(biāo)。希望采用這種方法將使招投標(biāo)的費(fèi)用最小，并確保所有的投標(biāo)者在合理和同等的基礎(chǔ)上能獲得公正與公平的機(jī)會來提交他們的建議。

介紹

Establishment of Procurement Method and Form of Tendering In the context（上下文）of this document the word “project’ covers all the stages from the initial idea to construct a given physical asset（有形資產(chǎn)）to the final taking-over（接收）by the employer of the completed work.建立獲取投標(biāo)的方法和形式 在本篇的上下文中，“項目”一詞包括了從最初建造一個特定的有形資產(chǎn)的構(gòu)思到最后雇主接收已完工程的全部階段。

Project Strategy 項目策略

Projects may be organized and implemented in accordance with different strategies.Which strategy is best suited for the purpose depends on, for example, the nature and complexity of the project, the access to finance（融資渠道）, life cycle（生命周期）costs of the projects, the technical and administrative capability of the employer and the general political and economic environment.項目可以根據(jù)不同的策略進(jìn)行組織和實施。何種策略最適合于項目的目標(biāo)，依賴于如項目的性質(zhì)和復(fù)雜性、融資渠道、項目的生命周期費(fèi)用、雇主的技術(shù)和管理能力以及總的政治與經(jīng)濟(jì)環(huán)境。

The project strategy defines（規(guī)定）the way in which the project will be implemented, determines the role of each party involved and, where appropriate（適當(dāng)處）, specifies（指定）the way the project will operate.To a large degree contractual relationship（合同關(guān)系）between the parties and their individual rights, duties and risks are thereby also determined by the project strategy.項目策略規(guī)定了項目實施的途徑，確定了有關(guān)各方的任務(wù)，并在適當(dāng)處指定了項目運(yùn)作的方法。因此，在很大程度上雙方的合同關(guān)系以及各自的權(quán)利、義務(wù)和風(fēng)險也由項目的策略來確定。

At the implementation stage of a project, tendering serves as a method to ensure that the work is procured（獲得）at competitive terms（條件）.在項目的執(zhí)行階段，投標(biāo)作為一種確保在競爭的條件下獲得該項工作的方法。The choice of strategy is a major（較重要的）decision which has far-reaching consequences（深遠(yuǎn)意義）.Once a strategy has been settled it is of great importance that it be followed（遵循）throughout the implementation of the project.Lack of（沒有）strict adherence（遵守）to the strategy may lead to flaws in the procurement process（獲取過程）, resulting in claims（索賠）, disputes（爭端）and extra cost for all concerned.策略的選擇是具有深遠(yuǎn)意義的較重要的決定。一旦定下策略，它即具有非常重要的意義，應(yīng)在整個項目的執(zhí)行過程中被遵循。沒有嚴(yán)格遵守該策略可能導(dǎo)致獲取過程中的缺陷，導(dǎo)致索賠、爭端以及所有有關(guān)的額外費(fèi)用。

Any part of a project which can be covered by a separate contract may in principle（通常）be made subject to（根據(jù)）tendering.一份單獨合同所包含的項目中的任何一部分通常都可以根據(jù)投標(biāo)進(jìn)行。

As soon as the project strategy has been decided, the employer, assisted by his engineer, should establish procurement methods and forms of tendering to be used in the project.一旦確定項目策略，雇主應(yīng)該在工程師的幫助下建立用于該項目的獲取投標(biāo)的方法和形式。

The procurement methods and forms of tendering are established by determining:

（1）The parts of the project for which tenders are to

be sought（試圖獲得）;

（2）The conditions of contract to be adopted;

（3）The award criteria;and

（4）The tendering procedure.通過確定下列內(nèi)容來建立獲取投標(biāo)的方法和形式：

（1）試圖獲得投標(biāo)的項目部分；

（2）采用的合同條件；

（3）授予合同的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)；

（4）投標(biāo)過程。

Once these basic preconditions（前提）have been determined and agreed between the employer and his engineer, the planning of when and how the tendering can be carried out may commence.一旦這些基本的前提被確定并在雇主和工程師之間協(xié)商一致，則何時和如何進(jìn)行投標(biāo)的計劃便可開始。If, for unforeseen（無法預(yù)料的）reasons, changes in principle and form have to be made at a later stage in the project the implications（含意）of such changes have to be considered and assessed carefully.由于無法預(yù)料的原因，如果在項目的后期不得不發(fā)生原則和形式上的變化，則必須小心考慮并估計這些變化的含意。

Preparation of Programmes The tendering procedure, as described in this document, implies that certain activities have to be carried out in connection with（連同）each part of the project for which a separate tender is to be called（招標(biāo)）.計劃的準(zhǔn)備 正如本文所描述的，投標(biāo)過程意味著某些活動必須連同項目的各個部分一起進(jìn)行，而該項目是進(jìn)行單獨招標(biāo)的。

It is important that these activities are carried out in a systematic and timely（適時的）manner.They should therefore be planned carefully and incorporated in（并入）the programme for the project.這些活動應(yīng)該系統(tǒng)和適時地進(jìn)行，這點很重要。因此，它們應(yīng)該被仔細(xì)地計劃，且并入項目的計劃中。

Normally, preliminary overall programme covering all major activities of the project is prepared in the initial stage of the project.As a minimum（作為最低要求）, such programme should comprise the main phases of the project, that is:

-Project definition-Tendering procedure-Design-Construction-Taking-over and should establish all milestones of significance in connection with（與..有關(guān)的）each phase.通常在項目的初期準(zhǔn)備好初步的、包括項目所有主要活動的總體計劃。作為最低要求，該計劃應(yīng)包含項目的主要階段，即：

—項目定義

—投標(biāo)過程

—設(shè)計

—施工

—接管

并且應(yīng)該設(shè)立與各個階段有關(guān)的所有的重要的里程碑。

Calling tenders for a given part of the project should be carried out in compliance with（按照）the overall programme.對特定項目部分的招標(biāo)應(yīng)該按照總體計劃進(jìn)行。

In order to ensure this compliance（一致性）, detailed programmes should be made for implementing the tendering procedure for each part of the project.As a minimum, these programmes should specify duration（持續(xù)時間）and deadlines（最終期限）for the following activities in connection with each potential contract.-Preparation of tender documents

-Preparation of prequalification（預(yù)審）document-Prequalification of tenderers-Obtaining tenders-Opening of tenders-Evaluation of tenders-Award of contract 為了確保一致性，應(yīng)該對履行項目各個部分的投標(biāo)過程作詳細(xì)的計劃。作為最低要求，這些計劃應(yīng)該規(guī)定下列與各個潛在合同有關(guān)的活動的持續(xù)時間和最終期限。

—準(zhǔn)備投標(biāo)文件

—準(zhǔn)備預(yù)審文件 —投標(biāo)人的預(yù)審 —獲得投標(biāo) —開標(biāo) —評標(biāo)

—簽定合同

Time should be allowed（留出）in each programme for the employer to make necessary decisions and give required approvals（批準(zhǔn)）.在每一項計劃中應(yīng)該留給雇主一定的時間，以使他作出必要的決定，并給出所需的批準(zhǔn)。Further information about content and scope of each of these activities is given in the following section of this document.關(guān)于每一項活動的內(nèi)容和范圍的進(jìn)一步信息，在本文后面的章節(jié)中給出。

Prepration of Prequalification Documents General: Prequalification is recommended to ensure that tenders are sought only from contractors whom the employer / engineer has already established（確定）as having the requisite（必要的）resources and experience to perform the intended（預(yù)期）work satisfactorily.預(yù)審文件的準(zhǔn)備 一般：預(yù)審被建議用來確保投標(biāo)只從那些雇主/工程師已經(jīng)確定的、具有必要的資源和經(jīng)驗從而能圓滿地完成預(yù)期工作的承包商中去尋找。Prequalification of Tenderers 投標(biāo)人的資格預(yù)審

The aim of prequalification is to establish a list of capable（有可能的）firms whilst（同時）ensuring that a proper level of competition is safeguarded（維護(hù)）.To achieve these objectives and to give added（更多的）encouragement for contractors to respond to invitations to tender（招標(biāo)）, no more than seven organizations should be prequalified unless the rules of the employer or financing institution otherwise dictate（另外規(guī)定）.預(yù)審的目的是為了確定有可能的公司名單，同時確保維護(hù)適當(dāng)?shù)母偁幩?。為了達(dá)到這些目的，并給予承包商更多的鼓勵，使他們響應(yīng)招標(biāo)，預(yù)審應(yīng)該不超過七個組織，除非雇主或貸款機(jī)構(gòu)的規(guī)則另有規(guī)定。

Prequalification Document Prequalification documents should give information about the project, the tendering procedure and the prequalification procedure.They should also specify what data is required from contractors wishing to prequalify.預(yù)審文件 預(yù)審文件應(yīng)該提供關(guān)于項目、投標(biāo)過程和預(yù)審過程的信息。它們也應(yīng)該規(guī)定來自承包商的哪些數(shù)據(jù)是需要的，并希望預(yù)審。

The documents are prepared by the employer / engineer and will normally include the following:-Letter of invitation to prequalify-Information about the prequalification procedure-Project information-Prequalification application

該文件由雇主/工程師準(zhǔn)備，且通常將包括下列內(nèi)容：

—預(yù)審的邀請信 —預(yù)審過程的信息 —項目信息 —預(yù)審申請

-Name and address of the employer-Name and address of the engineer-Location of the project-Description（類型）of the project and scope of work The documents should include inter alia（尤其）the following:

included in the contract-Anticipated（預(yù)期的）programme, indicating the

tender period（周期）, contract award date，design/construction/ commissioning（試運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)）periods

and any other key dates-Conditions of contract to be used-Criteria for evaluation of tenders-Criteria for prequalification-Details（詳細(xì)資料）of any work intended to be

undertaken by nominated subcontractor(s)（指定分

包商）

-Anticipated sources of finance(including any

requirement for contractor financing籌措資金)-Payment arrangements envisaged（預(yù)期的）

(including currencies)-Any financial guarantees to be given by contractors-Whether price escalation arrangements（漲價計劃）

will be included-Language and law of the contract-Any aspect of the intended work which is

unusual and would（可能）thus have a bearing on

（對..有影響）the contractors obligations（職責(zé)）

-Charges for（收..費(fèi)）purchase of tender documents，if applicable 該文件尤其應(yīng)該包括下列內(nèi)容：

—雇主的姓名和地址 —工程師的姓名和地址

—項目的地點

—合同中包括的項目類型和工作范圍

—預(yù)期的計劃，指出投標(biāo)的周期、合同簽定日期、設(shè)計/

施工/試運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)周期以及其他關(guān)鍵的日期

—合同采用的條件 —評標(biāo)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)

—預(yù)審標(biāo)準(zhǔn)

—打算由指定的分包商承擔(dān)的工作的詳細(xì)資料 —預(yù)期的財政來源（包括需要承包商籌措的資金）—預(yù)期的支付安排（包括貨幣）—承包商提供的財政保證 —是否包括漲價的計劃 —合同語言和規(guī)則

—預(yù)期工作中與眾不同的方面，因而可能會影響到承包商

的職責(zé)

—如果合適，對購買投標(biāo)文件的收費(fèi) Applicants should also be advised of（告知）:-The policy of the employer concerning domestic preference（國內(nèi)

優(yōu)惠）

-The attitude of the employer to joint ventures（聯(lián)合體）.It is

recommended that Joint ventures should be allowed to prequalify

but that the subsequent formation of Joint ventures from amongst（從..中）prequalified organizations should be controlled as this

reduces the breadth（范圍）of competition.A prequalified

organization should be allowed to strengthen its capability（實

力）by the subsequent incorporation, during

the tender period，of non-prequalified firm(s), subject to the approval of the employer.-The number of copies of prequalification applications to be

submitted.-The name, address and latest date（截止時間）for receipt of

submissions（提交物）, including any particular instructions for

labeling（標(biāo)注）.-The language to be used for the submissions-The currency to be used for presenting（提供）financial

information（報告）.申請者也應(yīng)該被告知下列情況：

—雇主有關(guān)國內(nèi)的優(yōu)惠政策。

—雇主對聯(lián)合體的態(tài)度。建議應(yīng)該允許預(yù)審聯(lián)合體，但是隨后從預(yù)審過的組織中形成的聯(lián)合體應(yīng)該加以

控制，因為這將縮小競爭的范圍。應(yīng)該允許預(yù)審過的組織在投標(biāo)期間，通過隨后與未預(yù)審的公司的聯(lián)

合來加強(qiáng)他們的實力，以易于獲得雇主的認(rèn)可。

—遞交預(yù)審申請的復(fù)印件的數(shù)量?！Q、地址、接受提交物的截止時間，包括特別標(biāo)

注的說明。

—提交物所使用的語言。

—提供的財務(wù)報告所使用的貨幣。

Invitation to Prequalify The employer/engineer should publish a notice（發(fā)布通告）of inviting interested contractors to apply for prequalification documents, stating（聲明）that tender（招標(biāo)）documents will be issued only to（發(fā)給）a limited number（少數(shù)的）of companies/joint ventures selected by the employer/engineer as having the necessary qualifications（條件）to perform the work satisfactorily.預(yù)審邀請 雇主/工程師應(yīng)該發(fā)布通告邀請有興趣的承包商來申請預(yù)審文件，聲明招標(biāo)文件僅發(fā)給由雇主/工程師選擇的、具備圓滿完成該工作的必要條件的少數(shù)公司/聯(lián)合體。The notice should be published in appropriate newspapers and journals to give sufficient publicity（宣傳）according to the particular circumstances of the project.The notice may also be issued to financing institution representatives, if relevant, and to government agencies responsible for foreign trade（外貿(mào)）so that the international community（團(tuán)體）receives timely notification of the proposed project and instructions on how to apply.根據(jù)該項目的特定環(huán)境，通告應(yīng)發(fā)表在適當(dāng)?shù)膱蠹埡碗s志上以給予足夠的宣傳。如果有關(guān)聯(lián)，通告也可以發(fā)給貸款機(jī)構(gòu)的代表，以及負(fù)責(zé)外貿(mào)的政府機(jī)構(gòu)，使國際團(tuán)體能及時地收到被提議項目的通告和如何申請的說明。

The notice should be reasonably brief and where feasible contain:

-Name of the employer.-Name of the engineer.-Location of the project.-Description of the project and scope of work.-Source of finance.-Anticipated programme(i.e.award of contract，completion and any other key dates).-Planned dates for issue of tender（招標(biāo)）documents

and submission of tenders（標(biāo)書）.-Instructions for applying for prequalification documents.-Date by（到..時為止）which applications（申請表）to

prequalify must be submitted.-Minimum qualification requirements（限制條件）and any particular aspects which could be of concern（至關(guān)

重要）to prospective（預(yù)期的）tenderers.通告應(yīng)該適當(dāng)?shù)睾喍?，可能包括?/p>

—雇主名稱

—工程師名稱 —項目地點

—項目類型與工作范圍 —資金來源

—預(yù)期計劃（即簽定合同的日期、完工日期以及其它

的關(guān)鍵日期）

—招標(biāo)文件發(fā)布和標(biāo)書遞交的計劃日期 —申請預(yù)審文件的說明。

—預(yù)審申請表必須遞交的截止日期。

—最低的限制條件以及對預(yù)期的投標(biāo)人至關(guān)重要的特

殊情況。

Issue and Submission of Prequalification Documents On（一旦）receipt of requests from contractors, the employer/engineer should issue the prequalification document.預(yù)審文件的發(fā)布與遞交 一旦收到承包商的請求，雇主/工程師應(yīng)該發(fā)給預(yù)審文件。The letter of invitation to prequalify should state（說明）how the application is to be packaged and sent.邀請預(yù)審的信件中應(yīng)該說明申請書將如何包裝和送交。

The employer/engineer should acknowledge（確認(rèn)）receipt of the completed prequalification applications from the contractors.雇主/工程師應(yīng)該對收到來自承包商的已完的預(yù)審申請書加以確認(rèn)。

Analysis of Prequalification Applications The employer/engineer should evaluate the prequalification applications to identify（確定）those companies/joint ventures whom they consider to be suitably qualified(條件合適）and experienced to undertake the project.預(yù)審申請書的分析 雇主/工程師應(yīng)該對預(yù)審申請書進(jìn)行評價，以確定被他們認(rèn)為是條件合適并有經(jīng)驗承擔(dān)該項目的公司/聯(lián)合體。

The evaluations should determine, for each company or joint venture:-Structure and organization.-Experience in both the type of work and the country

or region in which it is to be undertaken.-Available resources, in terms of（在..方面）

management capability, technical staff, construction

and fabrication facilities, maintenance and training

facilities, or other relevant factors.-Quality assurance procedures（措施）and

environmental policy.-Extent to which any work would be likely to be

subcontracted.-Financial stability and resources necessary to execute

the project.-General suitability, taking into account any potential

language difficulties.-Litigation（訴訟）or arbitration（仲裁）history.對每個公司或聯(lián)合體，評價時應(yīng)該確定：

—結(jié)構(gòu)與組織

—對即將承擔(dān)的工作類型以及工作所在的國家或地區(qū)

的經(jīng)驗 —在管理能力、技術(shù)人員、建造和安裝設(shè)施、維修和

培訓(xùn)設(shè)施或其它相關(guān)的因素方面可利用的資源

—質(zhì)量保證措施和環(huán)境政策 —有可能被分包的工作范圍

—完成項目必須的財政穩(wěn)定性和資金來源 —一般的適應(yīng)性，考慮可能的語言困難 —訴訟或仲裁史

Selection of Tenderers If the resulting list, after those firms who were found unsuitable have been excluded, exceeds six potential tenderers and there are no special regulations or conditions imposed on（影響）the employer, the selection procedure should be continued to eliminate the less well-qualified（不太適合）in order to arrive at no more than six.選擇投標(biāo)人 在那些被發(fā)現(xiàn)不適合的公司被排除以后，如果作為結(jié)果的名單超過了六個可能的投標(biāo)者，且沒有影響雇主的特別規(guī)則或條件，則應(yīng)該繼續(xù)進(jìn)行選擇的過程來排除不太適合的，以便獲得不超過六個的投標(biāo)者。

Notification of Applicants When the list of the selected tenderers has been prepared, successful applicants should be notified and requested to confirm（確認(rèn)）their intention to submit a tender.This should ensure, as far as possible, an adequate number of competitive tenders.If a potential tenderer wishes to drop out（放棄）at this stage, the next best-placed should be invited and asked to confirm as above.Following this, all applicants should be notified of the list of selected tenderers without giving explanation for the decisions.通知申請者 當(dāng)挑選的投標(biāo)者的名單準(zhǔn)備好時，應(yīng)該通知成功的申請者，并要求確認(rèn)他們遞交標(biāo)書的意向。應(yīng)該盡可能地確保有足夠數(shù)量的競爭性投標(biāo)。如果在這個階段有潛在的投標(biāo)者想要放棄，則應(yīng)該邀請下一個名次最列前的公司，并要求其確認(rèn)上面所說的內(nèi)容。接著將挑選的投標(biāo)者的名單通知所有的申請者，而對該決定不作解釋。

Unit 18 第十八單元

Building Construction

建筑施工 教學(xué)目標(biāo)

了解各類承包商和承包過程 了解承包過程中各方的關(guān)系 熟悉建筑施工中的專業(yè)詞匯

熟悉科技類文獻(xiàn)中的常用句型

熟悉be subject to 的不同含義；several 的不同含義；be engaged with、be engaged by的不同含義；address、cite、argue的用法；Given..的用法；specification的不同含義。

The construction industry consists of numerous types of projects to include residential units, commercial institutions and industrial projects, and heavy and highway projects（市政項目）.One means of classifying（分類）construction contractors is to identify（確定）the firms consistent with the type of work they perform;i.e., a residential contractor, a building or commercial contractor, or a heavy and highway contractor.建筑業(yè)由很多類型的工程項目組成，包括住宅單元、商業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)和工業(yè)項目以及市政項目。劃分工程承包商類型的一種方法是確定該公司與他們所履行的工作類型是一致的；即住宅承包商，建筑或商業(yè)承包商，或市政承包商。Construction Contractors

工程承包商

(page 243)While（雖然）the purpose of this handbook addresses（針對..而寫）the building/commercial contractor, it is helpful in understanding the characteristics of the building/commercial contractor, to contrast the characteristics of the firm to（將..與..形成對照）those of the residential and/or heavy and highway contractor.雖然本手冊的目的是針對建筑/商業(yè)承包商而寫的，但它在理解建筑/商業(yè)承包商的特征時，有助于將公司的特征與住宅承包商和/或市政承包商的特征形成對照。

As pointed out there is the advantage of less sensitivity to the economy for the firm that has skills and performs each of the three types of work.On the other hand, it is not possible for every firm to involve itself in（陷于）the three types of construction work in that（因為）the physical（自然科學(xué)的）and management skills required differ for the three types of work.Obviously, not every firm can or should strive（努力）to possess all the skills required to enable its performing each of the three types of work.正如所指出的，有著一定技術(shù)、并履行這三種工作的公司具有對經(jīng)濟(jì)不太敏感的優(yōu)勢。另一方面，每個公司不可能將其自身陷于三種施工工作，因為三種工作所需的自然科學(xué)和管理技術(shù)是不同的。顯而易見，不是每一個公司都能夠或應(yīng)該努力擁有所有所需的技術(shù)，使其能夠履行三種工作。

Residential Contractor The decision to specialize in（專攻）residential, commercial, or heavy and highway construction should recognize the unique characteristics of each of the three types of work.Residential construction is characterized by（表現(xiàn)為..的特征）severe cycles in volume（數(shù)量）.The residential contractor is subject to（受..的支配）the policies of the government.Due in major part to changes in the government’s fiscal and monetary policies（財政和貨幣政策）, new residential housing（住宅建設(shè)）starts may approach（接近）two million units one year and one million the next.Variations in starts from one year to the next and from one season to the next often create unique management problems for the residential contractor.His available cash（可用現(xiàn)金）through stack volume（堆積，可引申為建設(shè)）periods can make the difference（區(qū)別對待）between a continuing firm and a bankrupt firm.住宅承包商 決定專攻住宅建設(shè)、商業(yè)建設(shè)還是市政建設(shè)時，應(yīng)該承認(rèn)這三種工作各自獨特的特性。住宅建設(shè)表現(xiàn)為數(shù)量上嚴(yán)重循環(huán)的特征。住宅承包商受政府政策的支配。主要由于政府財政和貨幣政策的變化，新的住宅建設(shè)的啟動可能這一年接近兩百萬套，下一年一百萬套。啟動時，從這一年到下一年、從這一季到下一季的變化常常引起住宅承包商獨特的管理問題。在整個建設(shè)期間，他的可用現(xiàn)金允許在繼續(xù)運(yùn)作的公司和破產(chǎn)的公司之間區(qū)別對待。Residential contractors have the advantages of being able to operate on a low volume in that they normally have relatively low overhead（企業(yè)管理費(fèi)用）versus the building or heavy and highway contractors.Whereas the building or heavy and highway contractor must compete against above average-sized contractors, each having relatively sound（合理的）management practices（經(jīng)驗）, the residential contractor compete against much smaller firms who normally have less sophisticated（完善）management skills.This is not to say that the residential contractor does not have competition, the opposite is in fact true.However, the size of the average competitor and the management skills of the average competitor allow the residential contractor to actually operate out of his house（脫離其機(jī)構(gòu)）as a one-man show（獨角戲）.Because of this, the number of residential contractors is numerous, often leading to excessive competition, low profit margins（利潤率）, and bankruptcies.住宅承包商具有能夠少量運(yùn)作的優(yōu)勢，因為他們相對于建筑承包商或市政承包商來說，具有相對低的企業(yè)管理費(fèi)用。住宅承包商與小得多的公司競爭，那些小公司通常有著不太完善的管理技術(shù)，而建筑承包商或市政承包商必須與超出一般規(guī)模的承包商競爭，那些承包商都具有相對合理的管理經(jīng)驗。這不是說住宅承包商沒有競爭，事實上正好相反。但是，一般競爭者的規(guī)模和管理技術(shù)實際上允許住宅承包商脫離其機(jī)構(gòu)獨自運(yùn)作。因此，住宅承包商的數(shù)量眾多，常常引起過多的競爭、低的利潤率以及破產(chǎn)。

Heavy and Highway Contractor Several differences exist between the building contractor and the heavy and highway contractor.For one, the building contractor is normally less dependent on the need for expensive equipment than is the heavy and highway contractor.Because of its high investment in equipment, the main management task for the heavy and highway contractor centers on（集中）the ability to effectively utilize equipment and to minimize idle equipment（閑置設(shè)備）time.On the other hand, the building contractor is more dependent on the use of labor.Its management needs center on effective personnel management（人事管理）and the ability to control the many materials that flow to the commercial building construction project.市政承包商 在建筑承包商和市政承包商之間存在一些區(qū)別。一方面是建筑承包商通常比市政承包商更少依賴于昂貴設(shè)備的需要。由于對設(shè)備的高額投資，市政承包商的主要管理任務(wù)集中在能夠有效地利用設(shè)備，并使閑置設(shè)備的時間最小。另一方面，建筑承包商更依賴于勞動力的使用。其管理要求集中在有效的人事管理以及能夠控制流向商業(yè)建筑施工項目的大量材料。

The heavy and highway contracting firm tends to be less subject to（遭受）bankruptcy than the residential contractor or the commercial building contractor.Perhaps this is due in part（部分地）to the fact that heavy and highway work(sometimes categorized as（歸類為）public-works construction)tends to be more stable as to profit margin earned.In additional, because of the high equipment investment needed to operate, the heavy and highway contractor tends to be a large firm with a relatively sound financial structure（財務(wù)結(jié)構(gòu)）.Several of these differences in the types of firms are summarized in Fig.18-2 and 18-3.市政承包公司往往比住宅承包商或商業(yè)建筑承包商更少遭受破產(chǎn)。這可能部分是由于市政工程（有時歸類為公共工程建設(shè)）往往在賺取的利潤率上更穩(wěn)定。而且，由于需要高額的設(shè)備投資進(jìn)行運(yùn)作，市政承包商往往是一個大型的公司，具有相對合理的財務(wù)結(jié)構(gòu)。不同類型公司中的這些區(qū)別總結(jié)在圖18-2和圖18-3中。

General v.Subcontractor Within the classifications of residential, building, and heavy and highway contractors is a class of（一類）contractors referred to as specialty contractors or subcontractors.These types of firms continue to be founded by craftsmen（工匠）and highly skilled（非常熟練的）individuals（個體）.Typically（一般）, the subcontractors are small as to the number of employees and its volume of work.Subcontractors normally have relatively low overhead but are highly dependent on labor and labor productivity.Competition tends to be high and profit margins vary depending on the type of speciality work performed.Unlike the general contractor, the subcontractor is normally responsible for his own work.As such（同樣地）the management skills needed to coordinate（協(xié)調(diào)）the skills of several（不同的）labor crafts（工藝）or flows（流通）of several types of materials are not vital to the subcontractor’s profit on a project or its financial stability.What is needed is an ability to perform a highly skilled type of work and to be able to obtain high productivity while carrying out the work.總承包商與分包商 在住宅承包商、建筑承包商和市政承包商的分類范圍中，有一類承包商稱為專業(yè)承包商或分包商。這類公司不斷地由工匠和非常熟練的個體創(chuàng)辦。分包商在雇員數(shù)量和工作量方面一般是小規(guī)模的。分包商通常具有相對低的企業(yè)管理費(fèi)用，但是高度依賴于勞動力和勞動生產(chǎn)力。競爭往往是激烈的，利潤率隨進(jìn)行的專業(yè)工作的類型而變化。不象總承包商，分包商通常只負(fù)責(zé)其自己的工作。同樣地，為協(xié)調(diào)不同勞動工藝的技能或不同種類的材料的流通所需的管理技能對分包商的項目利潤或其財務(wù)穩(wěn)定性不是至關(guān)重要的。分包商所需要的是能夠非常熟練地履行某類工作以及在進(jìn)行該項工作時能夠獲得高的生產(chǎn)力。The building or commercial contractor is normally engaged as a prime contractor（總承包商）directly with（打交道）the project owner.The contractor has responsibility for delivering the completed construction project to（移交）the project owner.In effect（實際上）the contract it signs（簽署）places the firm in a role of independent contractor.In this process, specialty contractors are typically engaged（雇傭）by the contractors serving as subcontractors.The General Contracting Process

總承包過程

The General Contracting Process

總承包過程(page 249)The building or commercial contractor serving（適合于）the role outlined above is referred to as the general contractor for the project.The process itself is commonly referred to as the general contracting process.The process is illustrated in Fig.18-4.適合于上面所描述的角色的建筑或商業(yè)承包商稱為項目總承包商。該過程本身通常稱為總承包過程。該過程如圖18-4所示。

The majority of building construction contracts are let（簽定）using the general contracting process(note: the next chapter addresses（提出）an alternative process).Advocates（提倡者）of the general contracting process point to several reasons for their preference for the general contracting process.Project owners cite（列舉）the fact that by means of soliciting bids（招標(biāo)）on one single contract for their entire project via（通過）the single general contract, they are able to secure the most competitive(i.e., lowest)price for the proposed project.Some project owners also argue（指出）that another advantage of this process is the fact that they, as the project owner, only have to deal with（與..打交道）a single contractor instead of having to contract and deal with individual specialty contractors.大多數(shù)建筑施工合同采用總承包的方法被簽定（注意，下一章節(jié)提出另一種可選擇的方法）?？偝邪椒ǖ奶岢邔λ麄兤珢墼摲椒ㄖ赋隽藥讉€理由。項目的業(yè)主列舉了這樣一個事實，即通過采用單獨總承包的方式對他們整個項目進(jìn)行單獨承包的招標(biāo)，他們能獲得被提議項目最有競爭性（即最低）的價格。一些項目業(yè)主也指出該方法的另一個優(yōu)勢，即作為業(yè)主，他們只須與單個承包商打交道而不必與各個專業(yè)承包商簽定合同并打交道。

The general contractor himself may favor（偏愛）the process relative to another process(e.g., construction management)in that the potential for substantial（很多）profits exists if the contractor performs efficiently.The general contract typically signs a lump-sum contract（總價合同）for its services.If the firm is able to construct the project for less than the contract amount（承包價）, the entire difference（差額）becomes profit for the firm.Naturally, the competitive bidding（競標(biāo)）process limits the amount of profit that a firm can realize.However, given the documentation that as much as 50% of all on-site time is non-productive, the potential for that profits associated with eliminating or even reducing this non-productive time is substantial.It is this potential profit that the general contractor seeks.In effect the general contractor takes on（承受）a lump-sum contract risk as a means of seeking a large profit.Naturally it also follows（必然是）that while having a potential for a significant profit on a job, the possibility of a significant dollar（財富）loss also exists.相對于另一個方法（比如施工管理），總承包商自身可能偏愛該方法（總承包），因為如果承包商有效地完成任務(wù)，就會有很多潛在利潤?？偝邪鼘λ姆?wù)一般簽署總價合同。如果公司能以少于承包價建造該項目，全部的差價就成為公司的利潤。自然，競標(biāo)過程限制了公司能實現(xiàn)的利潤值。但是，據(jù)文獻(xiàn)記載多達(dá)一半的現(xiàn)場時間是無生產(chǎn)效益的，則消除或甚至減少該無生產(chǎn)效益的時間帶來的潛在利潤是很大的。這正是總承包商尋求的潛在利潤。實際上，總承包商以承受總價合同的風(fēng)險作為尋求巨大利潤的方法。自然，當(dāng)一項工作具有巨大的潛在利潤時，它也必然存在巨大財富損失的可能。

The architect/engineer designer illustrated as part of the project team in Fig.18-4 may also argue（表明）in favor of the general contracting process.In particular the architect/engineer designer may cite the benefit of only having to write contract documents for a single contractor rather than write contract documents for a series of multiple specialty contracts.In addition most designers would likely favor administering a single construction contract rather than multiple contracts.如圖18-4 中所示的建筑師/工程師設(shè)計人員，其作為項目組的一部分可能也表明喜歡總承包的方法。特別是建筑師/工程師設(shè)計人員可能列舉了只須為單個承包商而不是一系列的多個專業(yè)合同書寫合同文件的好處。而且，多數(shù)設(shè)計師可能喜歡管理單個施工合同而不是多個合同。

Independent of（與..無關(guān)）the project owner, the designer, or the general contractor, an independent party（獨立方）might argue（認(rèn)為）that the general contracting process enhances efficiency, technological change（科技進(jìn)步）and free trade.Each and every bidder（投標(biāo)人）in the general-contracting process has an equal opportunity to be low（低價）bidder for the owner’s project.Given the competitive bidding process, it can be argued（表明）that the contractor will seek out efficient means of performing construction methods to include seeking new technology and cost-control means.Given this fact, it follows that the general contracting process promotes a more cost-effective construction industry（建筑業(yè)）.與項目業(yè)主、設(shè)計師或總承包商無關(guān)的某一獨立方可能認(rèn)為總承包方法提高了效率、增進(jìn)了科技進(jìn)步和自由貿(mào)易。在總承包方法中每個投標(biāo)人具有同等的機(jī)會成為業(yè)主項目的低價投標(biāo)人。通過競標(biāo)過程可以表明，承包商將尋找有效的方法進(jìn)行施工，包括尋求新的技術(shù)和費(fèi)用控制的方法。鑒于這個事實，則總承包方法必然促進(jìn)了一個成本更有效的建筑業(yè)。As an alternative（另一選擇）to the competitive bidding procedure, the potential owner or his architect/engineer may negotiate with（與..協(xié)商）a contractor for building the project.This contractor is usually chosen because of his skill, his reasonable price, and his dependability（可靠性）.In order to assure himself of work in a negotiated contract environment, the construction contractor must maintain a respectable reputation（不錯的信譽(yù)）with potential construction project owners.作為競標(biāo)方式的另一種選擇，可能的業(yè)主或他的建筑師/工程師可以與承包商協(xié)商來建造該項目。該承包商通常由于其技能、合理的價格以及可靠性而被選擇。為了確保其自身在一個議標(biāo)合同的環(huán)境下工作，工程承包商必須同可能的工程項目的業(yè)主保持不錯的信譽(yù)。Negotiated Contracts

議標(biāo)合同

(page 252)Negotiated contracts often have the advantage of producing better coordination（配合）between the owner, the architect/engineer, and the contractor.This improved（改進(jìn)的）coordination often results in less construction delay time, better project quality, and savings in money for the owner.議標(biāo)合同常常具有在業(yè)主、建筑師/工程師和承包商之間形成較好配合的優(yōu)勢。改進(jìn)的配合常常導(dǎo)致較少的施工拖延時間、較高的項目質(zhì)量以及業(yè)主資金的節(jié)約。

By using a negotiated contract, construction on a project may actually start before the completion of the plans(設(shè)計)and specifications（合同條款）.In this case, the owner signs a letter of intent（意向書）with the contractor.This letter of intent assures the contractor that he will be paid for his services, even though the final contract for the project has not been signed, owing to the lack of（沒有）the finalization（最后決定）of the plans and specifications.The contractor is paid for his costs plus a negotiated fixed fee or percentage of the project’s costs.通過采用議標(biāo)合同，項目的施工實際上可以在設(shè)計和合同條款完成之前開始。在這種情況下，業(yè)主與承包商簽署一份意向書。該意向書確保承包商將對他的服務(wù)獲得支付，即使由于沒有最后定下設(shè)計和合同條款，項目的最后合同還未簽定。承包商獲得其付出的成本加上一個協(xié)商的固定費(fèi)用或項目成本的某個百分比。

Arguments（觀點）against negotiated contracts include higher contract prices and a lack of contractor incentive（鼓勵）in finding new construction methods to do the job for a lower cost.The argument of higher owner project cost is debatable（有爭議的）;i.e., competitive contract owner costs must include advertising and lettering（發(fā)信函）cost.In addition, the owner is more apt to（易于）get an irresponsible（不可靠的）contractor in a competitive bidding procedure versus a negotiated contract procedure.Negotiated contracts are gaining popularity（普及）in the construction industry.However, the competitive bidding procedure remains the rule（統(tǒng)治）in awarding construction contracts.反對議標(biāo)合同的觀點包括較高的合同價格，并缺乏鼓勵承包商尋找新的施工方法從而以較低的費(fèi)用進(jìn)行工作。業(yè)主較高的項目費(fèi)用的觀點是有爭議的；即業(yè)主競爭性合同的費(fèi)用必須包括登廣告和發(fā)信函的費(fèi)用。而且，競標(biāo)方式相對于議標(biāo)合同方式，業(yè)主更易于獲得不可靠的承包商。議標(biāo)合同在建筑業(yè)獲得了普及。但是，在簽定施工合同時競標(biāo)方式依然處于統(tǒng)治地位。

A single contractor will seldom construct an entire project for the project owner.This might only occur on a small project, such as a home owner hiring a contractor to pour a driveway（車道）.In this book, the construction project is meant to imply a somewhat large project;i.e., several（一些）trades（交易）or skills are required for the building of the project.Projects such as home building, industrial construction, highway construction, and dams require several（不同的）types of contracting skills.Owing in part to the restricted size（有限的規(guī)模）of contracting firms and the unfeasibility of overexpanding（過分?jǐn)U張的不可能性）, the average construction contractor is usually restricted to a few skills or types of work which he can perform.As a result, projects which require several（各種）different types of labor trades（手藝）or skills will have several contractors.Contractor Responsibility to Owner 承包商對業(yè)主的職責(zé)

單個承包商很少建造項目業(yè)主全部的工程。這只可能發(fā)生在小項目，如住宅業(yè)主雇傭一個承包商澆灌一條車道。在本篇中，建筑項目意味著一個稍大的項目；即項目的建造需要一些交易或技能。諸如住宅建設(shè)、工業(yè)建設(shè)、公路建設(shè)以及水壩的項目需要不同類型的承包技能。部分是由于承包公司有限的規(guī)模以及不可能過分?jǐn)U張，一般的 工程承包商通常被限制于其能履行的一些技術(shù)或工作類型上。因此，需要各種不同類型的勞動手藝或技能的項目必須有不同的承包商。

In a normal contract, the owner will select a general contractor(either by a competitive bidding procedure or by negotiation).This general contractor will usually perform some of the actual project construction, but not all of it.Some states（規(guī)定）require that on their public construction projects, the general contractor perform, at least, a defined percentage（規(guī)定的比例）of the actual construction.This is done with the intent of facilitating better overall project coordination between the project’s contractors.In the normal contract, the general contractor is given the responsibility of the entire project.On the other hand, the owner can hire a so-called（通常所說的）construction manager（工程項目經(jīng)理）who recommends a need and a design, supervise the overall project(including financing), and coordinates the project’s contractors.Such an arrangement is referred to as a management contract or as construction management.在一般的合同中，業(yè)主會選擇一個總承包商（通過競標(biāo)方式或商議）?？偝邪掏ǔ男袑嶋H項目施工的一部分，但不是全部。有些規(guī)定要求對公共建設(shè)項目，總承包商至少應(yīng)履行實際建設(shè)的規(guī)定比例。這樣做是為了更好地促進(jìn)整個項目在項目承包商之間的配合。在一般的合同中，總承包商對整個項目負(fù)責(zé)。另一方面，業(yè)主可以雇傭通常所說的工程項目經(jīng)理，他會建議某個需要和某個設(shè)計，監(jiān)督整個項目（包括籌措資金），并配合項目的承包商。這樣的安排稱為管理合同或施工管理。

In the general contracting process, the project designer and general contractor each typically sign contracts directly with the project owner.However, whereas the designer contract with the project owner is typically an agency contract, the general contractor is engaged by the project owner via all independent contractor agreement（協(xié)議）.在總承包過程中，項目設(shè)計師和總承包商一般各自直接與項目的業(yè)主簽定合同。但是，總承包商通過所有獨立的承包商協(xié)議而受項目業(yè)主的雇傭，而設(shè)計師與項目業(yè)主的合同一般是代理合同。Designer – General Contractor Relationship 設(shè)計師與總承包商的關(guān)系

In the general contracting process set out（展示）in Fig.18-4, the general contractor and the project designer have no direct contract relationship.However, given the fact that the designer serves as the project owner’s agent, one might argue（認(rèn)為）that the designer has the contract rights of the project owner and thus has an indirect contract relationship with the general contractor.在圖18-4中所展示的總承包過程中，總承包商與項目設(shè)計師沒有直接的合同關(guān)系。但是鑒于設(shè)計師作為項目業(yè)主的代理人，可以認(rèn)為設(shè)計師擁有項目業(yè)主的合同權(quán)，這樣與總承包商有著間接的合同關(guān)系。

In actuality the designer does not direct（指導(dǎo)）the actions of the general contractor and vice versa（反之亦然）.In fact, the designer typically goes out of its way（特意）not to direct the general contractor because the designer does not want to take on the liability（責(zé)任）for the general contractor’s actions or performance.For example, the designer’s on-site project representative does not attempt to advise the general contractor’s subcontractors directly or（否則）the designer may subsequently be subject to legal damages（法律賠償金）.實際上，設(shè)計師不指導(dǎo)總承包商的活動，反之亦然。事實上，設(shè)計師一般不特意指導(dǎo)總承包商，因為設(shè)計師不想對總承包商的活動或行動承擔(dān)責(zé)任。例如，設(shè)計師的現(xiàn)場項目代表不會試圖直接建議總承包商的分包商，否則設(shè)計師可能隨后易遭受法律賠償金。While（盡管）the project designer does no “direct” the general contractor, the designer does have project administration-contract duties.In particular, the architect/engineer designer must “observe” the put-in-place（恰當(dāng)?shù)模ヽonstruction of the contractor to determine that the work is compatible with the contract specifications.The designer must also aid the general contractor in the interpretation of the contract documents to include the drawings and specifications（說明）.It is also the designer’s duty to pass judgment on（評定）the amount of work completed by the contractor and to approve（核準(zhǔn)）owner progress payments（分期付款）to the contractor.盡管項目設(shè)計師不“指導(dǎo)”總承包商，但設(shè)計師確實具有項目管理合同的職責(zé)。特別是，建筑師/工程師設(shè)計人員必須“觀察”承包商恰當(dāng)?shù)氖┕?，以確定該項工作與合同條款的一致性。設(shè)計師也必須幫助總承包商解釋合同文件，包括圖紙和說明。評定承包商已完的工作量和核準(zhǔn)業(yè)主對承包商的分期付款也是設(shè)計師的職責(zé)。Given this somewhat “policing” role（管制角色）of the project designer in regard to the general contractor, on occasion（有時）there has been somewhat of an adverse（敵對）relationship between the designer and general contractor.This potential adverse relationship aids neither the project owner, the designer, nor the contractor.A spirit of cooperation is necessary between all these entities（實體）in the general contracting process to enable a project to be built on a time-and-cost budget and to satisfy the quality standards set out（列出）in the specifications.鑒于項目設(shè)計師對于總承包商有點“管制”的角色，設(shè)計師與承包商之間有時有一些敵對的關(guān)系。這種潛在的敵對關(guān)系既無助于項目業(yè)主、設(shè)計師，也無助于承包商。在總承包過程中所有的實體之間的合作精神是必須的，使項目能在預(yù)算的時間和費(fèi)用下被建造，并且滿足合同條款中列出的質(zhì)量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。

Whether the owner of a project is an individual, a company, or a government agency, the owner is responsible for the definition（解釋）of the project and establishment of the budget to finance it.Upon becoming interested in a potential project, the owner usually employs an architect to plan（規(guī)劃）overall designs;others require an engineer to determine the most economical and safe design.In addition, many projects require the services of both an architect and an engineer.Projects designed solely（完全地）by architects are referred to as building construction（建筑構(gòu)造）projects, whereas products designed solely by engineers are referred to as engineering construction（工程建設(shè)）projects.From this point on, the individual or company the owner hires to design his project will be referred to as the architect/engineer.Owner – Architect/Engineer Relationship 業(yè)主-建筑師/工程師的關(guān)系

無論項目的業(yè)主是個人、公司還是政府機(jī)構(gòu)，業(yè)主負(fù)責(zé)解釋項目和確定預(yù)算以籌集資金。一旦對某一潛在的項目感興趣，業(yè)主通常雇傭一位建筑師規(guī)劃整個設(shè)計；其余的需要一位工程師來確定最經(jīng)濟(jì)和最安全的設(shè)計。而且，很多項目需要建筑師和工程師兩方的服務(wù)。完全由建筑師設(shè)計的項目稱為建筑構(gòu)造項目，而完全由工程師設(shè)計的成果稱為工程建設(shè)項目。從這點上看，業(yè)主雇傭的、為其設(shè)計項目的個體或公司將稱為建筑師/工程師。

The architect/engineer is responsible for the drawings and specifications for the owner’s projects and for supervision of construction of the project.The owner usually pays the architect/engineer on an hourly basis, a fee as a percentage of the total cost, or on a fixed fee basis.The architect/engineer is most commonly（常見）chosen through negotiation rather than through a competitive bidding process.Some large projects do have a competitive bidding procedure to determine the architect/engineer.However, it is much more common for a potential project owner to seek out（找到）an architect/engineer on the basis of his past performances（業(yè)績）.The reputation of an architect/engineer is an extremely important attribute（品質(zhì)）when he is seeking work with（與..合作）potential project owners.建筑師/工程師負(fù)責(zé)業(yè)主項目的圖紙和說明，以及負(fù)責(zé)監(jiān)督項目的施工。業(yè)主通常給建筑師/工程師的工資以每小時、總費(fèi)用的一個百分比費(fèi)用或固定的費(fèi)用來支付。選擇建筑師/工程師最常見的是通過協(xié)商而不是通過競標(biāo)過程。一些大型的項目確實通過競標(biāo)過程來確定建筑師/工程師。但是，對潛在的項目業(yè)主，更常見的是根據(jù)其過去的業(yè)績找到建筑師/工程師。當(dāng)建筑師/工程師在尋找與潛在的項目業(yè)主一起合作時，其信譽(yù)是一項非常重要的品質(zhì)。Although in most cases the construction project owner, the architect/engineer, and the contractor are three separate（獨立）individuals or firms, some projects will have the architect/engineer internal to（屬于）the owner’s company or organization.Many large corporation（公司）(e.g., Procter and Gamble寶潔)design and supervise their own construction projects.In such instances, the owner and architect/engineer become one and the same（同一個）individual or company.雖然工程項目的業(yè)主，建筑師/工程師，以及承包商在絕大多數(shù)情況下是三個獨立的個體或公司，但是某些項目的建筑師/工程師屬于業(yè)主的公司或機(jī)構(gòu)的。許多大型公司（如寶潔）自己設(shè)計并監(jiān)督他們的工程項目。在這種情形下，業(yè)主和建筑師/工程師成為同一個個體或公司。作業(yè)練習(xí)

通過一篇Reading Material的學(xué)習(xí)，進(jìn)一步了解工程管理（CM）中所涉及的內(nèi)容。

第二篇：制藥工程專業(yè)英語9單元課文翻譯

Thoughout recorded縱觀歷史記載，細(xì)菌感染的人口定期付出沉重的收費(fèi)。鼠疫菌的“黑死病”鼠疫的1347-1351期間，估計有25萬人在亞洲和歐洲死亡。美國公共衛(wèi)生服務(wù)統(tǒng)計為1910年和1920年的節(jié)目，在這個早在本世紀(jì)結(jié)核病死亡每1000名美國居民中的一個。即使在今天，主要是在發(fā)展中國家，結(jié)核分枝桿菌仍然是主要死亡原因由于在單染性病，全世界每年殺害超過三百萬

Such 整個脊椎動物進(jìn)化過程中的這種不懈的微生物攻擊，挑起了一個令人驚訝的復(fù)雜的保護(hù)性免疫系統(tǒng)的進(jìn)化。隨著人類的外觀，最終到達(dá)一個物種可以設(shè)法協(xié)助先天和后天免疫系統(tǒng)，避免感染。通過利用微生物的抗原成分（疫苗和馬血清抗毒素的產(chǎn)生），然后微生物次生代謝產(chǎn)物（抗生素），已成為人類善于預(yù)防和治療許多以前致命的微生物疾病。

Within在短短的幾十年，抗感染藥藥典的可用性突然提供了人類的潛力，以提高他們的生存前景下不斷微生物攔河壩規(guī)避自然的經(jīng)過時間考驗的，活的或死的進(jìn)化范式。那些以前會屈服于成員現(xiàn)在可以存活時間較長的疫苗和抗生素的幫助助劑-抗感染免疫系統(tǒng)一起工作。實際上，人類對這些助劑的就業(yè)可以作為例證在他們的免疫防御系統(tǒng)的自我做作的演變看。

Once當(dāng)爵士亞歷山大·弗萊明發(fā)現(xiàn)青霉素的效用已經(jīng)證明，從發(fā)掘出的天然來源的其他抗生素亂舞緊隨其后。其中一些被證明適用于治療疾病，通常經(jīng)過化學(xué)改性，以提高天然化合物的效力，安全性或藥代動力學(xué)

Alpha

For對于大多數(shù)在過去50年中，看來，醫(yī)學(xué)獲得了強(qiáng)大的手上的細(xì)菌病。某些制藥廠和研發(fā)機(jī)構(gòu)決定減少對抗生素的發(fā)現(xiàn)成果，因為它的出現(xiàn)，醫(yī)生的抗菌軍火庫是充足。但疾病的性質(zhì)已經(jīng)證明并非如此。

The在多種抗生素耐藥病原體的發(fā)病率迅速升級現(xiàn)在提高全球非常嚴(yán)重的問題。這種發(fā)展突出了強(qiáng)大的進(jìn)化能力的細(xì)菌種群的選擇壓力下的抗生素治療。

Resistance抗藥性問題被視為與革蘭氏陰性（例如大腸桿菌）和革蘭氏陽性菌（如金黃色葡萄球菌），但目前關(guān)注的最后一組的病原體。肺炎鏈球菌是呼吸道革蘭氏陽性病原體，僅在美國一年的40000人死亡負(fù)責(zé)。，現(xiàn)在在許多國家，耐青霉素肺炎鏈球菌感染的患病率迅速上升。最糟的情況之一是在匈牙利，其中70％，從1988-1989年測試的兒童肺炎鏈球菌菌株對青霉素耐藥

Bacteria細(xì)菌已經(jīng)進(jìn)化無數(shù)花招挫敗抗生素的行動, 他們停用抗生素水解，?；?，磷酸化，或者核苷酸化反應(yīng)；改變抗生素的目標(biāo)站點或減少細(xì)胞內(nèi)藥物濃度降低細(xì)胞膜的通透性和/或積極抽水細(xì)胞的藥物。with通過分子生物學(xué)和生物化學(xué)技術(shù)，這些耐藥機(jī)制的認(rèn)識提高，藥物化學(xué)家一直試圖繞過一些阻力問題提供目標(biāo)。

A predominant針對內(nèi)酰胺類藥物的主要耐藥機(jī)制（如青霉素），涉及內(nèi)酰胺環(huán)的酶裂解。While雖然藥物甲氧苯青霉素的開發(fā)，因為在1961年，短短兩年后，藥物首先到了廣泛使用。MRSA菌株進(jìn)化，使他們有一個額外的藥物靶蛋白參與細(xì)胞壁合成，并改變這種蛋白具有非常低的親和力幾乎所有內(nèi)酰胺。在一些醫(yī)院，TO更的是，大多數(shù)MRSA菌株也有許多其他類抗生素

耐藥，糖萬古霉素的異常。Now現(xiàn)在世界各地，MRSA菌株日本很成問題（60％的金黃色葡萄球菌菌株MRSA），以及西班牙，法國，意大利和美國，與發(fā)病率大于30％

A particularly一個特別令人不安的里程碑是1988年耐萬古霉素腸球菌（VRE）的出現(xiàn)。some一些抗萬古霉素腸球菌現(xiàn)在不回應(yīng)任何可用抗生素。腸球菌已成為最經(jīng)常遇到的第二醫(yī)院獲得性病原體分離。抗萬古霉素產(chǎn)生，因為1D-丙氨酸-e-乳酸渣（其中萬古霉素結(jié)合知之甚少）已被通常在涉及細(xì)菌的細(xì)胞墻1五肽前體的終點，D-丙氨酸-e-丙氨酸殘基取代合成There 在抗萬古霉素腸球菌糖肽類如萬古霉素抗性基因，將自然轉(zhuǎn)移到金黃色葡萄球菌，已經(jīng)實驗證明可行威廉高貴圣托馬斯醫(yī)院，倫敦現(xiàn)在有一個極大的關(guān)注。作為萬古霉素是治療MRSA感染這種致命的病原體，抗萬古霉素的自然預(yù)期收購不得已的藥物會導(dǎo)致發(fā)人深省的回報預(yù)先抗生素治療失敗的時代，應(yīng)該沒有備用的有效療法可用

Conclusions結(jié)論

人類使用抗生素迅速加快了人類和細(xì)菌之間的動態(tài)演化的相互作用。The新制劑，最近在多藥耐藥的革蘭氏陽性細(xì)菌感染的迅速崛起，全世界敲響了一個響亮的電氣警笛需要新的，有效的治療方法，這里可以提供翻新阿森納的醫(yī)生。

The discovery細(xì)菌通過基因組學(xué)研究新的藥物靶標(biāo)，以及改善我們了解細(xì)菌耐藥性機(jī)制的發(fā)現(xiàn)，按住發(fā)現(xiàn)多藥耐藥細(xì)菌感染治療的新手段的承諾。給予足夠的時間，細(xì)菌會最終是能夠開發(fā)任何新的抗菌劑的阻力。這些藥物可以通過一種新的機(jī)制攻擊病原體有可能降低快速耐藥性的發(fā)展的傾向。

第三篇：專業(yè)英語第八章課文翻譯1

Chiguo

Chapter 8

Section 1 Coal-Fired Power Plants

燃煤發(fā)電站

第一段：

在化石燃料發(fā)電廠中，煤，石油或者天然氣在燃燒室中燃燒，燃燒產(chǎn)生高溫的水，然后轉(zhuǎn)換成水蒸氣，高溫的水蒸氣將驅(qū)動汽輪機(jī)，汽輪機(jī)與發(fā)電機(jī)機(jī)械地連接在一起。圖8.1展示了一個典型的圖表示意圖。發(fā)電廠的運(yùn)行用一下簡潔的語言概述。從倉庫取出煤塊放入粉煤機(jī)（或者磨粉機(jī)）中粉碎，然后與預(yù)熱的空氣混合，最后充入燃燒室中燃燒。燃燒室包含一個復(fù)雜的管道，抽上的水灌輸?shù)揭粋€叫鍋爐的設(shè)備中，鍋爐里面水的溫度逐漸上升直至它們成為水蒸氣。

水蒸氣被送至汽輪機(jī)中，與此同時，燃燒的廢氣（煙道氣體）通過物理和靜電除塵裝置除掉99%以上的固體顆粒（灰塵）在通過煙囪或煙囪體排放出去之前。

第二段：

剛剛描述的單元，是輸入煤粉，空氣和水輸出水蒸氣的單元，這幾個方面的系統(tǒng)被統(tǒng)稱為蒸汽發(fā)電機(jī)組，或燃燒室，或者蒸汽發(fā)生器。當(dāng)考慮根據(jù)是燃燒過程的時候常用“燃燒室”這個術(shù)語，同時當(dāng)考慮因素是水汽循環(huán)時，“蒸汽發(fā)生器”這個術(shù)語被更頻繁的使用。水蒸氣的3500磅/平方英寸的典型氣壓和華氏零下1050度的條件，是通過控制和停止（關(guān)閉）汽輪機(jī)閥門來提供的。整齊的熱能轉(zhuǎn)化為水輪機(jī)的機(jī)械能。從排氣機(jī)中排出的蒸汽在熱交換器中成為冷凝器中冷卻形成水，再次被泵抽回鍋爐里。通過調(diào)節(jié)蒸汽的流量變化來控制渦輪發(fā)電機(jī)的輸出。截止閥具有保護(hù)作用，它通常是完全開放的，但可以“跳閘”關(guān)閉，以防止汽輪機(jī)發(fā)電機(jī)組超速，使電力輸出突然下賤（由于斷路器的行動）和控制閥不關(guān)閉。

第三段：

圖8-1表明的是一個單階段汽輪機(jī)，但在實際中一個更加復(fù)雜的多級排列被使用以便能實現(xiàn)相對較高的熱效率。一個典型的多級排列如圖8-2所示。它包括四個有著不同蒸汽氣壓的汽輪機(jī)機(jī)械地耦合串聯(lián)在一起。用常規(guī)的概述就是高壓蒸汽來自鍋爐然后進(jìn)入高壓汽輪機(jī)。在之前離開高壓汽輪機(jī)的水蒸氣回到鍋爐（再熱器）地區(qū)，然后送往中壓汽輪機(jī)。離開中壓汽輪機(jī)后的蒸汽（在較低的壓力和多消耗條件）移動是指向低壓汽輪機(jī)的。來自低壓汽輪機(jī)的廢汽在冷凝器中冷卻并重新給水，然后加熱（與渦輪機(jī)中提取的蒸汽一起）接著用泵送返鍋爐。

第四段：

燃煤發(fā)電廠的凈效率通常低于40%（也就是說煤的化學(xué)能轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)殡娔艿男实陀?0%）。盡管與30%左右的工業(yè)平均值相比這個數(shù)字有一定的優(yōu)勢，但依舊有60%以上的化石燃料能轉(zhuǎn)化成廢熱！為了使效率增長和節(jié)約一次能源，熱電聯(lián)供系統(tǒng)被長期使用，且可以同時生產(chǎn)電能和蒸汽(或者熱水)供給給工業(yè)或室內(nèi)。在這樣的系統(tǒng)中，總能量利用率已經(jīng)高達(dá)60%至65%。

第五段：

使用火力發(fā)電廠對其影響的是：目前的煤炭開采和運(yùn)輸?shù)陌踩c危害，還有其他社會成本的問題。

火力發(fā)電廠影響環(huán)境問題是其燃燒燃料產(chǎn)生的一些化學(xué)產(chǎn)物：包括“酸雨”和“溫室效應(yīng)”

概述：

本文著重介紹了火力發(fā)電站的基本工作原理。運(yùn)用圖解說明的方式詳細(xì)地介紹了單級汽輪機(jī)和多級汽輪機(jī)的基本結(jié)構(gòu)和各部件間協(xié)調(diào)工作的過程。最后總結(jié)了火力發(fā)電站能源的利用率問題，以及如何提升能源利用率的措施。在文末作者說明了燃煤廢氣廢渣對環(huán)境造成的影響。

Summarize The test emphasizes the basic work principle of introduction the thermal power station generator used the way of illustrated manual table to introduce the basic structure of single-stage turbine and multi-stage turbine and multi-stage turbine，and each parts moderates the process of work.Finally It sums up the met efficiency of a coal-fire plant as well as the measure to prove energy efficiency.At the end of the text, writer show us that how the waste gas and waste slag damage the ecological environment.選擇題答案：A B B A A 1翻譯：在一個燃煤發(fā)電機(jī)中，靜電除塵器是用來消除燃燒時產(chǎn)生的（A固體）顆粒 蒸汽的熱能是通過汽輪機(jī)來轉(zhuǎn)換成（B 機(jī)械能）的 3.燃煤發(fā)電機(jī)的凈效率通常低于 B

4在熱電聯(lián)產(chǎn)系統(tǒng)中，整體能量效率的提高是通過 B(為客戶提供熱能)來實現(xiàn)的 5.當(dāng)水蒸氣離開高壓汽輪機(jī)后便返回到 A（鍋爐）中，然后流轉(zhuǎn)到中壓汽輪機(jī)中

第四篇：工程專業(yè)英語課文翻譯

合同規(guī)定，影響現(xiàn)金流量，的承建商必須認(rèn)識到，實現(xiàn)對某一特定項目的現(xiàn)金流量，將取決于在一定程度上按照合同的約定。的時間收到的收入，這是尤其如此，因此，它是重要的合同文件進(jìn)行仔細(xì)檢查，以充分了解合約條款將影響現(xiàn)金流的項目?？紤]幾乎在每一個項目上的一些項目將被討論。付款時間表：該類型的合同規(guī)定的付款時間表的一般性質(zhì)。單價合同，投標(biāo)本身的各種收費(fèi)項目中列舉。收費(fèi)項目的列表給出了一個清晰的信息需要進(jìn)行一個現(xiàn)金流analysis.Of的特別興趣項目，具體包括收費(fèi)項目或明確排除的薪酬項目。對于exrample，動員可以是一個大的成本項目的承包商，在項目的早期發(fā)生。一個人可以許可動員的薪酬項目，僅僅是為了防止承包商承擔(dān)一個大的負(fù)現(xiàn)金流，在項目的早期，有些業(yè)主支付的動員與等量的規(guī)定，被分配到復(fù)員。有些業(yè)主sirrtply不支付動員，聲稱不提高項目本身的價值僅僅存在幾件裝備或一些臨時建筑物。其他項目，并不總是要在合同中的項目包括的模板，scaffoldinig，和支撐。這些物品可能是必不可少的交付項目，但不這樣做，對自己帶來任何價值的項目。例如，如果模板拆除混凝土澆筑前，沒有任何價值被添加到項目中。承包商會，當(dāng)然，必須支付這些項目。為了報銷，承辦商必須簡單地分配這些成本在一些時尚的其他收費(fèi)項目。的分布可能是“一刀切”的費(fèi)用可轉(zhuǎn)移到一定的工資項目，可能會產(chǎn)生更有利的承包商的現(xiàn)金流。這種分配的成本必須小心。

第五篇：土木工程專業(yè)英語

水力學(xué) hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 瀝青 bitumen混凝土 concrete強(qiáng)度 strength 非線性 nonlinear樁 pile剛性 rigid隧道 tunnel礫石 gravel柱子 column力 force

位移 displacement線性的 linear砂漿 mortar彈性 elastic塑性 plastic沉降 settlement 彎矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear

正應(yīng)力 normal stress路面 pavement

鋼筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉強(qiáng)度 tensile strength抗壓強(qiáng)度 compressive strength 土木工程 civil engineering巖體力學(xué) rock mass mechanics粒徑 grain diameter 容許應(yīng)力 allowable stress土力學(xué) soil mechanics斜拉橋 cable stayed bridge 懸索橋 suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑 civil architecture地質(zhì)成因 geologic origin臨界截面 choking section

巖土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服點 yield point

橫截面(transverse)cross section 安全系數(shù) safety factor抗剪強(qiáng)度 shear strength反復(fù)試驗 trial and error

預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土 priestessed concrete先張法 pretensioning concrete 后張法 post-tensioning concrete 土質(zhì)勘測 soil investiagation

在這兩種應(yīng)力中，前者是壓應(yīng)力，后者是拉應(yīng)力。These two kinds of stress, the former is a compressive stress, which is the tensile stress.許多情況下可能會指派土木工程師參與其他項目的工作。In many cases, civil

engineers may be assigned to engaged in the work of other projects.需要強(qiáng)調(diào)數(shù)學(xué)、力學(xué)、計算機(jī)技術(shù)在土木工程應(yīng)用中的重要性。It should be stressed that mathematics, mechanics and computer applications in civil engineering is importance.鋼材和混凝土是橋梁建筑的基本材料，混凝土的主要缺點是抗拉強(qiáng)度很低。Basic

materials are steel and concrete bridge construction, the main disadvantage is the low tensile strength of concrete.混凝土的抗壓強(qiáng)度是水泥、骨料、水及混合料中所含的各種添加劑的用量所控制。它們主要用于大型水壩，在大壩中它們能減少水泥硬化時釋放出的熱量。They are mainly used for large dams;dams in the heat they can reduce cement hardening release.They are mainly used for large dams, the dam in which they can reduce hardening of the cement when the heat release.水力學(xué) hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 瀝青 bitumen混凝土 concrete強(qiáng)度 strength 非線性 nonlinear樁 pile剛性 rigid隧道 tunnel礫石 gravel柱子 column力 force

位移 displacement線性的 linear砂漿 mortar彈性 elastic塑性 plastic沉降 settlement 彎矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear

正應(yīng)力 normal stress路面 pavement

鋼筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉強(qiáng)度 tensile strength抗壓強(qiáng)度 compressive strength 土木工程 civil engineering巖體力學(xué) rock mass mechanics粒徑 grain diameter 容許應(yīng)力 allowable stress土力學(xué) soil mechanics斜拉橋 cable stayed bridge 懸索橋 suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑 civil architecture地質(zhì)成因 geologic origin臨界截面 choking section

巖土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服點 yield point

橫截面(transverse)cross section 安全系數(shù) safety factor抗剪強(qiáng)度 shear strength反復(fù)試驗 trial and error

預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土 priestessed concrete先張法 pretensioning concrete 后張法 post-tensioning concrete 土質(zhì)勘測 soil investiagation

在這兩種應(yīng)力中，前者是壓應(yīng)力，后者是拉應(yīng)力。These two kinds of stress, the former is a compressive stress, which is the tensile stress.許多情況下可能會指派土木工程師參與其他項目的工作。In many cases, civil

engineers may be assigned to engaged in the work of other projects.需要強(qiáng)調(diào)數(shù)學(xué)、力學(xué)、計算機(jī)技術(shù)在土木工程應(yīng)用中的重要性。It should be stressed that mathematics, mechanics and computer applications in civil engineering is importance.鋼材和混凝土是橋梁建筑的基本材料，混凝土的主要缺點是抗拉強(qiáng)度很低。Basic

materials are steel and concrete bridge construction, the main disadvantage is the low tensile strength of concrete.混凝土的抗壓強(qiáng)度是水泥、骨料、水及混合料中所含的各種添加劑的用量所控制。它們主要用于大型水壩，在大壩中它們能減少水泥硬化時釋放出的熱量。They are mainly used for large dams;dams in the heat they can reduce cement hardening release.They are mainly used for large dams, the dam in which they can reduce hardening of the cement when the heat release.水力學(xué) hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 瀝青 bitumen混凝土 concrete強(qiáng)度 strength 非線性 nonlinear樁 pile剛性 rigid隧道 tunnel礫石 gravel柱子 column力 force

位移 displacement線性的 linear砂漿 mortar彈性 elastic塑性 plastic沉降 settlement 彎矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear

正應(yīng)力 normal stress路面 pavement

鋼筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉強(qiáng)度 tensile strength抗壓強(qiáng)度 compressive strength 土木工程 civil engineering巖體力學(xué) rock mass mechanics粒徑 grain diameter 容許應(yīng)力 allowable stress土力學(xué) soil mechanics斜拉橋 cable stayed bridge 懸索橋 suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑 civil architecture地質(zhì)成因 geologic origin臨界截面 choking section

巖土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服點 yield point

橫截面(transverse)cross section 安全系數(shù) safety factor抗剪強(qiáng)度 shear strength反復(fù)試驗 trial and error

預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土 priestessed concrete先張法 pretensioning concrete 后張法 post-tensioning concrete 土質(zhì)勘測 soil investiagation

在這兩種應(yīng)力中，前者是壓應(yīng)力，后者是拉應(yīng)力。These two kinds of stress, the former is a compressive stress, which is the tensile stress.許多情況下可能會指派土木工程師參與其他項目的工作。In many cases, civil

engineers may be assigned to engaged in the work of other projects.需要強(qiáng)調(diào)數(shù)學(xué)、力學(xué)、計算機(jī)技術(shù)在土木工程應(yīng)用中的重要性。It should be stressed that mathematics, mechanics and computer applications in civil engineering is importance.鋼材和混凝土是橋梁建筑的基本材料，混凝土的主要缺點是抗拉強(qiáng)度很低。Basic

materials are steel and concrete bridge construction, the main disadvantage is the low tensile strength of concrete.混凝土的抗壓強(qiáng)度是水泥、骨料、水及混合料中所含的各種添加劑的用量所控制。它們主要用于大型水壩，在大壩中它們能減少水泥硬化時釋放出的熱量。They are mainly used for large dams;dams in the heat they can reduce cement hardening release.They are mainly used for large dams, the dam in which they can reduce hardening of the cement when the heat release.