第一篇：英語語法教案第三章(虛擬語氣定稿)

虛擬語氣

第一部分：語氣的定義和種類 語氣(mood)語氣是動(dòng)詞的一種形式，表示說話人對(duì)某一行為或事情的看法和態(tài)度。2 語氣的種類

陳述語氣：表示動(dòng)作或狀態(tài)是現(xiàn)實(shí)的、確定的或符合事實(shí)的，用于陳述句、疑問句和某些感嘆句。如： There are two sides to every question.每個(gè)問題都有兩個(gè)方面。Were you busy all day yesterday?昨天一整天你都很忙嗎？ How good a teacher she is!她是多好的一位老師?。∑硎拐Z氣：表示說話人對(duì)對(duì)方的請(qǐng)求或命令。如： Never be late again!再也不要遲到了。

Don’t forget to turn off the light.別忘了關(guān)燈。

虛擬語氣：表示動(dòng)作或狀態(tài)不是客觀存在的事實(shí)，而是說話人的主觀愿望、假設(shè)或推測(cè)等。如： If I were a bird, I could fly in the air.如果我是一只小鳥，我就能在空中飛行。I wish I could pass the examination.我希望我能通過考試。May you succeed!祝您成功！

虛擬語氣在語法里算得上是個(gè)難點(diǎn)。讓我們就從最簡(jiǎn)單的開始吧。

第二部分：虛擬語氣的用法

I.簡(jiǎn)單句中虛擬語氣的用法

一、動(dòng)詞的過去式用于現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)時(shí)，表示說話人的謙虛、客氣、有禮貌、或委婉的語氣，常用于日常會(huì)話中。如：Would you be kind enough to show me the way to the post office? 請(qǐng)你告訴我去郵局的路好嗎？

It would be better for you not to stay up too late.你最好別熬夜到很晚。

二、表示祝愿。

1、常用“may+動(dòng)詞原形”表示祝愿，此時(shí)may須置于句首（多用于正式文體中）。May good luck be yours!祝你好運(yùn)！May you be happy!祝你快樂！

May you do even better!祝你取得更大成就！May you have a good time.祝愿你玩的痛快。

May the friendship between us last long.祝愿我們的友情天長(zhǎng)地久。May you be happy.(注意那個(gè)be)祝你幸福。

2、用動(dòng)詞原形。例如：

(1)Long live the people!人民萬歲！

(2).“God bless you,”said the priest.牧師說：“愿上帝保佑你！”

(3).Have a good journey!祝愿你旅途愉快！

3、表示強(qiáng)烈愿望。（該類型虛擬語氣謂語僅用動(dòng)詞原形，第三人稱單數(shù)也不加“s”）(1).God save me．(2).Heaven help us．

第三部分：名詞性從句中的虛擬語氣

I.賓語從句中的虛擬語氣

一、在動(dòng)詞wish后的賓語從句中的虛擬語氣

在動(dòng)詞wish后的賓語從句中的虛擬語氣，常省去賓語從句的引導(dǎo)詞that。

1、表示與現(xiàn)在的事實(shí)相反，wish后賓語從句中的謂語動(dòng)詞用過去式或過去進(jìn)行式(時(shí)間上是同時(shí)的)。1)I wish(that可省略,下同)I knew the answer to the question.我希望知道這個(gè)答案。(事實(shí)上是不知道)2)I wish it were spring in my hometown all the year around.但愿我的家鄉(xiāng)四季如春。(事實(shí)上不可能)3).I wish I were a bird.但愿我是只小鳥。(事實(shí)上不可能)4).When she was at the party, she wished she were at home.(wished,過去虛擬動(dòng)詞were)(事實(shí)上并不在家)5).Now that he is in China, he wishes he understood Chinese.(wishes,過去虛擬動(dòng)詞understood)現(xiàn)在他在中國(guó)，他希望能懂得中文。(事實(shí)上并不懂)6).When we begin the trip, they will wish they were with us.(事實(shí)上并不和我們?cè)谝黄?

2、對(duì)過去情況的虛擬（和過去的事實(shí)相反）：Wish后賓語從句的謂語動(dòng)詞用過去完成時(shí)，或would, could, might+現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)。例：

1）I wish(that可省略，下同)I hadn't wasted so much time.我后悔不該浪費(fèi)這么多時(shí)間。(事實(shí)上已浪費(fèi)了)2）He wishes he hadn't lost the chance.他真希望沒有失去機(jī)會(huì)。(其實(shí)已失去)3）We wished he had spoken to us.(事實(shí)上他并沒同我們講)4）I wish you had called earlier.(事實(shí)上已遲了)5）They will wish they had listened to us sooner.(事實(shí)上并不如此)例題分析：I wish I ______ longer this morning, but I had to get up and come to class.A.could have slept B.slept C.might have slept D.have slept 動(dòng)詞wish后面接從句，表達(dá)不可能實(shí)現(xiàn)或與事實(shí)相反的情況時(shí)，謂語動(dòng)詞要用虛擬語氣，即用過去式（表示現(xiàn)在發(fā)生的動(dòng)作）或過去完成式（表示過去發(fā)生的動(dòng)作）。本題后半句謂語動(dòng)詞have用的是過去時(shí)had to get up and come, 所以前面要用過去完成時(shí)表示過去發(fā)生的動(dòng)作。所以, 選項(xiàng)A（could have slept）是答案

3）、對(duì)將來情況的虛擬(表示將來的主觀愿望)：

如果wish表示對(duì)將來事情的愿望。賓語從句謂語動(dòng)詞用“would/should/could/might + 動(dòng)詞原形”(時(shí)間上較后)(請(qǐng)注意：主句和從句的主語不相同)。

1）.I wish it would stop raining.我希望雨能停止。(事實(shí)上雨還在下著呢)2）.I wish you would be quiet 我希望你安靜一些。(事實(shí)上那家伙還在吵著呢)3）.You wished she would arrive the next day.你希望她第二天會(huì)到。(事實(shí)上她還沒到)4）.I wish she would change her mind.我希望她會(huì)改變主意。(呵呵，女孩子可沒那么容易就改變主意喔)5）.He will wish we would join him the following week.(只是希望我們和他在一起，實(shí)際上還沒在一起)注意：.如果將wish改為過去式wished, 其后that 從句中的動(dòng)詞形式不變。例如： I wished I hadn't spent so much money.我要是那時(shí)沒有花掉那么多錢就好了。

2.如果wish后賓語 從句中用would , 一般表示對(duì)現(xiàn)狀不滿或希望未來有所改變或請(qǐng)求 I wish he would answer my letter.I wish prices would come down.I wish you would help me.I wish you would stop asking silly questions.二、在表示建議、命令、要求、忠告等動(dòng)詞的后面的賓語從句中的虛擬語氣的用法

由于這些動(dòng)詞本身隱含說話者的主觀意見，認(rèn)為某事應(yīng)該或不應(yīng)該怎樣，這些詞語后面的“that”從句應(yīng)用虛擬語氣，且均以“should+動(dòng)詞原形”表示這種語氣，但事實(shí)上“should”常被省略，故此從句中謂語動(dòng)詞用原形，常用的此類動(dòng)詞有：

表示“要求”的：ask, desire, request, demand, require, beg 表示“提議、勸告、建議”的：move, propose, suggest, recommend, advise, vote 表示“決定、命令”的：decide, order, command, demand 表示“主張”的：maintain, urge 表示“同意、堅(jiān)持”的：consent, insist 例如：

1.The doctor suggested that he(should)try to lose his weight.2.He insisted that we(should)tell him the news.3.When I suggested that he(should)try shaving cream, he said, “The razor and water do the job.”(當(dāng)我建議他用刮胡膏時(shí)，他說“剃刀和水就行了”。)4.He pursued various theories for several days until I suggested we take the toy apart to see how it did work.(他費(fèi)了幾天功夫?qū)ふ依碚摳鶕?jù)，直到我建議拆開看看它是如何轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)的。)

三、在expect, believe, think, suspect等動(dòng)詞的否定或疑問形式后的賓語從句中，我們經(jīng)常用“should＋動(dòng)詞原形(或完成形式)”，表示驚奇，懷疑，不滿等。

I never thought that he should be such a brave young soldier.我們從來沒想到他是個(gè)如此勇敢的小戰(zhàn)士。

四、在would rather，would sooner，had rather，would(just)as soon，would prefer之后的賓語從句中的虛擬語氣的用法

would rather , would sooner, had rather, would(just)as soon，would prefer（希望）也用來表達(dá)主觀愿望，它們之后的賓語從句中需用虛擬語氣。謂語動(dòng)詞用過去式表示現(xiàn)在或?qū)?，用過去完成式表示與過去事實(shí)相反。表示”寧愿做什么”或“對(duì)過去做的事的懊悔”。

(1).I would rather he came tomorrow than today.(2).John would rather that she had not gone to the party yesterday evening.(3).I would rather everything hadn' t happened in the past.(4).The manager would rather his daughter did not work in the same office．經(jīng)理寧愿她女兒不與他在同一間辦公室工作。

(7).To be frank，I'd rather you were not involved in the case．坦率地說，我希望你不要卷入這件事。

(8).You don't have to be in such a hurry．I would rather you went on business first．你沒有必要這么著急，我寧愿你先去上班。

(9).I'd rather you didn't make any comment on the issue for the time being．我倒希望你暫時(shí)先不要就此事發(fā)表意見。

(10).Frankly speaking，I'd rather you didn't do anything about it for the time being．坦白地說，我寧愿你現(xiàn)在對(duì)此事什么也不要做。

(11).Wouldn't you rather your child went to bed early？為什么你不愿讓你的孩子早點(diǎn)上床呢？(12).I would just as soon you had returned the book yesterday．我真希望你昨天把這本書還了。注：若某人愿自己做某事，would rather后用動(dòng)詞原形 I would rather stay at home today． would rather．．．than．．．中用動(dòng)詞原形 I would rather stay at home than go out today．

II：主語從句中的虛擬語氣

一、“It is(was)+形容詞（或過去分詞）+that??”結(jié)構(gòu)中的虛擬語氣的用法

在“It is(was)+形容詞（或過去分詞）+that??”結(jié)構(gòu)中，某些表示愿望、建議、請(qǐng)求、命令、可能、適當(dāng)、較好、迫切、緊近、重要等形容詞后的主語從句中的謂語也用虛擬語氣。其表達(dá)形式為should ＋動(dòng)詞原形或省略should直接用動(dòng)詞原形（美國(guó)英語中省去should）常用的形容詞： natural(自然的), appropriate(適當(dāng)?shù)?, advisable(合適的), preferable(更可取的), better(更好的)，necessary(必須的), important(重要的), imperative(急需的), urgent(急迫的), essential(本質(zhì)的), vital(必不可少的)probable(很可能的), possible(可能的)，desirable(極好的)，advisable（合理的），compulsory（必須的），crucial（緊急的），desirable（理想的），essential（必要的），imperative（迫切的），incredible（驚人的），necessary（必要的），possible（可能的），strange（奇怪的），urgent（緊迫的）。

常用的過去分詞(Past Participle): required(需要的), demanded(要求), requested(被請(qǐng)求的), desired(要求)，suggested(建議), recommended(推薦)，ordered(命令)1.It is necessary that we(should 可省略, 下同)have a walk now.2 It was necessary that we(should)make everything ready ahead of time.3.It is required that nobody(should)smoke here.(表示要求不要在此抽煙)4.It is important that every pupil(should)be able to understand the rule of school.(表示重要的是學(xué)生都能了解校規(guī))5.It's important that we(should)take good care of the patient.6.It is natural that she should do so.7.It is essential that these application forms（should）be sent back as early as possible． 這些申請(qǐng)表應(yīng)盡早地寄回，這是很重要的。

8.It is vital that enough money（should）be collected to fund the project． 重要的是募集足夠的錢，為這個(gè)項(xiàng)目提供資金。

9.It is desired that we（should）get everything ready this evening． 希望我們今晚一切都準(zhǔn)備就緒。

注：在上述所列形容詞后面用that引出的賓語從句中，謂語動(dòng)詞也要用虛擬語氣。

10.I don't think it advisable that Tom（should）be assigned to the job since he has no experiences.湯姆缺乏經(jīng)驗(yàn)，指派他做這項(xiàng)工作我認(rèn)為是不恰當(dāng)?shù)摹?/p>

二、在It is ＋名詞＋that?的主語從句中的虛擬語氣

在It is ＋名詞＋that的主語從句中，常用虛擬語氣，表示建議、命令、請(qǐng)求、道歉、懷疑、驚奇等。這類名詞有：advice，decision，desire，demand，idea，motion，order，pity，proposal, recommendation，requirement，resolution，shame，suggestion，surprise，wish，wonder等。It is my proposal that he be sent to study further abroad．我建議派他去國(guó)外進(jìn)一步學(xué)習(xí)。III.虛擬語氣用在表語從句或同位語從句中

當(dāng)某些表示建議、請(qǐng)求、命令等主觀意向的名詞作主語時(shí)，其后的表語從句或同位語從句需用虛擬語氣，其表達(dá)形式為should ＋動(dòng)詞原形或直接用動(dòng)詞原形。這類名詞常見的有：

demand(要求), desire(請(qǐng)求), requirement(要求), advice(勸告), recommendation(建議), suggestion(建議)order(命令)necessity(必要地), preference(優(yōu)先)proposal(計(jì)劃), plan(計(jì)劃), idea(辦法)，recommendation等。

We are all for your proposal that the discussion be put off．我們都贊成你提出的將討論延期的建議。

The suggestion that the mayor present the prizes was accepted by everyone．由市長(zhǎng)頒發(fā)獎(jiǎng)金的建議被每個(gè)人接受。

The advice is that we(should 可省略，下同)leave at once.My idea is that we(should)get more people to attend the conference.I make a proposal that we(should)hold a meeting next week.IV.虛擬語氣用在It is（about ／high）time ＋that定語從句中 在It is（about／high）time ＋that從句中需用虛擬語氣，表示“該做??的時(shí)候了”，其動(dòng)詞形式用一般過去時(shí)或should ＋動(dòng)詞原形。

It's already 5 o'clock now．Don't you think it's about time we went home？現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)5點(diǎn)鐘了，你不認(rèn)為我們應(yīng)該回家了嗎？

注：在this is the first time ／second time that．．．句型中，從句中謂語動(dòng)詞用陳述語氣完成時(shí)態(tài)。例如：

Is this the first time that you have visited Hongkong？這是你第一次參觀香港嗎？ V.虛擬語氣用在as if（as though）引導(dǎo)的方式狀語從句中。

（一）在as if（as though）引導(dǎo)的方式狀語從句中，常用虛擬語氣，其動(dòng)詞形式與wish后接賓語從句中的形式相同。Alan talked about Rome as if he were a Roman．艾倫談起羅馬來好像他是個(gè)羅馬人一樣。2 He pretends as if he didn't know the thing at all, but in fact he knows it very well.（用過去式表示與現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反的假設(shè)）

3．The old man looked at the picture, he felt as though he had gone back to 20 years ago.(用過去完成式表示與過去相反的事實(shí))那老人看著照片，他覺得仿佛回到20年前了。

4。They talked and talked as if they would never meet again.(would + 原形動(dòng)詞meet，表示與將來事實(shí)相反)他們談了又談，仿佛他們不會(huì)再相見的樣子。

（二）虛擬語氣用在lest，for fear that及in case引導(dǎo)的目的狀語從句中。

在由lest等引導(dǎo)的目的狀語從句中需用虛擬語氣，表示“以防，以免” 等意思，其謂語動(dòng)詞多由should＋動(dòng)詞原形構(gòu)成，should也可省略。

He was punished lest he should make the same mistake again．他被處以懲罰以免他再犯。VI、虛擬語氣在條件從句中的用法： 條件從句有兩類：（1）真實(shí)條件句；（2）虛擬條件句。如果假設(shè)情況有可能發(fā)生的，就是“真實(shí)條件句”。如： If time permits, we'll go fishing together.(如果有時(shí)間的話，我們就一起去釣魚。)如果假設(shè)的情況與事實(shí)相反，則為“虛擬條件句”。如：

If it had rained yesterday, we would have stayed at home.如果昨天下雨的話，我們就會(huì)留在家里。）

這種句子一般由“從句”（Subordinate Clause）和“主句”(Main Clause)組成。如上例：

If it had rained yesterday, we would have stayed at home.“If it had rained yesterday” 就是“從句”；“we would have stayed at home” 則為主句。無論從句或主句的謂語都要用虛擬語氣。它們所用的動(dòng)詞有三種時(shí)態(tài)(Tenses)，就是： 現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)、過去時(shí)態(tài)、將來時(shí)態(tài)。

.一、與現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反的假設(shè)(事情的發(fā)生都在同一時(shí)間內(nèi)): 從句中用：if + 主語 + 動(dòng)詞的過去式(be 用 were)主句中用：主語 + would(should, could , might)+ 動(dòng)詞原形

例如：1.If I were you, I would go with him.2.If I were you, I should buy it.3.If I had time, I would study French.(如果有時(shí)間，我會(huì)學(xué)習(xí)法文。)（從句用過去式動(dòng)詞had，主句用動(dòng)詞原形 study）

4.If she knew English, she would not ask me for help.(如果她懂英文，她就不必要我?guī)土恕?(從句用過去式動(dòng)詞knew, 主句用動(dòng)詞原形ask)注意：如果動(dòng)作在進(jìn)行中，主句要用：“主語 + would be + 進(jìn)行式動(dòng)詞 ” 5.If they were here, he would be speaking to them now.(從句用過去式動(dòng)詞were, 主句用 would be speaking)

二、與過去事實(shí)相反的假設(shè)(假設(shè)從句的事實(shí)為過去的事)： 從句用：If + 主語 + had +過去完成式動(dòng)詞

主句用：主語 + would(should, could, might)+ have +過去完成式動(dòng)詞 +?? 1.If you had studied harder last term, you could have passed exam.(從句動(dòng)詞用had studied, 主句動(dòng)詞用have passed)如果你在上個(gè)學(xué)期用功一些，你就會(huì)在考試中過關(guān)了。

2.If you had taken my advice, you wouldn't have failed in the exam.(從句動(dòng)詞用had taken, 主句動(dòng)詞用have failed)如果你當(dāng)時(shí)聽從我的勸告的話，你就不會(huì)在考試中失敗了。

3.If you had got up earlier, you could have caught the train.(從句動(dòng)詞用had got up, 主句動(dòng)詞用 have caught)如果你起身得早一點(diǎn)，你就會(huì)趕得上火車了。

4.If it had snowed, I would have skied in the park.(從句動(dòng)詞用had snowed, 主句動(dòng)詞用 have skied)如果下雪的話，我就可在公園里滑雪了。

注意：如果動(dòng)作在進(jìn)行中，主句要用：“主語 + would + have + 完成進(jìn)行式動(dòng)詞 5.If they had been here, he would have been speaking to them.(從句動(dòng)詞用had been, 主句動(dòng)詞用 have been speaking)

三、與將來的事實(shí)可能相反(對(duì)將來的事實(shí)實(shí)現(xiàn)的可能性不大)： 句：If + 主語 + should(或were)+ 動(dòng)詞原形 +??

句：主語 + would(could, should, might)+ 動(dòng)詞原形 +?? 1.If it should rain, the crops would be saved.(從句動(dòng)詞用should rain，主句動(dòng)詞用 be)如果天下雨，莊稼可能就收獲了。

2.If he were to go tomorrow, he might tell you.(從句動(dòng)詞用were to, 主句動(dòng)詞用 tell)如果明天他走的話，他可能會(huì)告訴你。

3.If he were here, I would give him the books.(從句動(dòng)詞用 were, 主句動(dòng)詞用 give)如果他在這兒，我可能會(huì)把書給他。

注意：如果動(dòng)作在進(jìn)行中，從句(不是主句喔)要用：”If + 主語 + 過去進(jìn)行式動(dòng)詞+??“ 4.If she were staying here now, I would let her ride my horse.(從句動(dòng)詞用 were staying, 主句動(dòng)詞用 let)如果她現(xiàn)在留在這兒，我可能會(huì)讓她騎我的馬。

從句的 If 有時(shí)可省略，那么從句中的動(dòng)詞(were, had, should)就得移到主語前面： 1.原句：If she were younger, she would do it.去If：Were she younger, she would do it.(把動(dòng)詞were移到主語she的前面)2.原句：If he had tried it, he could have done it.去If：Had he tried it, he could have done it.(把had移到主語he的前面)

四、錯(cuò)綜條件句（混合型條件句）中虛擬語氣的用法有時(shí)虛擬條件句的從句和主句的動(dòng)詞動(dòng)作時(shí)態(tài)會(huì)不一致：

（一）從句表示過去，主句表示將來：

If they had started the early morning yesterday, they would be here now.（二）從句表示將來，主句表示過去：

If I were not to make a preparation for my experiment this afternoon, I would have gone to see the film with you last night.（三）從句表示過去，主句表示將來： If we hadn't made adequate preparations, we shouldn't dare to do the experiment next week.（四）從句表示將來，主句表示現(xiàn)在：

If we shouldn't have an exam this afternoon, I would go shopping now.（五）省略了條件句的虛擬語氣的用法（隱含型條件句）

有時(shí)候句中省略了條件句，而用 without / but for / in the absence of ”要不是“、”如果沒有"，表示條件虛擬句：

1.Without air, nothing could live.要是沒有空氣，什么也不能生存。

2.But for your assistance, we could not accomplish it.要不是你的幫忙，我們是難有成就的。

3.In the absence of water and air, nothing could live.如果沒有水和空氣，什么也不能生存。

The exercises for subjunctive mood

1.He acted ____ he had never lived in China before.a.as though b.even if c.as d.since 2.____ to the doctor right away, he might have been alive.a.If he went b.Were he gone c.Should he have gone d.Had he gone 3.If you were older, I ____ you to go there yesterday.a.will allow b.should allow c.would have allowed d.had allowed 4.The secretary suggested that they ____ the men in at once.a.had brought b.should have brought c.brought d.bring 5.I wish I ____ able to tell him all about it last night.a.was b.were c.had been d.should be 6.If we ____ here ten minutes earlier, we ___ the bus.a.arrived/would catch b.arrived/would have caught c.had arrived/had caught d.had arrived/would have caught 7.If I ____ more time, I would have gone with him.a.had b.had had c.have had d.would have 8.He was very busy yesterday, otherwise he ____ to the meeting.a.would come b.came c.would have come d.had come 9.The Jade Emperor ordered that the Monkey King _____ right away.a.would be arrested b.must be arrested c.be arrested d.had to be arrested 10.Jane's uncle insisted ____ in this hotel any longer.a.not staying b.not to stay c.that he not stay d.staying not 11.Don't touch the sleeping tiger.If he woke up, he _____ you.a.would come to b.would come at c.would have come toward d.will come to 12.Without electricity human life _____ quite different today.a.is b.will be c.would have been d.would be 13.How I wish I ____ to repair the watch!I only made it worse.a.had tried b.hadn't tried c.have tried d.didn't try 14.He demanded that the laboratory report ___ immediately after the experiment was done.a.was written b.be written c.must be written d.would be written 15.The man insisted that he _____ there.a.should send b.would be sent c.sent d.be sent 16.If he had not gone out in the storm _____.a.he will be alive now b.he would be alive now c.he would have been alive now 17.If it ___ tomorrow, what would we do? a.rains b.were to rain c.would rain d.rain 18.It is required that you ____ at six.a.will arrive b.arrive c.arrived d.would arrive 19.If only I _____ how to operate an electronic computer as you do.a.had known b.would know c.should know d.knew 20.He spoke in a quiet, distinct voice, as though his thought _____.a.was far away b.had been far away c.were far away d.went far away.21.If it ___ rain, we ___ get wet.a.is to, should b.were to, would c.were going to, would d.was going to, should 22.If he ___ to the teacher attentively, he ___ the answer to the problem now.a.had listened, would have known b.listened, would know c.listened, would have known d.had listened, would know 23.But for the party, he ___ of hunger 30 years ago.a.would have died b.would die c.must have died d.must die 24.___ today, he would got there for holiday.a.Was he leaving b.Were he to leave c.Would he leave d.If he leaves 25.I would have come earlier, but I ___ that you were waiting for me.a.didn’t know b.hadn’t know c.would have known d.haven’t known 26.It’s high time that we ___ to school.a.would to b.went c.go d.will go 27.It seems as if it ___ rain.a.will b.is going to c.is to d.were going to 28.I’d rather you ___ right away.a.leave b.left c.will leave d.to leave 29.He is working hard for fear that he ___.a.fails b.failed c.would fail d.fail 30.It is really strange that the girl ___ so early.a.has been married b.has married c.be married d.would marry 31.Supposing I ___ this gift, what would he say? a.accept b.accepted c.should accept d.would accept 32.The teacher agreed to the suggestion that the students ___ two weeks to prepare for the exam.a.give b.should give c.be given d.would be given 33.I was busy yesterday, otherwise I ___ your birthday party.a.attended b.had attended c.would attend d.would have attended 34.He insisted that he ___ me before.a.see b.should see c.had seen d.saw 35.The two strangers talked as if they ___ friends for years.a.were b.would be c.have been d.had been 36.We ___ our lives had it not been for the policeman.a.would have lost b.should lose c.might lose d.could have lost 37.----I thought you would come back tomorrow.----I would if I ___ to attend a meeting.a.don’t have b.didn’t have c.will not have d.would not have 38.He wishes ___ mistakes.a.he doesn’t always make b.he isn’t always making c.he didn’t always make d.he wouldn’t always making 39.It ___ very nice if only it were possible.a.will be b.would be c.is d.were 40.Without your help, our team ___ the last match.a.won’t win b.will lose c.wouldn’t have won d.can’t win 41.I wish ___ I what to do.a.knew b.have known c.know d.would know 42.___, I would take an umbrella with me.a.Had I been you b.I were you c.Were I you d.I had been you 43.If I had hurried, I ___ the train.a.would catch b.could catch c.would have caught d.had caught 44.He insisted that John ___ it.a.do b.does c.did d.would do 45.It is high time we ___ off.a.are b.were c.be d.will be 46.He felt as if he ___ more time to study for the test.a.needs b.were needed c.needed d.need 47.It is important that I ___ with Mr.Willians immediately.a.speak b.spoke c.will speak d.to speak 48.James wishes he ___ the football game instead of the film.a.saw b.see c.had been seen d.had seen 49.I wish ___.a.he left b.he leaves me alone c.he be left d.he would leave me alone 50.If I had known that, I ___ so.a.wouldn’t do b.wouldn’t have done c.won’t do d.have not done 51.The doctor suggested that she ___.a.will not smoke b.not smoke c.would not smoke d.did not smoke 52.If I ___ you, I wouldn’t return the call.a.be b.am c.was d.were 53.You talk as if you ___ there.a.were really b.has really been c.had really been d.would really be 54.He suggested that the work ___ at once.a.would started b.would be started c.should started d.should be started 55.It is strange that such a thing ___ in your school.a.will happen b.happen c.should happen d.happened 56.It is imperative that you ___ on time.a.are b.will be c.be d.would be 57.I didn’t go to the party, but I do wish I ___ there.a.was b.were c.had been d.went 58.It is time we ___ up our results.a.sum b.summed c.will sum d.would sum 59.If the doctor had been available, the child ___.a.would not die b.would not have died c.could not die d.could not have died 60.Dr.Bethune worked hard as if he ___.a.never had felt tired b.had never felt tired c.never felt tired d.was tired never 61.I enjoyed the movie very much.I wish I ___ the book from which it was made.a.have read b.had read c.should have read d.am reading 62.You are late.If you ___ a few minutes earlier, you ___ him.a.came/ would meet b.had come/ would have met c.come/ will meet d.had come/ would met 63.I wish my husband ___ as well as yours.a.had dressed b.dress c.will dress d.dressed 64.Edison kept phosphorus carefully in a bottle lest it ___.a.would burn b.burned c.was burning d.should burn 65.He looked as if he ___ ill for a long time.a.was b.were c.has been d.had been 66.If the doctor had come earlier, the poor child ___.a.would not have been lied there for two hours b.would not have laid there for two hours c.would not have lied there for two hours d.would not have lain there for two hours 67.I wish that I ___ with you last night.a.went b.could go c.have gone d.could have gone 68.Let’s say you could go there again, how ___ feel? a.will you b.should you c.would you d.do you 69.Mr.Brown left for London long ago.That’s pity.I wish ___.a.I meet him.b.I’ll have met him c.I’d had met him d.I’d meet him 70.I can’t stand him.He always talks as though he ___ everything.a.knew b.knows c.has known d.had known 71.I wish I ___.a.will tell him that b.didn’t tell him that c.told him not that d.had not told him that 72.If you had told me in advance, I ___ him at the airport.a.would meet b.would had meet c.would have met d.would have meet 73.Kunar can take his car apart and put it back together again.I certainly wish he ___ me how.a.teaches b.will teach c.has taught d.would teach 74.I would have told him the answer had it been possible but I ___ so busy then.a.had been b.were c.was d.would be 75.I wish I ___ able to tell him all about it last night.a.should be b.were c.had been d.was 76.If it ___ another ten minutes, the game would have been called off.a.had rained b.would had rained c.have seen c.did see 77.He suggested that they ___ use a trick instead of fighting.a.should b.would c.do d.had 78.My father did not go to New York;the doctor suggested that he ___ there.a.not went b.won’t go c.not go d.not to go 79.I would have gone to the meeting if I ___ time.a.had had b.have had c.had d.would have had 80.John wished ___.a.he will study more b.he had studied more c.he studies d.he won’t have studied more 81.You look so tired tonight.It is time you ___.a.go to sleep b.went to sleep c.go to bed d.went to bed 82.“Why didn’t you buy a new car?” “I would have bought one if I ___ enough money.” a.had b.have had c.would have d.had had 83.I recommended that the student ___ his composition as soon as possible.a.finishing writing b.should finish the writing c.finish writing d.finished writing 84.If she could sew, ___.a.she make a dress b.she would have made a shirt c.she will make a shirt d.she would had made a coat 85.___ today, he would get there by Friday.a.Would he leave b.Was he leaving c.Were he to leave d.If he leaves 86.His doctor suggested that he ___ a short trip abroad.a.will take b.would take c.take d.took 87.The Bakers arrived last night, if they’d only let us know earlier, ___ at the station.a.we’d meet them b.we’ll meet them c.we’d have met them d.we’ve met them 88.If I __ you, I ___ more attention to English idioms and phrases.a.was/ shall pay b.am/ will pay c.would be/ would pay d.were/ would pay 89.We might have failed if you ___ us a helping hand.a.have not given b.would not give c.had not given d.did not give 90.The Law requires that everyone ___ his car checked at least once a year.a.has b.had c.have d.will have 91.I wish ___ I busy yesterday;I could have helped you with the problem.a.hadn’t been b.weren’t c.wasn’t d.have not been 92.Had I known her name, ___.a.or does she know mine? b.and where does she live? c.she would be beautiful d.I would have invited her to lunch 93.He has just arrived, but he talks as if he ___ all about that.a.know b.knows c.known d.knew 94.If I ___ the money, I would have bought a much bigger car.a.possessed b.owned c.had d.had had 95.I wish I ___ a young man again.a.am b.was c.were d.will be 96.The librarian insists that John ___ no more books from the library before he returns all the books he had borrowed.a.will take b.took c.take d.takes 97.I left very early last night, but I wish I ___ so early.a.didn’t b.hadn’t left c.haven’t left d.couldn’t leave 98.I do not have a job.I would find one but I ___ no time.a.had b.didn’t have c.had had d.have 99.I wish that you ___ such a bad headache because I’m sure that you would have enjoyed the concert.a.hadn’t b.didn’t have had c.hadn’t had d.hadn’t have 100.He insisted that we all ___ in his office at one o’clock.a.be b.to be c.would be d.shall be 101.Helen couldn’t got to France after all.That’s too bad, I’m sure she would have enjoyed it if ___.a.she’s gone b.she’ll go c.she’d gone d.she’d go 102.I must go there earlier.John has suggested that I ___ an hour before the discussion begins.a.go b.shall go c.will go d.would go 103.If her husband had not liked the dress ___.a.she would be delighted b.he would get mad c.she would have returned it d.she must have taken it back to the store 104.If I ___ you, I ___ worry.a.were/ wouldn’t b.was/ wouldn’t c.been/ would have d.be/ would 105.We ___ delighted if the report ___ true.a.were/ were b.shall be/ were c.should be/ were d.were/ would be 106.If he ___ here, he ___ you.a.had been/ would have helped b.would have been/ should have helped b.were/ had helped d.would have been/ would had helped 107.If I ___ so busy, I ___ the lecture that day.a.were not be/ should attend b.should not/ should have attend c.was not/ would attend d.had not been/ would have attended 108.If I ___ the way to New York, I ___.a.knew / would drive b.knew/ will drive c.knew/ would have drive d.had known/ would drive 109.But for the leadership of our Party, we ___.a.shouldn’t succeed b.could not have succeed c.will not succeed d.should not have succeeded 110.You ___ the train if you ___ a little earlier.a.could take/ started b.could have taken/ had started c.could take/ had started d.could have taken / started

Key to the subjunctive mood exercises: 1.a 2.d 3.c 4.d 5.c 6.d 7.b 8.c 9.c 10.c 11.b 12.d 13.b 14.b 15.d 16.c 17.b 18.b 19.d 20.b 21.b 22.d 23.a 24.b 25.a 26.b 27.b 28.b 29.d 30.c 31.b 32.c 33.d 34.c 35.d 36.a 37.b 38.c 39.b 40.c 41.a 42.c 43.c 44.a 45.b 46.c 47.a 48.d 49.d 50.b 51.b 52.d 53.c 54.d 55.c 56.c 57.c 58.b 59.b 60.b 61.b 62.b 63.d 64.d 65.d 66.d 67.d 68.c 69.c 70.a 71.d 72.c 73.d 74.c 75.c 76.a 77.a 78.c 79.a 80.b 81.d 82.d 83.c 84.b 85.c 86.c 87.c 88.d 89.c 90.c 91.a 92.d 93.d 94.d 95.c 96.c 97.b 98.d 99.c 100.a 101.c 102.a 103.c 104.a 105.c 106.a 107.d 108.a 109.d 110.b

第二篇：高考英語語法講解——虛擬語氣教案

虛擬語氣

一、非真實(shí)條件句中的虛擬語氣

1.和現(xiàn)在的事實(shí)相反

從句：一般過去時(shí)（were/done）；主句：過去將來時(shí)（would do）

E.g.：I am not free today.If I ___free today, I __ and visit some of my friends.2.和過去的事實(shí)相反

從句：過去完成時(shí)（had done）；主句：過去完成時(shí)（would have done）E.g.：If my lawyer ___ here last Saturday, he __ me from going.3.和將來的事實(shí)相反

從句：①were to + 動(dòng)詞原形 ②should +動(dòng)詞原形 ③動(dòng)詞過去式； 主句should/would/could/might +動(dòng)詞原形

E.g.：If I were to see Tom, what ___ you ___ me to tell him?

二、賓語從句中的虛擬語氣

1.wish后面賓語從句中的虛擬語氣，表示與事實(shí)相反的愿望。其表達(dá)形式一般是將從句的謂語動(dòng)詞退后一個(gè)時(shí)態(tài)。例如:

1)與現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反 : wish +(that)+ did(were)

E.g.：I wish I were as healthy as you.E.g.：I wish that I had a plane.2)與過去事實(shí)相反 : wish +(that)+ had done E.g.：I wish I had been to the concert last night.E.g.：I wish you had written to him.3)與將來事實(shí)相反 : wish + would/could/might + do E.g.：I wish he would forgive me.2.在某些動(dòng)詞后的賓語從句中需用should+動(dòng)詞原形的虛擬語氣形式?！皊hould”可以省略。一個(gè)堅(jiān)持insist;兩個(gè)命令order, command;三條建議suggest , advise, propose;四項(xiàng)要求demand, request, require, ask;另外有:prefer、recommend 注意: suggest表“暗示表明”時(shí) insist表“堅(jiān)持認(rèn)為”時(shí)不用虛擬語氣

E.g.：He ordered that the students(should)wash the clothes every week by themselves.E.g.：The doctor suggested that she(should)have an operation at once.*His face suggested that he had been punished by the teacher.三、主語從句中的虛擬語氣

1.It be+過去分詞+that…+(should)+動(dòng)詞原形+… 過去分詞：suggested, requested, ordered, proposed E.g.: It is required that nobody(should)smoke here.E.g.: It’s suggested that everybody(should)buy a dictionary 2.It be+形容詞+that…+(should)+動(dòng)詞原形+…

形容詞:important, necessary, natural, right, wrong, better,proper, funny, strange, surprising… E.g.: It is necessary that we(should)have a walk now.E.g.: It's important that we(should)take good care of the patient.3.It be+名詞（a pity/a shame/ no wonder）that…+(should)+動(dòng)詞原形+…(表示驚異、懊悔、失望等情感)It is a regret that he(should)miss this golden chance.四、表語從句、同位語從句中的虛擬語氣

在 suggestion, proposal, idea, plan, order, advice ,decision等名詞后面的表語從句、同位語從句中要用虛擬語氣，即（should）+動(dòng)詞原形。

E.g.: My suggestion is that we(should)leave at once.E.g.: I make a proposal that we(should)hold a meeting next week.五、狀語從句中的虛擬語氣

1、用在由as if, as though引導(dǎo)的狀語從句中，表示和現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反或?qū)ΜF(xiàn)在的懷疑，用過去時(shí)；表示過去想象中的動(dòng)作或情況，用過去完成時(shí);表示將來用would + 動(dòng)詞原形。E.g.: It seems as if the man were his brother.E.g.: This device operated as though it had been repaired.2.用在lest, for fear that和in case引導(dǎo)的狀語從句中，這時(shí)謂語動(dòng)詞用(should)+動(dòng)詞原形 E.g.: She closed the windows lest she catch cold.六、其他句式

1、It’s(high/low)time 從句：

It is(high)time that從句謂語動(dòng)詞要用過去式或用should加動(dòng)詞原形，但should不可省略。E.g.: It is time that the children went to bed.E.g.: It is high time that the children should go to bed.2、一些介詞短語

But for your help, we couldn’t have succeeded.Nothing could live without the sun.3、比較if only與only if only if 表示“只有”；

I wake up only if the alarm clock rings.if only 則表示“如果……就好了”。其從句中的謂語動(dòng)詞用過去時(shí)或過去完成時(shí)。If only I knew more.If only the alarm clock had rung.七、虛擬語氣難點(diǎn)

1、錯(cuò)綜虛擬與隱含虛擬

錯(cuò)綜虛擬：If you hadn’t bought the ticket last week, how would you go now? 隱含虛擬：情境中提供虛擬語氣

Suppose there were no gravity, objects would not fall to the ground when dropped.She wasn’t feeling very well.Otherwise she wouldn’t have left the meeting so early.He telephoned to inform me of your birthday, or I would have known nothing about it.（連詞）I might have given you more help, but I was too busy.（連詞）Given more time, we could have done it better.（分詞短語）… … Such mistakes could have been avoided.（通過上下文）

2、倒裝

①.Were it(=If it were)not for their help, we couldn’t have got over the difficulties.②.Had I(=If I had)known about it, I would have told you.③.Should anyone(=If anyone should)call, please take a message.DDDDB DDDB

第三篇：淺談高中英語語法虛擬語氣教學(xué)（共）

淺談高中英語語法虛擬語氣教學(xué)

江蘇省高郵市第一中學(xué)英語組 居樹君 【摘 要】 隨著新課改的不斷深入，高二英語語法中的虛擬語氣成為單選題中占分比較多的題型，這就面臨著如何學(xué)好虛擬語氣的問題。本文闡述虛擬語氣在英語教學(xué)中的重要性，簡(jiǎn)析了高中虛擬語氣教與學(xué)中存在的問題，探討針對(duì)高中生如何掌握好虛擬語氣的方法，在指出傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)誤區(qū)的同時(shí)，結(jié)合自己的實(shí)踐，在吸收先進(jìn)的教學(xué)方法的同時(shí)，提出幾種可行的教學(xué)方法，提高學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)虛擬語氣的能力，為學(xué)生學(xué)好英語打下堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)?！娟P(guān)鍵詞】英語 虛擬語氣 教學(xué)

眾所周知，虛擬語氣既是高中英語教學(xué)的重點(diǎn)，又是一大難點(diǎn)，很多學(xué)生經(jīng)常對(duì)它的用法感到困惑。語法教學(xué)是高中生學(xué)好英語的前提和基礎(chǔ)，對(duì)學(xué)生來說，學(xué)好虛擬語氣是進(jìn)步提高英語語法學(xué)習(xí)的前提和保障，作為一個(gè)教學(xué)工作者，如何有效地進(jìn)行虛擬語氣教學(xué)，將直接影響到學(xué)生是否真正理解和掌握英語，能否在考試中取得好的成績(jī)以及切實(shí)有效地運(yùn)用英語。

一． 虛擬語氣的定義及應(yīng)用

虛擬語氣是指與事實(shí)相反，不可能或想象的情況或假設(shè)。

（一）.虛擬語氣在if引導(dǎo)的非真實(shí)條件句中的應(yīng)用 動(dòng)詞形式/時(shí)間 從句 主句

與現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反

動(dòng)詞過去式(be的過去式一般用were)would(could/should/might)+動(dòng)詞原形 與過去事實(shí)相反 be+動(dòng)詞過去分詞

would(could/should/might)+have+過去分詞 與將來事實(shí)可能相反

動(dòng)詞過去式;should/were to+動(dòng)詞原形 would(could/should/might)+動(dòng)詞原形

【注意】主句中的should只用于第一人稱，would/could/might可用于所有人稱 1.表示與現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反的虛擬語氣 如果我們有足夠的錢，我們就去買一臺(tái)電腦。2.表示與過去事實(shí)相反的虛擬語氣

if i had known your telephone number yesterday, i should have telephoned you.如果我昨天知道了你的電話號(hào)碼，我就會(huì)給你打電話了。3.表示與將來事實(shí)相反的虛擬語氣

if it should rain, the crops would be saved.假如天下雨，莊稼可能就有收獲了。【注意】（1）條件句中有were, had, should時(shí)，可把if省略，而把were, had, should放在主語前，構(gòu)成到狀結(jié)構(gòu)。

（2）若非真實(shí)條件句為否定句，否定詞not不提前。

（3）“could have+過去分詞”可用于if條件句中表示不真實(shí)的情況。二．虛擬語氣在名詞性從句中的應(yīng)用 1.虛擬語氣在主語從句中的應(yīng)用

在“it is necessary(important,natural,strange,etc.that?和“it is desired(suggested,decided,ordered,requested,proposed,etc.)that?”句型中，從句謂語用“（should+）動(dòng)詞原形

it is necessary that i should return it right now.我有必要馬上把它還回去。

it is required that the students(should)learn a foreign language.學(xué)生們被要求必須學(xué)一門外語。2.虛擬語氣在賓語從句中的運(yùn)用

（1）wish后的賓語從句用虛擬語氣。若表示與現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反的愿望，從句謂語用一般過去時(shí)；若表示與過去相反的愿望，從句謂語用過去完成時(shí)；若表示將來沒有把握或不太可能實(shí)現(xiàn)的愿望，用“would/could/might+動(dòng)詞原形”。i wish i had a little lab of my own.但愿我有一間屬于自己的實(shí)驗(yàn)室。要是你昨天來聽報(bào)告就好了。would rather 后的句子用虛擬語氣。通常一般過去時(shí)表示與現(xiàn)在或?qū)硎聦?shí)相反，用過去完成時(shí)表示與過去事實(shí)相反。

i would rather he came tomorrow than today.we suggest that students should spend two or three years in an english-speaking country.我建議學(xué)生們?cè)谝粋€(gè)說英語的國(guó)家呆上兩三年?！咀⒁狻慨?dāng)insist作“堅(jiān)持認(rèn)為”，用以陳述一種情況，suggest作“暗示，表明”解時(shí)，賓語從句通常不用虛擬語氣。

mike insisted that he had never stolen anything.邁克堅(jiān)持說他沒有偷任何東西。

3.虛擬語氣在表語從句、同位語從句中的運(yùn)用。

當(dāng) advice, order, demand, proposal, suggestion, request等名詞后跟表語從句或同位語從句時(shí)，其謂語一般用“（should+）動(dòng)詞原形”。

his suggestion is that you should drink more water.三．在練習(xí)題型中學(xué)生常犯的錯(cuò)誤 如：（2009.天津高考）this picture is of good quality.if it _b___break down within the first year, we would repair i at our expense.a.would b.should c.could d.might大多數(shù)學(xué)生容易選成a答案，這說明他們對(duì)虛擬語氣的本質(zhì)還沒有把握清楚。

（2006.湖北高考）__b__fired, your health care and other benefits will not be immediately cut off.a.would you be b.should you be c.could you be d.might you be 這題很多學(xué)生容易把答案選成a 原因是他們不知道是對(duì)將來的虛擬，把if 省略了，should 給提到了句首，用了部分倒裝句。這也是虛擬語氣中的常考題型，往往被學(xué)生所忽視。四．解讀虛擬語氣

虛擬語氣”中的“命令性虛擬語氣”和“成語性虛擬語氣”,再加上“were 型”虛擬語氣。[1] §3116如下圖所示:subjunctive present mandative formulaic were從屬分句中的任何動(dòng)詞就都能用虛擬語氣。[1] §3116如:(1)our decision is that the school remain closed.(2)it is necessary that every member inform himself of these rules.(3)there was a suggestion that brown be dropped from the team.(4)we ask that the individual citizen watch closely any developments in this matter.jespersen[5](p161)稱: 在這種由that 引導(dǎo)的主語、賓語、表

語、同位語四種名詞分句中, “祈使句被作為直接引語完整的保存下來, ?講話人覺得這里的be 型虛擬式是未經(jīng)轉(zhuǎn)變的指未來的祈使語氣”。quirk 等[2] §14133也指出: 所有主要句子類型皆可變?yōu)殚g接引語, 而在轉(zhuǎn)型后的間接祈使句中, 并無時(shí)態(tài)之后移。如果我們將這些命令性虛擬語氣的深層語義和形式與祈使句作一對(duì)比, 便可發(fā)現(xiàn)二者有著十分密切的聯(lián)系。如:(5)“do it right away.”i insistently said(to john).(6)i insisted that john do it right away.(7)“have another apple ,”caral suggested(to me).(8)caral suggested that i have another apple.例(5)、(7)屬于隱主語型祈使句, 其主語是交際雙方中的受話者you , 謂語動(dòng)詞為意指未來的一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)第二人稱的形式。[6] quirk 等[2](p828)說過: “it is intuitively clear that the meaning of a directive implies that the omitted subject is the 2nd person pronoun you.”易仲良教授[4](p45)也撰文指出: 祈使句式 的主語無論隱沒不現(xiàn), 還是使用外現(xiàn), 使用時(shí)不管是you 或是貌似第三人稱的不定代詞或名詞詞組, 都是受話者, 其謂語動(dòng)詞形式是限定動(dòng)詞現(xiàn)在時(shí)的第二人稱形式。例(6)、(8)quirk等稱之為命令性虛擬語氣。而我們的看法

卻不然。兩例的that 分句中, 原例(5)、(7)祈使句被作為直接引語完整的保存了下來, 其主語表面上是第三人稱john 和第一人稱i, 而實(shí)際上仍然是交際雙方中的受話者, 原祈使句之潛在主語you , 謂語動(dòng)詞保留了原祈使句謂語動(dòng)詞的形式, 即與第二人稱you 相呼應(yīng)的英語動(dòng)詞現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)形式,[4]而不是quirk等所說的動(dòng)詞原形, 也不是did、had在轉(zhuǎn)型后的間接祈使句中, 限定性動(dòng)詞并無時(shí)態(tài)之后移, 沒有通常應(yīng)有的一致性, 沒有現(xiàn)在時(shí)和過去時(shí)之分。這樣, 受話人可以從中感受來自現(xiàn)實(shí)發(fā)話人與原始發(fā)話人的雙重聲音, 從而較多的保留了話語原聲狀態(tài)下的祈使色彩。分析表明, quirk 等的be 型虛擬語氣中的一類, 即“命令性虛擬語氣”并沒有它自身的標(biāo)記性, 其謂語動(dòng)詞不是什么動(dòng)詞原形形式, 而是與祈使句謂語動(dòng)詞始終使用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)第二人稱的形式是一致的, 語義亦無二致, 都是要受話人作出某種行為的反應(yīng)。易仲良教授[4](p48)將命令性虛擬語氣稱做間接祈使句。21成語性虛擬語氣和心理祈使成語性虛擬語氣(formulaic subjunctive)或曰祈求性虛擬語氣是quirk等確認(rèn)的現(xiàn)在虛擬語氣的第二大類。他們認(rèn)為這類虛擬語氣也由原形(v)構(gòu)成。但是, 這種成語性虛擬語氣僅僅用在某些需要作為整體來學(xué)的成語性結(jié)構(gòu)中[1] §3116用于某些感嘆句表示愿望或希冀, 常常與超越自然力有關(guān)。如:(10)so be it then!(11)heaven forbid that ?(12)suffice it to say that ?(13)be that as it may, ? 試與祈使句作比較, 如:(14)god save the queen!(15)smith stand by me!quirk等把例(14)命之曰成語性虛擬語氣, 它與祈使句例(15)的動(dòng)詞形式完全一致, 所引兩例在深層語義上都是祈使某一對(duì)象做某事。祈使句例(15), 如前所述, 所祈使的對(duì)象“smith”表面上看是第三人稱, 但實(shí)際上為現(xiàn)實(shí)語言交際中的受話人you , 其謂語動(dòng)詞是一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)第二人稱的形式。[4](p45)關(guān)于祈使句中不定代詞或名詞短語作主語不是第三人稱而是第二人稱的觀點(diǎn)jespersen [5](p148)早有論述: “any imperative is virtually in the second person , even if seemingly addressed to a third person.”poutsma[7](p200)在論述祈使句謂語動(dòng)詞時(shí)也曾說道: “the imperative , from the nature of its meaning, is used only in the present tense.”而例(14)所祈使的對(duì)象“god”在quirk 等看來, 也是第三人稱, 但從話語的形成過程看, 句中“god”系發(fā)話人向彼岸世界之呼告, 我們不難讀出其心理語言為彼岸的受話人you , 其謂語動(dòng)詞不是quirk等所說的動(dòng)詞原形形式, 而是與心理語言的受話人you 相呼應(yīng)的現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)形式。句中賓語“the queen”乃此岸世界受話人的稱謂, 屬現(xiàn)實(shí)語言第二人稱, 寥寥幾言, 發(fā)話人的思緒往返天人之際, 經(jīng)歷著內(nèi)部語言向外部語言的轉(zhuǎn)換, 卻始終保持著面對(duì)面的交際, 表達(dá)一種發(fā)自內(nèi)心的、祈求上帝保佑現(xiàn)實(shí)受話人的強(qiáng)烈愿望。[8]這里所謂的成語性虛擬語氣實(shí)質(zhì)上是心理祈使句。[4](p51)我們的論述在大家面前便展現(xiàn)了一幅be 型虛擬語氣、祈使語氣、陳述語氣實(shí)為一體的圖景:語氣 主語 謂語

be 型虛擬語氣 you v 祈使語氣 you v 陳述語氣第二人稱 you v

quirk等的所謂be 型虛擬語氣的二大類與祈使句的形式完全一致, 語義亦無二致: “be 型虛擬語氣”的主語或明或隱都是受話人, 即第二人稱you;其謂語動(dòng)詞與祈使句總是相同的, 我們稱之為一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)第二人稱形式。[4](p51)quirk 等[2](p155)也指出: “these(mandative subjunctive and formulaic subjunctive)are realized , like the imperative , by the base form of the verb.”可是傳統(tǒng)語法學(xué)家卻將這三為一體的形式分別劃分為三種不同的語氣語法范疇: 陳述語氣、祈使語氣、虛擬語氣。這種“同一范疇內(nèi)的同形異意”有悖語言學(xué)關(guān)于語法范疇的基本觀點(diǎn)。

31were 型虛擬語氣和過去時(shí)態(tài)

quirk等的were 型虛擬語氣是一種假設(shè), 它用在條件分句、讓步分句和前面是祈愿動(dòng)詞如wish 的從屬分句中。這種虛擬語氣只限于用were 這一種形式, 它出現(xiàn)在動(dòng)詞be的第一人稱和第三人稱單數(shù)現(xiàn)在時(shí)中。[1] §3116這樣, quirk 等將傳統(tǒng)的含過去時(shí)態(tài)的所謂虛擬語氣, 不論是行為動(dòng)詞的-ed 形式, 還是be 動(dòng)詞的was , 還是情態(tài)助動(dòng)詞的過去式都?xì)w為或陳述語氣范疇, 或祈使語氣范疇, 或情態(tài)詞范疇, 并非虛擬語氣。同時(shí)quirk等[1] §11132還指明: “事實(shí)上, 對(duì)表達(dá)假設(shè)條件來說, 用陳述語氣和虛擬語氣都可以, 而在正式的書面英語中更多采用虛擬語氣的形式?！笨芍? 陳述句也可以表達(dá)假設(shè)意義。我們知道“時(shí)”(tense)是個(gè)語法范疇, 它是表示時(shí)間區(qū)別的動(dòng)詞形式。[9](p160)“過去時(shí)”, 顧名思義, 當(dāng)然表示過去時(shí)間?？墒窃谡Z言實(shí)際操作中, 人們卻被告知“時(shí)態(tài)”與“時(shí)間”本不一一對(duì)應(yīng), 過去時(shí)也可以表示現(xiàn)在時(shí)間或者將來時(shí)間, 即非過去時(shí)間。[10](p64)如:(16)i saw a film last night.(17)if he lived with us now we would be much happier.(18)i wondered if you could do that for me.lyons[11](p71836)沈家煊[14](p17-24)虛化的結(jié)果是進(jìn)一步提高了were 的使用頻率, 卻降低了was的使用。由于were 的高使用率, quirk等將過去虛擬語氣中的were 看作是普通的過去時(shí)形式,[1] §11132與be 動(dòng)詞以外的所有動(dòng)詞的過去時(shí)態(tài)采用不分人稱和數(shù)的單一式是一

致的, 換言之, 那分人稱和數(shù)的was 便被看作了特殊的過去時(shí)形式,[4](p51)只用于比較非正式的語體中, 往往被當(dāng)作陳述句。而且, 在were 型虛擬語氣中, were 之所以取代was 出現(xiàn)在動(dòng)詞be的第一人稱和第三人稱單數(shù)現(xiàn)在時(shí)中, 是因?yàn)椤癷f i were you , ?.”這樣類似的語句是顯然違反事實(shí)的假設(shè)。因此, 筆者認(rèn)為: quirk 等之所以對(duì)were 情有獨(dú)鐘是因?yàn)檎Z法化了的were 所包蘊(yùn)的內(nèi)涵遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)大于was。動(dòng)詞were 除了表達(dá)時(shí)間方面的距離, 還表達(dá)與真實(shí)性方面的距離和語法對(duì)稱方面的距離。[15] 五.結(jié)束語 綜上所述, quirk等的所謂be 型虛擬語氣的二類與祈使句的主謂形式是完全一致的;所謂的were 型虛擬語氣實(shí)質(zhì)為陳述句過去時(shí)態(tài)表與真實(shí)性方面的距離性, 我們贊成易仲良教授關(guān)于否定虛擬語氣的觀點(diǎn)。如果我們承認(rèn)虛擬語氣就等于承認(rèn)相同語法形式可以表示處于相互對(duì)立關(guān)系的同類語法意義, 也就等于承認(rèn)同一范疇內(nèi)表示某一語法意義的形式可以脫離自身的意義而成為另一對(duì)立語法意義的標(biāo)志, 這顯然有悖語言學(xué)關(guān)于語法范疇地基本原則。求簡(jiǎn)、求易是理性人類不懈追求的目標(biāo)。既然“虛擬語氣”與祈使句或陳述句的相似形式可能給人們帶來識(shí)別或理解上的麻煩, 人們就有理由冷落它。因此, 我們否定“虛擬語氣”從理論上是毋庸置疑的, 從語言現(xiàn)象的解釋方面是入情入理的, 從實(shí)際運(yùn)用上更有利于我們的英語教學(xué)。

第四篇：虛擬語氣教案

虛擬語氣Ⅱ教學(xué)案

于亞東

虛擬語氣除主要用于條件句（也就是狀語從句）外，還可用于主語從句、賓語從句、表語從句、定語從句等。

1.虛擬語氣在主語從句中的應(yīng)用

“常用在It is(was)+形容詞 / 過去分詞+that引導(dǎo)的主語從句”的句型中的主語從句要用虛擬語氣。主語從句的謂語用should+動(dòng)詞原形(或should+have+過去分詞)或只用動(dòng)詞原形(尤其是美國(guó)英語)。should在此是助動(dòng)詞，本身并無實(shí)義，這種主語從句中的should有時(shí)有感情色彩。

It's important that we（should）work out a plan.（帶有“要求”的含義）

It's better that he go at once.（帶有“建議”的意思）

☆ 用于本句型的形容詞并不多，常見形容詞有：necessary，important，best, right, impossible，preferable，desirable, imperative, advisable，essential，reserved，urgent，等。

It is necessary that he（should）be sent there at once．

It's strange that he should say so.I was glad that he should go.It is important that we should speak politely.It is a pity that she should fare so badly.It's right that you should think that way.☆ 用于本句型中的過去分詞就是表示提議、要求、命令等動(dòng)詞的過去分詞，如suggested，settled, required，requested，demanded，urged，decided, proposed，ordered，desired，advised等。

It is requested that Professor Liu（should）give us a lecture．

It is desired that we（should）get everything ready by tonight．

I’m ashamed you should have done such a thing.It has been suggested that the meeting（should）be put off．有人建議推遲會(huì)議。

It is settled that you leave us, then?

注意：這種句型中的主語從句也可用陳述語氣，如：It was important that he made an explicit statement on this score last week.他上個(gè)星期對(duì)于這一方面做了明確的說明，這是很重要的。

2.虛擬語氣在賓語從句中的應(yīng)用

1).賓語從句在表示提議、要求、命令、意志等動(dòng)詞后，其謂語用should+動(dòng)詞原形或只用動(dòng)詞原形的虛擬語氣，作為suggest，request，demand，urge，propose，prefer，advise，insist，require，order，command，maintain，ask，object, arrange, desire等動(dòng)詞的賓語。

如：

The doctor suggested that he not go there．醫(yī)生建議他不要去那里。

He suggested that we should leave early.他建議我們?cè)琰c(diǎn)動(dòng)身。

The judge ordered that the prisoner should be remanded.法官命令被告還押。

2).wish的賓語的從句，表示愿望，常省去連詞that。

☆ 從句的謂語動(dòng)詞可用過去式，表示現(xiàn)在的愿望（與現(xiàn)在事實(shí)相反），雖實(shí)現(xiàn)的可能性不大，但仍有實(shí)現(xiàn)的可能。

I wish it were true．我但愿這是真的。

☆ 從句的謂語動(dòng)詞還可用“could（would，might）+動(dòng)詞原形”用來表示將來的愿望

I wish you would stay a little longer.我希望你再待一會(huì)兒。

☆ 表示無能為力的過去愿望（與過去事實(shí)相反），可用“had +過去分詞”或“could（would，might）+have+過去分詞”

I wish you had called yesterday．我希望你昨天來過電話。

We wish you had come to our New Year’s party.我們真希望你來參加了我們的新年聯(lián)歡會(huì)。

3).would rather, would sooner等表示愿望，其賓語從句常用虛擬過去式。

☆ 表示與現(xiàn)在和將來含義事實(shí)相反的虛擬語氣要用動(dòng)詞的過去式

☆ 用過去完成式(had + 過去分詞)表示過去事實(shí)相反的含義

I would rather you came tomorrow.我寧愿你明天來。

I’d sooner she left the heavy end of the work to some one else.我寧愿她把重活留給別人。

4).有些動(dòng)詞，如think, expect, believe,其否定式的賓語從句亦可用should+動(dòng)詞原形。如：

I never thought he should refuse.我萬沒有想到他會(huì)拒絕。

She did not expect that you should come.她沒有預(yù)料你會(huì)來。

3.虛擬語氣在表語從句中的應(yīng)用

名詞suggestion，proposal，order，advice，demand等作主語，其后的表語從句中的謂語動(dòng)詞一般使用虛擬語氣，用should +動(dòng)詞原形或省略should。

My suggestion is that we(should)send a few soldiers to help them.我的建議是我們應(yīng)派幾個(gè)戰(zhàn)士去增援他們。

My advice is that you(should)treat her well.我的忠告是你應(yīng)該善待她。

He makes the demand that she(should)leave the place at once.他提出一個(gè)要求，要求她立刻離開這個(gè)地方。

My suggestion is that we should tell him.我的建議是我們應(yīng)該告訴他。

Our only request is that this should be settled as soon as possible.我們唯一的請(qǐng)求就是盡快解決這個(gè)問題。

注意：虛擬語氣也可以用于同位語從句。

如：

There was a suggestion that Brown should be dropped from the team.有一項(xiàng)建議是布朗應(yīng)該離隊(duì)。

4.虛擬語氣在定語從句中的應(yīng)用

常用在It is time(that)…句型中，定語從句常用虛擬過去式

It is time the children went to bed.孩子們?cè)缭撋洗菜X了。（表示催促）

It's high time that he began to think how to deal with money.他早該開始考慮如何與錢打交道。

It is time we left.我們?cè)撟吡恕?/p>

It is time we went to bed.我們?cè)撊ニX了。

5.虛擬式動(dòng)詞原形亦常用在獨(dú)立句中，表愿望

Long live the Communist Party of China！中國(guó)共產(chǎn)黨萬歲！

God bless you!上帝保佑你。

God damn it!該死的！

The devil take you!見鬼去吧！

So be it then.就那樣吧。

6.虛擬時(shí)態(tài)與謂語動(dòng)詞時(shí)態(tài)的關(guān)系：從句中的虛擬時(shí)態(tài)往往不受全句謂語時(shí)態(tài)的影響。

1)用于主語從句。試比較：

It is important that he should know about this.他必須知道此事。

It was important that he should know about this.他必須知道此事。

2)用于賓語從句。試比較：

I suggest that we should go tomorrow.我建議我們明天走。

I suggested that we should go the next day.我建議我們第二天走。

She said, “If I were a boy I would join the army.”她說，“我如是男孩，就參軍?！?/p>

She said that if she were a boy, she would join the army.她說她如是男孩就參軍。

但強(qiáng)調(diào)現(xiàn)在時(shí)刻的虛擬式在間接引語中需要遵守時(shí)態(tài)一致的原則。試比較：

“If I knew how it worked, I could tell you what to do,” he said.“假如我知道它是如何運(yùn)行的話，我就會(huì)告訴你該怎么辦，”他說道。

He said that if he had known how it worked he could have told me what to do.他說假如他知道它是如何運(yùn)行的話，他就會(huì)告訴我該怎么辦。

“If I knew the answer to all your questions I'd be a genius,” he said.“我如知道你所有問題的答案，我就是天才了?！彼f道。

He said that if he knew the answer to all my questions, he’d be a genius.他說他如知道我所有問題的答案，他就是天才了。

但如果全句謂語是虛擬語氣，其后從句的時(shí)態(tài)則多受其影響，現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)應(yīng)隨之而變?yōu)檫^去時(shí)態(tài)。

如：

I would think he was wrong.我看他是錯(cuò)了。(須用was,試比較：I think he is wrong)

It would seem that she was right.她似乎是對(duì)的。(須用was,試比較：It seems that she is right)

專項(xiàng)練習(xí)：

1．His doctor suggested that he ______ a short leave of absence．

A．will take

B．would take

C．take

D．took

2．The job would require that ______ at 7 o'clock every morning．

A．he will be at the factory

B．he be at the factory

C．he was at the factory

D．he has been at the factory

3．Your advice that she ______ till next week is reasonable．

A．will wait

B．is going to wait

C．waits

D．wait

4．The housemaster was strict．He requested that we ______ television on week nights．

A．not watch

B．must not to watch

C．not be watching

D．have not watched

5．It is necessary that a worker ______ his work on time．

A．a(chǎn)ccomplishes

B．can accomplish

C．a(chǎn)ccomplish

D．has accomplished

6．It is important that he ______ his decision before Friday．

A．will make

B．makes

C．make

D．must make

7．You look so tired.It's time you ______ ．

A．go to sleep

B．went to sleep

C．go to bed

D．went to bed

8．I'd rather you ______ anything about it for the time being．

A．do

B．didn't do

C．don't

D．didn't

9．But for water，it ______ impossible to live in the desert．

A．is

B．was

C．were

D．wouldn't be

10． ______ it______ for your help，I couldn't have made any progress．

A．Had；not been

B．Should；not been

C．Did；not been

D．Not；be

11．Long ______ the Party！

A．lives

B．live

C．will live

D．should live

12．Mary insisted that Tom ______ her the ring back．

A．gives

B．give

C．given

D．have given

13．My suggestion was that the meeting ______ off till next week．

A．to put

B．be put C．should put

D．be putting 14．Mother suggested that I ______ my homework first before watching TV．

A．did

B．do

C．shall do

D．have done 15．He insisted that nothing ______ till he arrived.A．must be started

B．ought to be started

C．could be started

D．should be started

16．Tom suggests that Ann ______ the house.A．can sell

B．sells

C．sell

D．sold

17．It's better that he ______ it from you.A．'ll hear

B．hears

C．should hear

D．heard

18．It was necessary that he ______ about what had happened.A．be told

B．was told

C．should tell

D．tell

19．It's astonishing that she ______ sad at news that it has nothing to do with her.A．felt

B．should feel

C．'ll feel

D．would feel

20．It was strange that we ______ short of water in the country where it was always raining.A．a(chǎn)re

B．be

C．should be

D．both B and C

21．It is strange that she ______ marry such an ugly man.A．would

B．should

C．shall

D．must 22．It's not right that the meeting ______ off till tomorrow.A．must be put

B．must put

C．will be put

D．be put

23．It was impossible that he ______ the train, for he had started out very early.A．could have missed

B．must have missed

C．should have missed

D．should miss

24．It's a pity that he ______ such a good chance.A．should miss B．should have missed C．has missed D．a(chǎn)ll the above 25．He tried to find some excuse for the debt, but I insisted that he ______ it off at once.A．must pay

B．ought to pay

C．paid

D．pay

26．Mr.Ford insisted that he ______ right, though the others didn't think so.A．should do

B．should have done

C．had done

D．did

27．His pale face suggested that he ______ the sad news.A．should be told

B．should have been told

C．was told

D．had been told

28．He suggested that we ______ here at once.A．should leave

B．must leave

C．left

D．ought to leave

29．My order is that everyone ______ their own work in time.A．must complete

B．completed

C．completes

D．complete

30．We've made the decision that we ______ at the school gate at 7 tomorrow morning.A．will gather

B．a(chǎn)re about to gather

C．would gather

D．should gather

31．----I'll be waiting for you at home.----______ I were busy and couldn't come?

A．What if

B．What when

C． How if

D．How when

32．After he was praised for what he had done, he said，“I ______ even better under harder conditions.”

A．would do

B．would have done

C．did

D．had done

33．It has been raining for a day, but even though it ______ , we ______ there by tomorrow.A．hadn't rained, couldn't get

B．hadn't rained, can't get

C．didn't rain, couldn't get

D．didn't rain, can't get

34．We could not have succeeded ______ your help.A．but for

B．without

C．if it had not been for

D．a(chǎn)ll the above

35．I dare say he is not your true friend, because a true friend ______ differently when you were in trouble.A．a(chǎn)cted

B．had acted

C．would act

D．would have acted

參考答案：

1．C 2．B 3．D

4．A 5．C

6．C 7．D 8．B

9．D 10．A

11．B 12．B

13．B 14．B

15． D insist作“要求別人做某事”解，其賓語從句用should型虛擬語氣。

16． C 這種should型虛擬語氣，有時(shí)可將should省略，因此，C項(xiàng)的sell不能有人稱變化。

17．C 本句話有“要求”的意思，故選C。

18． A C、D為主動(dòng)，在此不妥。

19． B 選B表示了說話人帶有一種十分驚訝的感情，選A項(xiàng)與she的人稱不相一致，是錯(cuò)的。參見本章語法說明。

20． D

21．B should帶有感情色彩。

22．D 本句帶有要求之意，故從句謂語用should型虛擬語氣。D項(xiàng)中的should被省略。

23．C 本句帶有驚訝之意，故從句須用should型虛擬語氣。但由于是過去的事情所產(chǎn)生的驚訝，所以用should+不定式完成式。

24．D 如選A，這表達(dá)了說話人對(duì)將來的事所發(fā)出的感嘆，選B則是對(duì)已經(jīng)過去的事情的感嘆。選C則是一個(gè)直陳語氣，即說話人對(duì)此并不一定感到十分惋惜，而是對(duì)此事的陳述。

25．D insist在作“堅(jiān)持要求別人做某事”時(shí)，需要用should型虛擬語氣，should也可以省略。

26．C insist在作“堅(jiān)持自己的觀點(diǎn)、看法等”解時(shí)，不需要用虛擬語氣，所以A、B兩項(xiàng)用在此處不當(dāng)。D項(xiàng)時(shí)態(tài)不準(zhǔn)確，故也應(yīng)排除。

27．D suggest作建議解時(shí)，后接了should型虛擬語氣，但在本句中作“表明”解，這時(shí)不用虛擬語氣，A、B兩項(xiàng)都應(yīng)排除，C項(xiàng)時(shí)態(tài)不當(dāng)。

28．A 在本句中suggest作“建議”解，故選A。

29．D “建議”、“命令”、“要求”等動(dòng)詞的名詞形式做主語時(shí)，其表語從句也須用should型虛擬語氣，本句中的should被省略。

30．D “建議”、“命令”、“要求”等動(dòng)詞的名詞形式做主語時(shí)，后接同位語從句時(shí)也須should型虛擬語氣。

31．A What if…？常用于省略疑問句，既可以用于虛擬語氣，也可用于直陳語氣。本句不省略的形式為What would you do if。

32．B 本句的under引出一個(gè)非真實(shí)的條件，當(dāng)然也可以是真實(shí)條件。根據(jù)上下文，應(yīng)理解為與過去事實(shí)相反，故其謂語動(dòng)詞用would have done。

33．B even though=even if意為“即使”。它同if一樣可以引出一個(gè)真實(shí)的讓步從句，也可以引出一個(gè)非真實(shí)的讓步從句。根據(jù)上文，even though是一個(gè)非真實(shí)的與過去事實(shí)相反的讓步從句。而主句we can't get there卻是一個(gè)真實(shí)的情況。

34．D

35．D 從全句的意思分析，a true friend-differently實(shí)際上是指一種假設(shè)，而when引導(dǎo)的從句又告訴我們，這是一個(gè)與過去事實(shí)相反的假設(shè)，故用would have acted。

第五篇：英語語法 教案

教

案

課程名稱

英語語法

Lecture 1 Sentence Structure

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)：

1.The classification of bound morpheme and the frequently applied bound morphemes;

2.The basic clause types and their transformation and expansion

教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.Basic Concepts of morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences;2.Ways of word-formation: affixation, derivation and composition;3.Ways of sentence analysis: one ways is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.The other way is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.4.Basic clause types include SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SvoO.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;a statement into a question, and a active clause into a passive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.Lecture 1 Sentence structure Owing to the fact that sentences in authentic language differ structurally in thousands of ways, what is described here as sentence structure, sentence elements, or sentence patterns is only concerned with the simple sentence, or rather with the clause.1.1 clause elements As has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrases;it is a group of phrases organized into a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.1)Subject and predicate A full-fledged clause can generally be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate.The subject is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tell of what the sentence is about.The predicate says something about the subject and bear the new information which the speaker or writer wants to transmit to the listener or reader.The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase, while the construction of the predicate, which is more complicated, generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementation.2)Two ways of sentence analysis To facilitate description of how English language works, sentences can be analyzed in two ways.One way is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.These elements together with the subject make the five clause elements.The other ways of sentence analysis is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.The operator is usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase, while the predication comprises the main verb with its complementation(object, complement or adverbial).1.2 basic clause types and their transformation and expansion In terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be classified into seven basic types.Innumerable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types.1)Basic clause types The seven basic clause types are SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SVoO.These seven combinations of clause elements are wholly or largely determined by the main verb in the clause.The main verb in an SVC pattern is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by a subject complement.The main verb in an SV pattern is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element except for a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVA.The main verb in an SVO pattern us a monotranstitive which must be followed by an object, and with some monotransitives the object must again be followed by an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVOA.The main verb in an SVOC pattern is a complex transitive verb which must be followed by an object+ object complement.The main verb in an SVoO pattern is a ditransitive verb which is to e followed by two objects: indirect and direct object.2)Transformation and expansion of basic clause types The basic clause types are all affirmative statements with verbs in the active voice.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;s statement into a question;and an active clause into a passive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.The basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded into larger grammatical units through adding modifiers at various levels, and these larger units can again be expanded through coordination and subordination into compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.Lectures 2&3 Subject-verb Concord

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)： 1.The appliance of grammatical, notional and proximity concords in some special conditions;

2.Problems of subject-verb concord.教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.The concepts of three principles guiding subject-verb concord: grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity concord.2.Problems of concord with a coordinate subject: concord with ―and‖ or ―both…and‖, concord with ―or‖/ ―either…or‖, ―nor‖/ ―neither…nor‖, ―not only…but also‖;

3.Problems of concord with expressions of quality as subject: concord with expression of definite quality as subject, concord with expression of indefinite quality as subject;

4.Other problems of subject-verb concord: problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject, subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause or subject, subject-verb concord in relative clauses, cleft-sentences, and existential sentences.Lecture 2 Subject-verb Concord(I)2.1 Guiding principles

1)Grammatical concord

2)Notional concord

3)Proximity 2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in-s Disease and game names ending in –s

They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Subject names ending in –ics

Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Geographical names ending in –s

Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.4)

Other nouns ending in –s Disease and game names ending in –s

They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Measles, mumps, rickets, shingles, diabetes, arthritis, phlebitis, AIDS, etc.Subject names ending in –ics

Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Acoustics, classics, electronics, informatics, linguistics, mechanics, optics, plastics, thermodynamics, etc.Geographical names ending in –s

Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.Other nouns ending in –s

Calipers, compasses, flares, forceps, glasses, jeans, pants, pincers, pliers, scales, scissors, shades, shorts, suspenders, spectacles, etc.2.3 problems of concord with collective nouns as subject 1)Collective nouns usually used as plural

People, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc.2)Collective nouns usually used as singular

Foliage, cutlery, poetry, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc.3)Collective nouns used either as plural or as singular

Couple, crew, government, majority, opposition ,etc 4)A committee, etc + plural noun

A committee / board / panel of

Lecture 3

Subject-verb Concord(II)Teaching Contents 3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject 3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject 3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord

3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject Coordination by “and” or “both …and”

It is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons/things, but it is singular when referring to one person or thing.e.g.Baseball and swimming are usually summer sports.Your friend and adviser has agreed to lend me his money.After “each… and each…” or “every… and every…”, the verb is also in the singular form: e.g.Each man and each woman is asked to help.Every flower and every bush is to be cut down.The indefinite pronouns anybody/anyone, everybody/everyone, nobody/no one, and somebody/someone combine with singular verb forms, even though co-referent pronouns and determiners may be plural forms.e.g.[Everybody]‘s doing what they think they‘re supposed to do.Nobody has their fridges repaired any more, they can‘t afford it.each/every… he/she/they

e.g.At the moment each of the girls was too busy thinking about her own personal safety to care much about the luggage.But ―each/every+ singular n.… they/their‖ is right as well.e.g.Each of the students should have his/their own books.Every member brings their own lunch.In such exams as TOEFL, the pronoun referring to

―nobody/everybody/everyone/someone/somebody/anybody/anyone/no one‖ can only be he/his instead of they/their.However, as English learners it must be known that ―everyone…they‖ is used more often than ―everyone…h(huán)e‖.e.g.Everyone warned you, didn‘t they?

Has anybody brought their camera? No one could have blamed themselves for that.Every one / each / each one /*every one of the students should have their/his own books.2)Coordination by “or” / “either…or”, “neither…nor”, “not only...but also” Here the problem is dealt with according to the principle of proximity.e.g.My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.Either my father or my brothers are coming.Informally we can have the following use: e.g.Neither he nor his wife have arrived.In formal cases, especially in exams, ―neither‖ is used with singular verb.e.g.Neither of them is bright.When used with plural nouns in informal cases, ―neither‖ can also be used with plural verb.e.g.Neither of the books are/is very interesting.---I can‘t swim.----Neither can I.---He didn‘t like the play.---Nor did we.Neither is usually in formal cases, but nor is often used in spoken English.3)Subject + as well as, as much as, rather than, more than, no less than;with, along with, together with, in addition to, except + Verb(determined by the form of the subject e.g.Some of the workers, as well as the manager, were working during the holidays.No one except two students was late for the dinner.3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject 1)Concord with expression of definite quantity as subject

a)When regarded as a single unit, the verb is singular;when regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form.e.g.Twenty years in prison was the penalty he had to pay.b)a fraction/percentage + of-phrase+(<--)verb e.g.Thirty-five percent of the doctors were women.c)“A + B /A×B” + Verb(singular/plural);“A－B/A÷B”+ Verb(singular)e.g.Forty minus fifteen leaves twenty-five.40-15=25

d)one in/out of + Plural noun + Verb(fml.Singular;infml.plural)e.g.One in ten students has/have failed the exam.2)Concord with expression of indefinite quantity as subject.a)all of/some of/ none of /half of/most of + noun phrase of indefinite quantity +(<--)verb e.g.Most of the money was recovered by Deputy Player.Usage is fairly evenly divided between singular and plural concord with none of: e.g.None of us has been aboard except Vinck.None of us really believe it‘s ever going to happen not to us, she said at last.[Fiction] However, none alone shows a distinct preference for singular concord: e.g.[None] describes him/herself as such in the party‘s official literature.(NEWS)Plural concord is the norm in conversation, while in the written registers there is an overall preference for singular concord.None of + N.+ V 1)當(dāng)none與不可數(shù)名詞連用或指代不可數(shù)名詞時(shí)，其謂語動(dòng)詞總是用單數(shù)。e.g.I wanted some more coffee, but there was none left.2)當(dāng)none與復(fù)數(shù)名詞連用或指代復(fù)數(shù)名詞時(shí)，傳統(tǒng)語法規(guī)定其謂語動(dòng)詞必須用單數(shù)。此用法得到英語教材和各類英語實(shí)體的肯定和強(qiáng)調(diào)。但是，實(shí)際應(yīng)用中人們往往使用―概念一致‖原則，用動(dòng)詞的復(fù)數(shù)形式。所以，Quirk說：―用復(fù)數(shù)動(dòng)詞較為常見，并且，在正式用法中也為人們普遍接受。‖ e.g.None of the books has/have been placed on the shelves.None but the brave deserves the fair.唯有勇者才配得上美女。

None are so deaf as those who will not hear.不愿聽從的人是最聾的人。

no one 單獨(dú)使用時(shí)只用于指人。

e.g.No one should pride themselves on this result.但是，no one之后接-of短語時(shí)，既可指人也可指物。e.g.No one of you could lift it.I reach three books on this subject, no one of which was helpful.None 既可指人也可指物。

e.g.How many elephants did you see? None.No one of them really understands the problems.No one 與no-one在英語里是并存的，目前尚未統(tǒng)一形式。No-one 為英國(guó)英語，而no one是美國(guó)英語

b)lots of/heaps of/loads of/scads of/plenty of + noun phrase +(<--)verb e.g.Lots of stuff is going to waste.c)a portion of/a series of/a pile of/a panel of + noun phrase + verb(singular)e.g.A substantial portion of reports is missing a collection of + pl.n.+ singular verb

There is a collection of pictures at the Town Hall.a great deal / a great many

a great(good)deal之后要加介詞of才能與名詞連用，而a great(good)many可以直接與名詞連用。另外，a great deal of跟不可數(shù)名詞連用，而a great many則與可數(shù)名詞連用。

e.g.The chest contained a great/good deal of money.A great deal還可作形容詞或副詞比較級(jí)的修飾語 e.g.That job was a great deal easier.a lot of 既可跟不可數(shù)名詞也可跟可數(shù)名詞，謂語動(dòng)詞決定于名詞的單復(fù)數(shù)。e.g.There is a lot of beer in those bottles there.lots of 與amounts of , quantities of 不同，后兩者是中心詞而非修飾語。

e.g.Large amounts of money were spent on the bridge.Quantities of food were on the table.a variety of + n.做主語時(shí)，其謂語動(dòng)詞決定于名詞的數(shù)，也就是說，此處起作用的是概念一致原則。

e.g.A great variety of books were recently published.a wide range of + pl.n.充當(dāng)主語時(shí)，其謂語動(dòng)詞應(yīng)用單數(shù)；a bouquet of flowers也是用單數(shù)。

e.g.A wide range of washing-machines and refrigerators is displayed in our showroom.A bouquet of flowers was presented to the vicar‘s wife.a set of + pl.n.做主語時(shí)，人們使用謂語動(dòng)詞的形式并不是很一致。

e.g.There is a set of rules that you must follow if you are going mountain-climbing.There are set of unscrupulous scoundrels.d)determiner + species nouns(kind/type/sort)of + noun phrase(singular countable noun/uncountable noun)+verb(singular)e.g.This kind of apples is highly priced.With countable nouns there tends to be agreement in number between the species noun and the following noun(e.g.that kind of thing v.all kinds of things).But we also find: Singular species noun + pl.noun e.g.I don‘t know what kind of dinosaurs they all are.I mean, do we want these kind of people in our team?

Pl.species noun + singular noun e.g.Thieves tended to target certain types of car he said.e)many a + noun phrase + verb(singular)

more than one + singular noun + singular verb

more pl.noun + than one + pl.verb e.g.Many a man has sacrificed his life.More than one member has protested against the proposal.More persons than one have been involved.f)In “an average of/a majority of + noun phrase(pl.)+ verb”, when noun is regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form;otherwise, it is singular.e.g.A majority of the town's younger men are moving to the city.A majority of three votes to one was recorded.3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord 1)Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject When the subject is a nominal clause introduced

by what, which, how, why, whether, the verb usually takes the singular form.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both…and, a plural verb is used.e.g.What I saw was a car.What I saw and think are no business of yours.In SVC construction with a what-clause as subject，when the subject complement is plural, or when the what-clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural.e.g.What they want are promises.2)Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subject Generally speaking, the verb is singular.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause is singular when the subject refers to one thing, and is plural when the

subject refers to separate things.e.g.To eat well is all he asks.3)Subject-verb concord in relative clauses one of + plural noun + relative clause(verb)the(only)one of + plural noun + relative clause(singular verb)4)Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentences Here the verb is determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause.I----am;me---third person singular number e.g.It is I who am to blame.It is me that is to blame.5)Subject-verb concord in existential sentences Generally the verb is determined by the notional subject.When the notional subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject.But in informal style, esp.in spoken language, the verb is often singular.e.g.There is a book on the desk.There is many people in the street.There is more grace and less carelessness.American and Dutch beer are much lighter than British.The short term and the long term loan are handled differently.按英語慣用法，一個(gè)單數(shù)名詞受前置限定時(shí)，如果此名詞表示兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上的事物，根據(jù)概念一致的原則，其謂語動(dòng)詞用復(fù)數(shù)；但是當(dāng)此類名詞受后置限制時(shí)，其謂語動(dòng)詞用單數(shù)。

e.g.Beer from America and Holland is much lighter than British beer.majority

許多英美出版的語法書和慣用法都指出，majority和minority不能與不可數(shù)名詞連用。T.Wood 的―Current English Usage‖(p161)說： ―Majority may be used only for number with countable nouns, not for amount or quantity with mass nouns: The majority of the eggs were bad is correct;The majority of the butter was bad is not.Similarly, we cannot speak of the majority of the land/time/one‘s wealth.We must use most, or the greater part‖.但是，Practical English Usage(1980)有一例： e.g.The majority of the damage is easy to repair.建議按照T.Wood的觀點(diǎn)來使用the majority of。

Majority雖然在語法上是個(gè)單數(shù)名詞，但在概念上卻具有復(fù)數(shù)的意義：most, almost all, many。因此一般與復(fù)數(shù)動(dòng)詞連用。e.g.The majority of children like sweets.The majority of doctors believe smoking is harmful to health.若后面沒有-of短語時(shí)，the majority 作主語時(shí)。如果泛指多數(shù)（與少數(shù)相對(duì)），謂語單復(fù)數(shù)均可。Eg，The majority is /are doing its/their best。//in favor of the plan。//against him。

1．如果指整體、統(tǒng)一體，majority 常被看作單數(shù)。

The majority is always able to impose its will on the minority。// is for him。2.如果指多數(shù)中的各個(gè)成員, majority 被看成復(fù)數(shù)。

The majority are of different minds on the matter 3．如果指多出的數(shù)目，majority 看成單數(shù)。

Her Majority was 5 vote //His majority was a big(small)one..the rest(+of noun)+verb 遵循概念一致原則，而非語法一致原則。e.g.The rest are to wait for us.The rest needs no telling.the + adjective 做主語：

1）當(dāng)表示一類人的整體時(shí)，e.g.the young, the old, the poor, the rich, the blind, the dead, 謂語動(dòng)詞用復(fù)數(shù)。

e.g.The wise look to the wiser for advice.2）當(dāng)表示具體的人，而不是某一類人的整體，謂語動(dòng)詞用單數(shù)形式。e.g.The deceased is my uncle.3）表示抽象的概念或某種籠統(tǒng)的東西時(shí)，謂語動(dòng)詞用單數(shù)形式。e.g.The best is yet to come.The unknown is always something to be feared.Worth + of + pl.noun , 其謂語動(dòng)詞形式

取決于上下文和所表達(dá)的真正意思。當(dāng)充當(dāng)of賓語 的名詞具有重要意義時(shí)，謂語動(dòng)詞用復(fù)數(shù)形式，當(dāng) 所表達(dá)的價(jià)值具有重要意義時(shí)，則謂語動(dòng)詞用單數(shù) 形式。

e.g.Nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes were stolen.（此處重要的是香煙被盜）大約價(jià)值1000英鎊的香煙被盜。

There is nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes on that shelf.（此處重要的是香煙的價(jià)值）在那個(gè)架子上的香煙價(jià)值大約為1000英鎊

Lesson 4

Noun and noun phrase

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)：

Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun.教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.Classification of nouns: simple, compound and derivative nouns, proper and common nouns, count and noncount nouns.2.Number forms of nouns: regular and irregular plural forms of nouns;

3.Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun: number forms of the collective noun, number forms of the material nouns, number forms of the abstract noun, number forms of the proper noun;

4.Partitives: the definition of partitives, general partitives, partitives related to the shape of things, partitives related to volume, partitives related to the state of action, Partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks.Lecture 4 Noun and Noun Phrase

Teaching Contents 4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases 4.2 Number forms of nouns 4.3 Partitives 4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases 1)Classification of nouns a)Simple, compound and derivative nouns: by word-formation b)Common and proper nouns: by lexical meaning C)Countable noun and uncountable noun This classification is based on the grammatical features of nouns instead of whether they are countable.Regarding grammatical features, uncountable nouns cannot have numeral before them(*two information), have no plural forms(*informations)and cannot be modified by ―how many‖ but by ―how much‖

2)Functions of noun phrases Nouns can function as all the elements in a sentence except the predicative verb.e.g.They elected him chairman of the board.He returned last night.A photo is taken each time this button is pushed

The general pattern of noun phrase is

(Determiner)+(premodifier)+noun+(postmodifier)The premodifier of noun phrase can be noun as well as adj.or participle.e.g.a table leg, water supply, the life sciences When noun is used as premodifier, it can be either singular, plural, or both.(1)Singular noun as premodifier e.g.table legs = legs of a table / tables

a shoe store = a store that sells shoes

a car race = a race between cars

a kitchen sink = a sink in a kitchen When the plural noun in the postmodifier is changed into premodifier, it usually becomes singular.e.g.a cloth for dishes = a dish cloth

decay of teeth = tooth decay

a station for buses = a bus station

a pocket for trousers = a trouser pocket

a tray for ashes = an ash tray(2)Singular or plural noun as premodifier

a.There is ambiguity here.foreign language(s)department= department of foreign languages

(foreign language department = department of a foreign language)soft drinks manufacturer = manufacturer that produces several kinds of soft drink soft drink manufacturer = manufacturer that produces one kind of soft drink b.different meanings

e.g.an art degree = a degree in fine art an Arts degree = a degree in the humanities(3)Only plural noun as premodifier e.g.a customs officer, a goods train, clothes hanger, sales technique, contents bill, savings bank

It is more popular to use plural nouns as premodifiers in British English than in American English.Now it tends to increase.(4)When the head of the noun phrase is collective noun or name of an organization, the plural noun as the premodifier can have two forms, but the same meaning.e.g.Scientists(‘)Institute for Public Information But the singular noun is seldom used.e.g.Yibin Teachers/ Teachers‘/ *Teacher‘s College 4.2 Number forms of nouns

Number is a grammatical distinction which determines whether a noun or determiner is singular or plural.1)Regular and irregular plural The regular is formed by adding –s or –es to the base, while the irregular is formed by changing the internal vowel or by changing the ending of the noun.Irregular plurals also include some words of foreign origin, borrowed from Greek, Latin or French.Their plural forms are known as ―foreign plurals‖, e.g.basis—bases, criterion—criteria.Some borrowed words have two plural forms: a foreign plural and an English one.e.g.medium—media – mediums For some, their singular and plural number share the same form，A)Animal names Singular form and regular plural coexist: Antelope, elk, fish, flounder, herring, reindeer, shrimp, woodcock（羚羊，麋，魚，比目魚，鯡魚，馴鹿，蝦，丘鷸（別名山鷸）e.g.He caught several fish/three little fishes.They went catching shrimp/shrimps.I shot two elk/elks.b)Singular form is usually used: bison, grouse, quail, salmon, swine（野牛 , 松雞，鵪鶉，鮭（大麻哈魚），豬）e.g.The farmer raises many quail/quails and chickens.c)Singular form is always used: cod, deer, mackerel, trout, sheep.（鱈，鹿，鮐魚，真鱒）e.g.This is a deer.Those are deer.B).Nationality nouns Some words ending in sound /z/ or /s/ use singular form: Chinese, Japanese, Lebanese, Portuguese, Sinhalese, Vietnamese, Swiss e.g.I am a Chinese.There are four Chinese in the training class.C)Quantitative nouns(hundred/thousand/million/billion)a)Cardinal numeral + hundred/thousand/million/billion +n.e.g.two hundred / *two hundred of years ago That‘s going to take hundreds of/*hundreds years.Cardinal numeral + million + n.Cardinal numeral + millions of + n.e.g.three millions of dollars

three million dollars When the noun is omitted, if it is not monetary unit, the singular form is more often used than the plural form;if it is, the regular plural form is used.e.g.The population rose to four million / millions.The firm had to pay three millions.b)several/many/a few + singular / plural(of)+ n.e.g.He has played the part several hundred times / several hundreds of times.some + regular plural + n.e.g.He has played the piano some hundreds of times / many, many times.(some hundred times = about a hundred times)c)dozen, score e.g.She bought three score(of)eggs.I have been there dozens of times.He has already asked me several dozens of/ many scores of times.2)Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper nouns a)Number forms of the collective noun Some are countable, while some are not.Countable nouns behave like individual nouns.An uncountable one has no plural form;if we want to count the number, we will use a kind of individual noun related semantically to the collective, e.g.poetry—poem.Some collective nouns can be used in either singular or plural sense.The following verb is determined by the singular or plural sense.b)Number forms of the material noun Generally they are [U] and have no plural form.However, some items can be used either uncountably or countably.Some material nouns can take plural endings to convey the large quantity or scope , e.g.sand/sands, snow/snows

Sometimes material nouns are [C] to express ―one type of‖ or ―various types of‖ this material.e.g.I n Britain tea is usually drunk with sugar in it.I‘d like to have a famous tea.We hardly bought wine at lunch time.We like wines and liquors.Some material nouns become [C] to express ―packet of ‖, ―cups of‖.e.g.How many beers were you wanting?

How many tins of beer were you wanting? When referring to the material itself, they are [U];otherwise, they are [C], e.g.stone, rubber

c)Number forms of the abstract noun Mostly they are [U] and cannot take such determiners as a/one or plural forms.A few are [C], e.g.victory—victories.Some are not [C], although they have plural endings, e.g.*several difficulties.The addition of a plural ending to some can change the meaning of the base, e.g.experience—experiences.Some can only use singular form with ―a‖, some only plural form, some both.e.g.He has a dislike/dread/hatred/horror/love of cats.He had a good knowledge of mathematics.Give my best regards to your parents.He refused with much regret / many regrets.I have a suspicion / suspicions that he‘s right.Some abstract nouns can have indefinite article to express ―a type of‖ or ―an example of‖.a)Some can have an indefinite article only if modifier exists.e.g.They are doing *a business / a brisk business.I attach an exaggerated importance/importance to regular exercise.b)If modifier is implied, ―a/an‖ can appear.e.g.She has had an education(= a good education).c)Some can have ―a/an‖ regardless of modifier.e.g.A knowledge/ A good knowledge of English is essential.d)Number forms of the proper noun They have no plural forms, except for such proper name as the United States, the Philippines, the Netherlands.When one takes a plural ending, it takes on some characteristics of a common noun, e.g.the Browns

4.3 Partitives

They are also called unit nouns and used to denote a part of a whole or the quantity of an undifferentiated mass.1)general partitives: piece, bit, item, article 2)partitives related to the shape of things: cake, bar, drop, ear, flight, grain, head, loaf, lump 3)partitives related to volume: bottle, bowl, pail, bucket, handful, spoonful.4)partitives related to the state of action: a fit of anger/coughing/laughter/fever 5)partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks: pair, herd, litter, swarm, bench, troupe, shoal.Lesson 5 Genitive noun

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)：

1.The differences between ?s genitive and of genitive;

2.The use of independent genitive and double genitive

教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.Formation of genitive nouns, meanings of genitive nouns as possessive genitive, subjective genitive, objective genitive, genitive of origin, time, distance, etc, descriptive genitive;

2.Use of genitive nouns: genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―possessive determiners‖;

3.Independent genitive and double genitive: independent genitive is used when the missing noun ahs occurred somewhere in the context, when the missing noun refers to somebody‘s house or residence, church, school, or other public buildings.The formation of double genitive and the difference between double genitive and of genitive.Lecture 5

Genitive Noun Teaching Contents 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns

5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive

Case is a grammatical category and denotes the changes in the form of a noun or a pronoun showing its relationship with other words in a sentence.As modern English is basically an analytic language, English nouns have not a complicated case system like that of Latin, German, or modern Russian.The different grammatical functions of English nouns in a sentence are mostly determined by the word order, not by case form.It is in this sense that the genitive case may be viewed as a relic of the old case system.The genitive was traditionally labelled as the possessive case.Two Case systems: the unmarked common case and the marked genitive case: boy, boy‘s

The genitive case: the inflected genitive(the –s genitive)(屈折所屬格）and the periphrastic genitive(the of-genitive)（迂回所屬格）e.g.the children‘s toys，the toys of children 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns 1)Rules of formation of the –s genitive a)adding ‘s to singular nouns and to those plural nouns that don‘t end in –s , e.g.my mother‘s arrival, women‘s clothes

b)adding an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in –s, e.g.the teachers‘ college, the workers‘ achievements

c)adding ‘s to the compound nouns or to the end of a postmodified noun phrase, e.g.my brother-in-law‘s friend, a cat and dog‘s life, [the teacher of music]‘s room

d)In coordinate nouns, the genitive ending is added to each of the coordinate elements when denoting respective possession, and only to the last coordinate element when denoting common possession, e.g.America‘s and England‘s problems(respective);

America and England‘s problems(in common)

Coordinated genitive

1.The head of the noun phrase is singular: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s child is really lovely.(The child is a joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)2.The head of the noun phrase is plural: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s children are really lovely.(The children are joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)

3.John‘s and Mary‘s children:

A.the children who are offspring of John and Mary B.John‘s child and Mary‘s child C.John‘s children and Mary‘s child D.John‘s child and Mary‘s children E.John‘s children and Mary‘s children Coordinated genitives are formal.Tom and his brother‘s children F

4.How to avoid ambiguity? a.I‘m interested in Henry and Herbert‘s book(s)/ the book(s)of Henry and Herbert.b.Henry‘s house and Mr.Jones‘s are not far from here.5.―Or‖ only connects coordinated genitive Is that a lady‘s or gentleman‘s wrist-watch? Is that a wrist-watch of a lady or gentleman? I wonder whether it is Tom‘s or Peter‘s house / the house of Tom or Peter.e)In the construction of ―noun phrase + appositive‖, the genitive ending is added to the end of the appositive, or both to the end of the noun phrase and to the appositive, e.g.Where is my classmate Nancy‘s car? Tom has gone to Basel‘s, the blacksmith‘s shop f)In personal names ending in sibilant /z/, the genitive ending can either be ‘s or an apostrophe only, but it can only be ‘s when personal names end in other sibilant sounds，e.g.Burns‘ / Burns‘s poem(sibilant /z/);

Ross‘s poem

2)Meanings of genitive nouns The genitive is chiefly used to denote possession, and therefore, is traditionally called ―possessive case‖.But genitive meanings are by no means restricted to possession, as shown in the following: a)Possessive genitive，e.g.my son‘s wife, Mrs.Johnson‘s passport

b)Subjective genitive, e.g.the student‘s application

c)Objective genitive e.g.the family‘s support d)Genitive of origin e.g.the girl‘s story

e)Descriptive(Classifying)genitive(not of-genitive)e.g.a women‘s college

(=college for women/*of women)f)Genitive of measure e.g.a four days‘ journey, two dollars‘ worth of apples

3)Uses of genitive nouns Genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―possessive determiners‖,(traditionally called possessive pronouns), e.g.the boy‘s father= his father Mary‘s letter = her letter

a)As central determiners, genitive nouns can‘t collocate with other central determiner, nor can they be preceded by a premodifier.e.g.Mary‘s letter, * a Mary‘s letter;

Mary‘s interesting letter, * interesting Mary‘s letter

This, however, does not apply to some other genitive nouns such as the descriptive genitive and the genitive that denotes time, distance, value or measure.These genitive nouns are not used as determiners but as premodifiers in the noun phrases, e.g.a/the children‘s book, a pleasant three day‘s journey

Classifying genitive differ in a number of respects from specifying constructions.1)They respond to the question ―What kind of …?‖ rather than ―whose …?‖, which displays their similarity to adjectives and other such noun premodifiers, rather than to determiners.In fact, they cannot be replaced by possessive determiners.2)They can be preceded by determiners and modifiers of the whole noun phrase, rather than of the genitive noun alone: a new children‘s book.This again is true also for adjective and noun premodifiers of nouns.3)They form an inseparable combination with the following noun and do not usually allow an intervening adjective: *children‘s new book.4)They are frequently paraphrased by a for-phrase rather than an of construction, as in books for children.Compare again constructions with noun premodifier like baby clothes.These characteristics reflect the close bond between a classifying genitive and the following head noun.b)The choice of genitive

The –s genitive is favoured by the animate nouns in particular persons and animals with personal gender characteristics.The of-genitive is chiefly used with nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns.The main factor governing the choice of the one or the other genitive form is the animate or rather the personal quality of the noun.But there is considerable overlap in the use of the two forms.The animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also possible in most cases.Inanimate nouns regularly take the of-genitive, but a great many occur with the –s genitive.The four classes of animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also possible a)Personal names---George Washington‘s statue, Susan‘s pupils b)Personal nouns---the boy‘s new shirt, my sister-in-law‘s hat

c)Collective nouns---the government‘s conviction, the majority‘s choice d)Higher animals

---the horse‘s neck, the tiger‘s strips

The –s genitive is also used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns a)Geographical names---continents: Europe‘s future---countries: China‘s development

---states: Minnesota‘s immigrants

---cities/towns: Hollywood‘s studios, London‘s water supply

---universities: Harvard‘s Linguistics Department b)Locative nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions:---the world‘s economic organization, the moon‘s interior, the school‘s history c)Temporal nouns---a week‘s holiday

d)Nouns of special interest to human activity---my life‘s aim, love‘s spirit, the novel‘s structure, the wine‘s character, television‘s future

The use of the –s genitive and of-genitive(1)We must use the –s genitive when…

a)the noun modified is followed by a post-modifier or an appositive.---The monitor‘s brother, an actor was here then.b)it is a classifying genitive.---Have you a copy of the teacher‘s book?

c)the –s genitive is used in some set expressions:---a wolf in sheep‘s clothing

People don‘t get their money‘s worth.*People don‘t get the worth of their money.We must use the of-genitive when…

a)the noun in the of-phrase is followed by some modifiers or appositives---Some sentences have been changed at the suggestion of the teachers present in the meeting.b)the definite article +-ed participle or adjective denoting a class of people in the of-phrase structure---the life of the poor c)the prepositional complementation in the of-phrase expresses the origin of the headword modified

---the joy of his return(The joy derives from his return)

d)the genitive is used to express the possessive relationship between part and whole---the middle of the night---the back of the classroom---the top of the page---the bottom of the ladder e)there are determiners before the two nouns---their knowledge of her feeling---this dog of the country

The difference between the –s genitive and the of-genitive(a)The –s genitive : regularity and continuity

the of-genitive : contingency of things---my last week‘s article(每周一次的連載文章）---my article of last week(偶爾刊登的文章）(b)The –s genitive: informal

the of-genitive: formal---the woman next door‘s husband---the foreign policy of China

(c)The –s genitive: literal sense(字面意義）

the of-genitive: extended meaning(引申意義）and symbolic meaning(象征意義）

---the tree‘s top（樹梢）

---the top of the tree(出類拔萃）---the table‘s top(桌面）

---the top of the table（上座，首席）

5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive 1)Independent genitive When the genitive occurs without a following head, i.e.with the head of the noun phrase omitted, and functions independently as an element, it is called independent genitive.a)The noun occurring in the context can be retrieved---My car is faster than John‘s(car).b)Names and nouns referring to persons which denote residence:

See you at Harry‘s tomorrow.---Shall we meet at his brother‘s(house).c)Proper nouns for certain well-known buildings:

St.Paul‘s(Cathedral), Queen‘s(College)St.James‘s(Palace)The noun: church, school, public buildings---He lives near St.Paul‘s(Cathedral)in London.d)Words for shops denoted by the type of shopkeeper: the baker‘s/butcher‘s/grocer‘s/greengrocer‘s commercial firms---I buy my meat at Johnson‘s(shop).2)Double genitive An independent genitive when functioning as prepositional complementation is called post-genitive.The prepositional phrase with a post-genitive as complementation is called double genitive.---a friend of my father‘s 1)The use of the double genitive a)Partitive meaning denoting ―one of…‖---This is a book of my mother‘s.(one of …)

b.indefinite, definite, personal---a friend of the doctor‘s(*the cover of a book‘s)Attention to some points a)Noun head with ―this, these, that, those‖: it has emotional colouring : praise, disapproval, pleasure, displeasure---That child of his sister‘s is very clever.---That son of Henry‘s is a rascal.a boy of a girl 一般的of短語用來修飾或限制前面的名詞的，但是，在此處：限定詞+名詞1+of + a/an + 名詞2，of短語與前面的名詞構(gòu)成同位關(guān)系，而且名詞2是概念的中心，of短語是對(duì)名詞2進(jìn)行修飾的，就像一個(gè)形容詞：

an angel of a wife = an angelic wife;the fool of a policeman = the foolish policeman a boy of a girl 一個(gè)男孩氣的女孩子 *一個(gè)女孩氣的男孩 a palace of a house 宮殿般的房子

a great elephant of a woman 一個(gè)龐大如象的女人

此結(jié)構(gòu)的特點(diǎn)是：名詞2前必須使用不定冠詞，而名詞1前可用任何限定詞(a, this, that, her, your)e.g.that dog of a landlord 狗地主

that great pig of a Louis XVIII 大肥豬路易十八

this / a / their palace of a house *these palaces of a house

b)Difference between double genitive and of phrase---He is a friend of my father‘s.(many, one of them)---He is a friend of my father.(in good terms)A: Who told you that? B: A friend of your father‘s.A: If he says such things, he is not a friend of my father.c)The noun head: picture, portrait, printing, photograph, bust, statue The double genitive---the picture that one keeps The of phrase---the picture of one‘s own---This is a portrait of Mr.Black‘s---This is a portrait of Mr.Black d)The noun head: criticism, opinion, judgment，---a criticism of William‘s = a criticism offered by William---a criticism of William = a criticism about William Correct the errors of the genitives if any: 1.Where‘s the dictionary of Cathy‘s?

2.I don‘t know whether this is a lady or a gentleman‘s wrist-watch.3.Her love of a child took the fancy of all of us.4.The poem of Shelly‘s he recited a hundred times was Ode to the West Wind.5.Andrew and Horatia‘s eyes met.1.that dictionary of Cathy‘s

2.a lady‘s or(a)gentleman‘s wristwatch 3.T 4.T 5.T

Lesson 6 Determiners(I)

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)：

1.collocations between determiners: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.2.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: some, any, every ,much, etc.教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.Collocations between determiners and nouns: determiners with all three classes of nouns, with singular count nouns, plural count nouns, noncount nouns, etc;

2.Collocations between three kind of determiners: the category of predeterminer ,central determiner and postdeterminer, word order of three subclasses of determiners: predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer;

3.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a few, a little, some, any, all, both, every, each, either, neither.Determiners, as a class of words, include: article(definite article, indefinite article, and zero article), possessive determiners, genitive nouns, demonstrative determiners, relative determiners, interrogative determiners, indefinite determiners, cardinal and ordinal numerals, fractional and multiplicative numerals, and other quantifiers 6.1.Collocations between determiners and nouns

The choice of determiners is closely related to what might be called the three classes of nouns: singular count nouns, plural cont nouns and noucount nouns.These tree classes of nouns demand appropriate determiners to collocate with.Determiners with all three classes of nouns

Determiners such as possessive determiners, genitive nouns and the definite article as well as some any, no, the other, and whom can go with all the three classes of nouns, eg: The car the cars the money His car his cars his money Some book some books some money No book no books no money Whose book whose books whose money Determiners with singular count nouns only Determiners such as a(n), one, another, each, every, either, neither, many a ,such a can only collocate with singular count nouns, eg: Each worker every student Either book neither book Another book such a book Determiners with plural count nouns only Determiners such as, two, three, etc, another, two/ three, many,(a)few, several, these, those, a(great)number of can only collocate with plural count nouns, eg: Both workers

(a)few words Several girls

these / those tourists A number of men

many students Determiners with noncount nouns only Determiners such as a(little)bit of ,a great amount of ,a great deal of ,(a)little, much, less ,least can only collocate with noncount nouns, eg: Much noise(a)little courage A bit of fun

a large amount of money Less oil

(the)least oil Determiners with singular and plural count nouns only Determiners such as the first, the second, the last, the next can go with wither singular or plurals count nouns, eg‖ The first rose/ roses The last man/ men The next meeting/ meetings Determiners with singular and noncount nouns only Determiners such as this that can collocate with either singular or noncount nouns, eg: This/ that job

this / that work determiners with plural and noncount nouns only Determiners such as a lot of , lots of , plenty of, enough, most, such, other can go with plural and noncount nouns, but not with singular nouns,eg: Enough copies

enough bread More essays

more time Most people

most work This class of determiners may also include less and least, which, as has been mentioned above, normally occur with noncount nouns, but in present day English, especially in formal style, may occasionally occur with plural nouns,eg: Less and less people can afford to go abroad for their holidays.Political programs on TV attract the least viewers.This use of less and least is regarded by some as non-standard.6.2)Collocations between determiners

As has been mentioned before, besides the collocations between determiners and nouns, there is the problem of word order between determiners if a noun 0phrase contains more than one determiner.Central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers According to their potential, determiners fall into three subclasses: central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers.Central determiners included: the article;demonstrative determiner;possessive determiners;genitive nouns;some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough;what(ever),which(ever),whose, etc.Note that central determiners are mutually exclusive and that no two members of the above-cited items ever occur together in a noun phrase.Predeterminers are those hat precede central determiners.Predeterminers are also mutually exclusive.They include: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, etc.one-third, two-fifths, etc;what, such(a/an).Postdeterminers refer to those that follow central or predeterminers.Postdeterminers are not mutually exclusive, that is to say, two or more such items can co=occur in a noun phrase.This subclass includes: cardinal numerals;ordinal numerals;next, another ,etc;many much,(a_ few,(a)little, fewer,(the)fewest, less(the)least, more, most;several, plenty of , a lot of lots of , a great/large/good number of, a great/good deal of , a large/ small amount of ,such.Word order of three subclasses of determiners

When a noun phrase contains all three subclasses of determiners, their normal order is ―predetermine + central determiner + post determiner(s)‖: All the four students All these last few days Both his two sisters If the noun phrase contains only two of the subclassed, they follow the same order, ie ―predeterminer + central determiner‖:

Half his income Both his parents All the tourists ―central determiner+postdeterminer‖: the author‘s last books some such alloy his last few words ―predeterminer+postdeterminer‖: all three books all other students half such people

―postdeterminer+postdeterminer‖ several hundred tourists three other girls many more copies 6.3)A comparative study of some determiner usage many, much, a lot of ,lots of, plenty of

Lesson 7 Determiners(II)--Articles

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)：

1.Articles in use with different classes of nouns;

2.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles

教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.Generic and specific reference: generic reference, specific reference, anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference.2.Articles in use with different classes of noun: articles in use with the proper noun, articles in use with the common noun and other use of articles;

3.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles: phrases with zero articles as at anchor, in force, out of hand etc, phrases with definite articles as for the time being, on the spot, in the long run, etc, and examples with indefinite articles as before person‘s names, or before the non-finite element, etc.Lecture 7 Determiners(ii)---articles In the previous lecture we touched upon the fact that articles are the most typical of determiners.Now we will concentrate on this topic.English has two articles: the definite and the indefinite article.As we know, all English common nouns have article contrast, so with plural count nouns and noncount nouns, the absence of an article signals the presence of another kind of article---the zero article.It is in this sense that we may also say that English has three articles---the definite, the indefinite, and the zero articles.7.1 generic and specific references In discussing the use of article, we must distinguish between generic and specific reference.generic reference When we say the reference is generic, we are talking about any membe4r representative of a class of people of things.All the three forms of article can be used generically to refer to members of a class as a whole.In certain contexts, the definite article followed by a singular count noun often performs a generic function.The same function can also be performed by the definite article combining with certain adjectives or adjectival participles.Generic reference can also be denoted by the indefinite article followed by a singular count noun.This is especially common in giving definitions.In so doing, we can also use plural and noncount nouns without the presence of any determiner.This may be referred to as the generic use of the zero article.specific reference Specific reference is different from generic reference in that it does not refer to a class of people or things in general but to a particular specimen of the class.Specific reference falls into two kinds: definite specific reference and indefinite specific reference.Definite specific reference implies that a person or an object can be identified uniquely in the context or according to the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer.The definite article is most frequently used in this sense.In the case of indefinite specific reference the person or thing referred to is also a specific object, but is not definitely identified.This kind of referential meaning is most commonly expressed by the indefinite article.In certain contexts and situations the zero article can perform the same function.anaphoric, anaphoric and situational reference Definite specific reference can be anaphoric, anaphoric, or situational.The word anaphoric means ―pointing backward‖.When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as ―anaphoric reference‖.The anaphoric use of the definite article is called ―anaphoric THE‖.Anaphoric reference is also a kind of definite specific reference.The word means ―pointing forward‖.When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the articles and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.Situational reference is a kind of definite specific reference that depends not on any referent that has occurred in the context but solely on the common knowledge shred by speaker and hearer on a specific situation in which the reference is made clear.Situational reference is most commonly denoted by the definite article, but in certain situations the same function can also be performed by zero.Lesson 8 & 9 Pronouns(I, II)

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)：

1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case;2.The usage of personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case.In number: pronoun concord with every-,some-, any-compounds as antecedent, with coordinate construction as antecedent, with collective nouns antecedent, and with ―plural noun/ pronoun +each‖ as antecedent.In gender, Pronoun concord with male/female noun as antecedent, with common gender noun as antecedent, and with neutral gender noun as antecedent, etc;

2.Choice of pronoun forms: choice between subjective and objective case, choice between adjective and genitive case;

3.Possessive pronoun, reflexive pronoun, and generic use of personal pronouns;

4.Pronoun reference: anaphoric, cataphoric, situational reference, personal reference, and demonstrative reference.Teaching Contents 8.1 Pronoun concord in number 8.2 Pronoun concord in gender 8.3 Pronoun concord in person

Pronouns are a varied closed-class words with nominal function.English has a developed pronoun system, comprising:

1.personal pronouns 2.possessive pronouns 3.reflexive pronouns 4.reciprocal pronouns 5.demonstrative pronouns 6.interrogative pronouns 7.relative pronouns 8.indefinite pronouns 8.1 Pronoun concord in number Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners have their singular and plural forms.The number contrast of pronouns differs from that of nouns in that pronoun number contrast is morphologically unrelated, as in I/we, he/they, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals: boy/boys.The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of its antecedent, that is, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.---They haven‘t yet made up their own mind.1)Pronoun concord with every-, some-, any-compounds as antecedent:

everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody，take the singular form(grammatical)---Everybody looked after himself.---Nobody wants to go there, does he? In informal style, the plural form, esp.everyone or everybody:---Everybody knows what they have to do.everything, something, anything, nothing: singular---Everything is ready, isn‘t?

2)Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent(notional concord)---I bought bread and butter at the shop, and they cost 50c.---She likes bread and butter, but this is too thick.3)Pronoun concord with collective noun as antecedent(notional concord)---The government is doing its best to boost production.---The government have discussed the matter for a long time but they have shown no sign of reaching an agreement.4)Pronoun concord with ―plural noun / pronoun + each‖ as antecedent

The choice of the number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner depends on the position of the appositive ―each‖: before the verb---plural form;

after the verb---singular form---We each are accountable for our own families.---We are each responsible for his own family.8.2 Pronoun concord in gender Gender is a grammatical category.It is a set of grammatical forms of nouns, determiners and adjectives that tell of the distinctions of sex.English nouns have four genders: masculine(man), feminine(woman), neutral(book)and common(student).But we do not mean any overt grammatical forms that show the distinctions of sex, but the differences of natural sex denoted by the lexical meaning of nouns.1)Pronoun concord with male / female noun as antecedent---When Paul met Mary, he asked her to go to town.2)Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent Some common gender nouns, such as doctor, teacher, engineer, lawyer, parent, student…… they can either be male or female.When they are used in the singular for generic

reference, these nouns are generally referred to as HE, a kind of practice that is opposed by feminists.---If a person breaks the law, he will be punished.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he went wrong.---Parents of teenage children often wonder where they went wrong.(plural form)---When a customer calls, ask him to leave his phone number.---When a customer calls, be sure to ask for a phone number.(No pronoun or determiner is used.)In formal writing as in legal documents, ―he or she‖, ―his or her‖ can also be used.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he or she went wrong.(2)Some common gender nouns such as baby, infant, and child are intermediate between personal and non-personal.When the speaker does not know , or is not interested in the sex of the baby or infant, he may use the neutral IT:---The baby was sleeping in its cot.But if the speaker is the baby‘s mother, she is unlikely to refer to her baby as IT:---Watch out!The baby is trying to put the toy watch into his mouth.3)Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent When the antecedent is a singular noun of neutral gender, a noun denoting an inanimate or non-personal object, the neutral pronoun or the corresponding determiner is generally used.(it / itself / its)---That book has lost its cover.I will put a new one on it.(2)Just as a baby may be designated it, so a number of nonhuman species may be designated he or she.(car, ship)---The car needs some petrol.Let‘s fill her / him up at the next garage.(3)When the antecedent is an animal noun, it is generally referred to as it in nonexpert contexts.If the anima is spoken of with emotion or is personified, it may be referred to as he or she.---The cat is a useful animal because it eats rats.---The cat leaped onto my bed and coiled herself there.This is also true of the names of celestial bodies or abstract ideas: sun, moon, earth, nature, history, war, death---The sun is shining in all his splendid beauty.---Nature, the greatest artist, makes her common flowers in the common view.(4)Names of countries may be treated either as feminine or neutral.When used as geographical units, they are treated as inanimate and therefore neutral:---China is in East Asia.It is one of the largest countries in the world.If used as political or economic units, the names of countries are often feminine, she or her is generally used:---China has a history of over 5000 years.She is proud of her culture.8.3 Pronoun concord in person By pronoun concord in person, we mean two things: Pronoun concord in person on sentential level In a sentence, the person of a pronoun is determined by the person of its antecedent.---My brother has sold his car.If the antecedent is a coordinate construction containing a first or second person pronoun, the referring pronoun should be first and second person in plural number.---My friend and I are reading the manuscript.We‘ll be through in half an hour.---You and the accountant are familiar with him.You can both see him.2)Pronoun concord in person on textual level In a text pronouns should be consistent in person from beginning to end.This is a matter of speaking or writing from what point of view, from the speaker‘s or writer‘s point of view or from that of a third party.A consistent point of view is a guarantee of clarity in writing.Teaching Contents 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms

9.2 Reflexive pronouns

9.3 Pronoun reference 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms

9.2 Reflexive pronouns

9.3 Pronoun reference Pronoun reference is a kind of reference realized through the use of pronouns.When a pronoun is used it must refer to somebody or something.What is referred to is called antecedent.It is the antecedent that indicates the referential meaning of the pronoun.anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference According to the relative position of the antecedent, pronoun reference can be anaphoric or cataphoric.When the antecedent occurs before the pronoun, which has to point backward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.If the antecedent appears after the pronoun, and the pronoun has to point forward for its meaning, that is cataphoric reference.---When she has finished her work, Mary left the office.If the antecedent does not occur anywhere in a linguistic context, and the pronoun only refers to somebody or something indicated by an extra linguistic situation in which the utterance is given, that is situational reference.---How hard he studies English.When a pronoun is used, it can only refer to one antecedent.If a pronoun has two or more possible antecedents, that will lead to ambiguity.---He introduced me to the pilot who had looked after him when he was in hospital.---He introduced me to the pilot whom he had looked after in the hospital…

2)Personal reference Personal reference is established by personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners.Personal reference is generally anaphoric.It may occur within the sentence boundary or across sentences.---When Mary has finished her work, she left the office.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.Personal reference can also be cataphoric, but under limited conditions.Generally speaking, cataphoric personal pronouns usually occur in subordinate constructions, and where cataphoric reference occurs, anaphoric reference canbe used instead, but not conversely.---When she had finished her work, Mary left the office.(cataphoric)---When Mary had finished her work, she left the office.(anaphoric)---Mary bought a new dress, but she didn‘t like it.---She bought a new dress, but Mary didn‘t like it.3)Demonstrative reference Demonstrative reference is established by demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative determiners.All the demonstratives can be freely used in anaphoric reference.---The man gad been drinking too much;this explain his unsteady walk.A: I like the polar bears.These are my favorites.B: Those are my favorites too.---Our daughter got a bad sun-burn yesterday.That‘s why we couldn‘t come.As for cataphoric demonstratives, they are restricted to this and these, which are commonly used to refer to a following clause or sentence or a group of sentences.---―The great difficulty is this,‖ said the psychologist, ―you can move about in all directions of space, but you can‘t move about in time.‖

―That‖ and ―these‖ are rarely used cataphorically.When occasionally so used, they often take on sarcastic meanings.---How do you like that? He stabs you in the back and then professes to be your friend.Lesson 10 Verb and verb phrase

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)：

1.The difference between finite and non-finite verb;

2.The classifications and usage of some phrasal verbs

教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.Classification of verbs.According to different standards, verbs and verb phrases may falls into six types grammatically, semantically: Main verbs and auxiliaries, transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs, dynamic verbs and stative verbs, single-word verbs and phrasal verbs, finite and non-finite verbs, regular and irregular verbs;

2.A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood: tense and aspect, active and passive voice, finite and non-finite phrases.3.The classifications and usage of some phrasal verbs: V.+ Prep, V.+ adverb particle, V.+ adverb particle + prep.The usage of phrasal verbs as pride oneself on, take pride in and be proud of, etc.Lecture 10 Verb and Verb Phrase Teaching Contents 10.1 Classification of verbs(I)10.2 Classification of verbs(II)10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood

10.1 Classification of verbs(I)1)Main verbs and auxiliaries

According to different roles played in the formation of verb phrases verbs are divided into two classes: main verbs and auxiliaries.As we know, a verb phrase may consist of a main verb only;this is called a simple verb phrase.A verb phrase may also take the form of a verb preceded by one or more auxiliaries;this is called a complex verb phrase.Main verbs are also called notional verbs functioning as the head and indicating the basic meaning of a verb phrase.Auxiliaries fall into three categories: primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries.a)Primary auxiliaries: be, do, have.Without lexical meanings of their own, these auxiliaries have only grammatical functions or grammatical meanings.Be is usually used to help the main verb to form the progressive aspect or the expressive voice.Auxiliary do is used to help the main verb to express negative meanings or to form question, and sometimes to help express the emphatic affirmative.The function of auxiliary have is to help the main verb to form the perfective or the perfective progressive aspect.b)Modal auxiliaries: can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should, must, ought to, dare, need, used to.They express modal meanings.In a finite verb phrase, we can use only one modal auxiliary which is invariably followed by the bare infinitive or the base form.c)Semi-auxiliaries: have to, seem to.They can help the main verb to form the complex verb phrase and express the modal meaning on the one hand, and can, when preceded by other auxiliaries, function as main verbs on the other.2)Transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs Verbs are divided in accordance with whether or not they must be followed by obligatory elements functioning as complementation and what kind of elements that must follow.a)Transitive verbs must be followed by an object.Some are followed by two objects, i.e.indirect object and direct object;.some by an object and an object complement;some by an object and an obligatory adverbial b)Intransitive verbs do not require an object.c)Linking verbs are followed by a subject complement.3)Dynamic and stative verbs a)Dynamic verbs refer to actions.They can be subclassified into three categories:

durative verbs, transitional verbs and momentary verbs.b)Stative verbs refer to present or past states, i.e.to a relatively stable state of affairs.They are normally incompatible with the progressive except in certain cases where there is a transfer of meaning.They can be classified into four categories.The first includes main verbs ―be‖ and ―have‖.The second includes verbs that include, as part of their meaning, the notion of being and having, such as apply to, belong to, differ from, cost, weigh, measure.The third includes verbs that refer to a sense perception, such as hear, see, feel, taste, smell.The fourth subclass includes verbs that refer to a feeling, a state of mind or an opinion, such as assume, believe, consider, detest, wish.Stative verbs are not used in progressive aspect, otherwise, they will be changed into dynamic verbs, such as be, have.e.g.He is being foolish(=is acting foolishly).We‘re having a wonderful time(= are enjoying ourselves).The verbs resemble and cost are stative verbs when they are used to mean respectively ―be like‖ and ―be worth‖, but when used in other meanings, these two verbs just like dynamic verbs can occur in the progressive.e.g.He resembles his father.He is resembling his father(= is becoming more and more like his father)as the years go by.Perception verbs when used in a non-volitional sense are stative verb, but when used in a volitional sense are dynamic verbs.e.g.I can taste pepper in it.I‘m tasting this soup.Attitudinal verbs such as think, imagine, understand are stative verbs, but they can occasionally be used dynamically to express different meanings, e.g.Be quiet.I‘m thinking(= giving thought to a problem).There are also cases of a special polite use of the progressive with verbs like want, hope, wonder.e.g.Were you wanting to see me? 10.2 Classification of verbs(II)According to word formation and grammatical form, English verb may be divided into single-verbs and phrasal verbs, finite verbs and non-finite verb, regular verbs and irregular verbs.4)Single-word verbs and phrasal verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb that is composed of two or more words.They can be classified into three categories: a)Verb + preposition e.g.The police are looking into the case.b)Verb + adverb particle e.g.The meeting has been called off.c)Verb + adverb particle + preposition e.g.I don‘t want to come down with the flu again.Phrasal verbs are verbal idioms which are equivalent to single-word verbs, transitive or intransitive, and which are different from simple verbal combination where the meanings are easily guessed from the parts.Some constructions such as verb + noun + preposition and verb + noun are also grouped under the category of phrasal verbs e.g.She soon realized that she was being made fun of.5)Finite and non-finite verbs Finite main verbs have tow finite forms and three non-finite forms.The two are the present tense and the past tense;the three are the infinitive, the –ing participle and the –ed participle.Finite verbs are marked for tense, and non-finite verbs have no tense distinctions.Most auxiliaries have the present and past tense forms but not all the three non-finite forms except for the primary auxiliary be.The modals do not have the non-finite forms or the base.6)Regular and irregular verbs Verbs whose past tense and –ed participle forms are derived by adding –ed are regular verbs, and otherwise they are irregular verbs.10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood 1)Tense and aspect

Tense is a grammatical form associated with verbs that tells of the distinctions of time;that is, tense and time are related and different.Time is a universal concept with three divisions: past, present and future times.The notion of time is common to all mankind, when expressed linguistically, it is tense.Chinese is not an inflectional language and has its own ways to express tense.Aspect is also a kind of verb form which represents the action or the process expressed by the verb as something going on or completed at a given time.English has two aspects: the progressive and the perfective aspects.The uses of tense and aspect Tense:

present

past Aspect: progressive

perfective 1.A tense can be used independently:

1)simple present, 2)simple past 2.A tense can be combined with an aspect:

3)present progressive, 4)past progressive

5)present perfective, 6)past perfective 3.A tense can be combined with two aspects:

7)Present perfective progressive

8)Past perfective progressive

2)Active voice and passive voice

Voice is a grammatical category, showing whether the subject of a sentence acts or is acted on.English has two voices: the active and passive voices.When the subject is the agent or doer of an action, the verb takes the active voice;if the subject is the recipient of the action, the verb takes the passive voice and the sentence is called passive sentence.The passive voice is formed by the auxiliary be +-ed participle of the transitive verb.Since be can take different forms of tense and aspect, we have six passive forms: the simple present, the simple past, the present progressive, the past progressive, the present perfective and the past perfective.Of the three non-finite form, the infinitive and the –ing participle can occur in the passive, simple and perfective.―Modal auxiliary / semi-auxiliary + infinitive‖ are made passive by using a passive infinitive, which may occur in the simple or in the perfective form.When the passive is formed by get +-ed participle, it is called get-passive, distinguished from be-passive.But get isn‘t an auxiliary and cannot be used as operator in a negative statement or in a question.Get-passive usually used to denote sudden and unexpected happenings in contexts initiated by such expressions as ―in the end, eventually, at last‖.3)Indicative, imperative and subjunctive mood Mood, as a grammatical category, is a finite verb form that indicates whether an utterance expresses a fact(indicative mood), a command or request(imperative mood), or a non-fact and hypothesis(subjunctive mood)

4)Finite and non-finite verb phrases Depending on whether the first element in a verb phrase is finite or non-finite, a distinction is made between finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases.Lesson 11 Tense and aspect(I)教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)：

1.The difference between the present perfect and the present perfect progressive;

2.The use of simple present, the present progressive, and present perfect

教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.Use of simple present.The simple present can be used to denote: timeless present, habitual present, momentary and instantaneous present, simple present referring to the future, simple present referring to the past;

2.Use of present Progressive.The present progressive has the following uses: to denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking, an action in progress at a period of time including the present, a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement and other meanings;

3.The two chief uses of the present perfective/progressive and how the present perfective/progressive distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Lecture 11 Tense and Aspect(I)In this and the next five lectures we are going to deal with features of tense, aspect, voice and mood expressed by the verb phrase.We will start with uses of the simple present, the simple past, the present progressive and the past progressive.11.1 Uses of simple present The simple present is the present tense form which is not accompanied by the category of aspect, that is , which is not marked for the progressive or the perfective aspect.The simple present can be used to denote the following meanings with greater restrictions on verbs:

Timeless present

The most common use of the simple present is found in the expression of eternal truths and proverbs, as well as in scientific, mathematical, geographical and other statements made for all time.This use of the simple present mostly applies to stative verbs, eg:

Honesty is the best policy.A rolling stone gathers no moss.London stands on the River Thames.Habitual present

A second use of the simple present, that of habitual or recurrent use, is typically associated with dynamic verbs, eg:

Percy often goes to his office by underground.Father doesn‘t smoke.Momentary and instantaneous present

The simple present can also be used to denote a momentary phenomenon that exists at the time of speaking.This phenomenon usually has some duration and therefore is mostly associated with stative verbs, eg:

What‘s the matter with you? What do you think, Jane?

A less common use.The simple present can be used to imply that the event takes place singly and once-for-all within the moment of speaking.Unlike momentary present, this kind of happening has little or no duration and therefore is confined to dynamic verbs denoting short actions.The use of the instantaneous present is rather restricted, occurring normally in certain speech situations such as radio and television commentaries of fast-moving sports, the running commentary of conjurors and demonstrators, and some formal declarations, eg:(page184)

Simple present referring to the future

The simple present can also be used to denote future time.This use is limited to future events conceived of as ―certain‖, either because they are determined in advance by calendar of timetable, or because they are part of a plan or an arrangement thought of as unalterable.This kind of future expression will be elaborated on in lecture 13.In the present lecture, we will just mention some subclauses in which the simple present is commonly used in the future sense.These subclauses include the that-clause following ―I hope‖, ―I bet‖, etc;the that-clause following such constructions as ―see to it‖, ―make sure‖, ―make certain‖;and the conditional / temporal clauses introduced by if /when, eg: I hope you have a good time.I bet it rains tomorrow.I‘ll see(to it)/ make sure/ make certain(that)you don‘t get lost.Simple present referring to the past

In addition to the meanings discussed above, the simple present can occasionally be used to denote past time.This use of the simple present is usually found with ―communication verbs‖ such as tell, say, hear, learn, and write to express the present effect of information received in the past, eg:

Alice tells me you‘re entering college next year.I hear poor old Mrs.Smith has lost her son.Simple present is also used as a device of story-telling and news reporting to add vividness to the description.This use of the simple present to refer to the past is what we call ―historic present‖, eg:

…I was just dozing off in front of the television when my wife rushes in shouting that the kitchen is on fire.11.2 Uses of simple past

The simple past is the past tense form which is not marked for the progressive or the perfective aspect.This tense form can be used to denote the following meanings:

Past event and past habit

The basic use of the simple past is to denote a simple event or state that happened or existed at a definite point or period of time in the past.This is what we call the event/state past, eg:

He left ten minutes ago.This town was once a beauty spot.The simple past can also be used to denote a habitual or recurrent action in the past, known as the habitual past, eg: In those days they sowed wheat by hand.He worked in a bank all his life.Neither the event/state pas nor the habitual past has any connection with the present moment, so what is denoted by the simple past must be something no longer existent at the moment of speaking.Compare: His father was an English teacher all his life.(―He is now dead.‖)His father has been an English teacher all his life.(―He is still alive.‖)

Attitudinal and hypothetical past

In specific contexts, the simple past can also denote the present or the future time.There are two uses.One is known as the attitudinal past, that is , the past tense is associated with the present time in independent clauses expressing a question, request or suggestion.Its effect is to make the question / request/suggestion less direct, implying a polite, somewhat tentative attitude on the part of the speaker, eg:

A: Did you want me? B: Yes, I wondered if you could give me some help.The other is what we call the hypothetical past.In this use, the simple past refers not to a fact but to a non-fact, and is typically found in that-clause following such constructions as ―It‘s time…‖, ―I wish…‖, ― I‘d rather…‖, etc., and in adverbial clauses of rejected condition, i.e.a condition which is not likely to be fulfilled, eg:

It‘s time you had a holiday.I wish you lived closer to us.I‘d rather you went now.If I had the money now, I‘d buy a car.11.3 Uses of present progressive

The present progressive(am/is/are+-ing participle)has the following uses:

To denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking

To denote what is going on at the present moment, we commonly use the present progressive, generally associated with durative dynamic verbs, eg:

A: What are you doing? B: I‘m writing a letter.The difference between the simple present and the present progressive referring to present time is that the former carries a permanent meaning and the latter a temporary meaning.Compare:

He lives in shanghai(permanent residence)He is now living in Shanghai.(temporary residence)

To denote an action in progress at a period of time including the present

The present progressive can also express an action that is gong on over a period of time including the present but not necessarily at the moment of speaking, that is, a temporary habit as distinguished from the permanent habit denoted by the simple present.Compare:

He works in a chemical factory.He is working in a chemical factory these days.Note that the present progressive when accompanied by an adverbial of frequency such as always, continually, constantly, or forever often imparts an emotional coloring, often of annoyance or disapproval.By contrast, the simple present lacks the subjective, emotional tone of the present progressive and states a fact objectively.Compare: She complains about the house.She is constantly complaining about the house.To denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement

The present progressive used to refer to the future, more often than not the near rather than distant future, in connection with a definite plan, arrangement of program, usually occurs in situations with obvious future reference, eg:

Mr.Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks.I‘m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday.The present progressive denoting futurity also occurs in temporal and conditional clauses, on condition that there is future reference in the main clause, eg.:

I‘ll think about it while you‘re writing the report.If you are standing at the corner, I‘ll give you a lift.To denote other meanings

Apart from the above-mentioned meanings, the present progressive may also be used to denote an action in the immediate past which is generally expressed by communication verbs such as tell, talk, say, exaggerate, etc, eg: You don‘t believe it? You know I‘m telling the truth.I don‘t know what you are talking about.The present progressive may also be used to make even politer requests than does the attitudinal past with such few verbs as hope, wonder dealt with in 11,2.2, eg:

I‘m hoping you‘ll give us some advice.I‘m wondering if I may have a word with you.As mentioned before, the present progressive is commonly associated with durative dynamic verbs.With momentary verbs, i.e.verbs denoting actions of very short duration, the use of the present progressive will be understood to express repetition or a series of momentary actions, rather than just a single action.11.4 Uses of past progressive

The use of the past progressive(was/were+-ing participle)has much in common with that of the present progressive, only the time reference being pushed back to the past, often overtly expressed by a time-when adverbial.The following are the uses of the past progressive.To denote an action in progress at a definite point or period of past time

This is the most common use of the past progressive.In this use, the past time reference is usually indicated by a temporal adverbial or implied by the context.In the past progressive, the notion of incompleteness is more clearly indicated than in the present progressive, eg:

What were you doing yesterday at seven p.m.? They were building a dam last winter.It is based on this use that the past progressive may have the effect of surrounding a particular event by a temporal frame, or serve, at the beginning of a text, as the background in past time narrative, eg:

The students were still laughing when the teacher stepped in.To denote a past habitual action

The habitual action denoted by the past progressive is most clearly characterized by its temporariness, in contrast with the past habit denoted by the simple past, eg:

George was getting up at five every day that week.As in the case of the present progressive, the past progressive can also collocate with such adverbials of frequency as always, constantly, continually, forever, to express emotional feelings, especially feelings of annoyance or disapproval on the part of the speaker, eg:

My brother was always losing his keys.To denote futurity in the past

In specific contexts, the past progressive can be used to denote a future action in the past according to a definite plan or arrangement.This use is also found in some adverbial clauses of time or condition, eg:

They were leaving a few days later.He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping.To make polite requests and express hypothetical meanings

The past progressive has a similar function to that of the simple past and of the present progressive as described in 11.2.2 and 11.3.4.Of the three forms, the past progressive is the most tentative in making polite requests.Compare: I hope you can send me some books.I hoped that you could send me some books.I am hoping you can send me some books.I was hoping you could send me some books.To express hypothetical meanings, the past progressive only occurs in certain conditional clauses and in subclauses after ―I wish‖, ―I‘d rather‖, ―it‘s time‖, etc:

I wish they were not talking so loudly.I‘d rather you were going at once.Would you stay a little longer, if you were enjoying yourself? If they were leaving tonight, I‘d like to go with them.It is time we were leaving.Contrast between past progressive and simple past

In the previous sections we have touched upon notional differences between the simple past and the past progressive.There are a few more points to note.To denote an action in completion, we use the simple past;to denote an action in progress, we use the past progressive.To state a mere past fact, we use the simple past;to lay emphasis on the duration of the action, we use the past progressive.When two actions co-occur in a sentence, the action of shorter duration is to be denoted by the simple past, while that of longer duration by the past progressive.In colloquial speech, the past progressive is sometimes used to show what one says is casual, unimportant and aimless, whereas the use of the simple past means differently.Compare: I was talking to Margaret the other day.I talked to Margaret the other day.Compare the time sequence of the two actions in the following sentences:

When we arrived, she was making some fresh coffee.When we arrived, she made some fresh coffee.In the first sentence, the action of making coffee was already in progress when we arrived, whereas in the second sentence, the action of making coffee followed our arrival in time sequence.Lesson 12 Tense and aspect(II)

教學(xué)重點(diǎn)及難點(diǎn)：

1.Differences between present/past perfective and present/past perfective progressive.2.Perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to.教 學(xué) 基 本 內(nèi) 容

1.Present perfective has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.The former refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment, while the latter one denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment.2.Past perfective progressive also has ―finished‖ and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past moment.3.There are a few more points that merit our attention concerning the use of the perfective aspect: perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to and perfective aspect in ―It is/will be the first time + that-clause‖.Lecture 12 Tense and Aspect(II)The perfective aspect can combine with the two tenses, forming present perfective and past perfective, which can again combine with the progressive aspect, resulting in present perfective progressive and past perfective progressive.12.1 uses of present perfective(progressive)

This section deals with the two chief uses of the present perfective(progressive)and how the present perfective(progressive)is distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Present perfective

Present perfective, a combination of the perfective aspect with the present tense(have / has+-ed participle), has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.This ―finished‖ use refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment.The ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment, possibly extending into the future as well.The difference between these two uses manifests itself in the fact that in the ―unfinished‖ use, the present perfective is commonly accompanied by an adverbial expressing duration, but no such accompanying adverbial is present in the ―finished‖ use.Compare:

He‘s turned off the light.(―The light is still off now.‖)

He‘s lived here since 1960.(―The period of residence extends either to the present—the usual interpretation—or to some specified date in the past.‖)

Present perfective progressive

The use of the present perfective progressive(have/has been +-ing participle)has much in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective.Compare:

I‘ve been writing letters for an hour(and I‘ve still got some more to do).I‘ve been sitting in the garden(and have just come indoors).There are cases, however, where these two forms are not interchangeable in that the present perfective progressive has also the meanings of continuousness, temporariness and incompleteness.Compare:

Who‘s been eating my dinner?(―Some of it is left.‖)Who‘s eaten my dinner?(―It‘s all gone.‖)

Contrast between present perfective(progressive)and simple past

As has been pointed out, the action or state denoted by the present perfective(progressive), though referring to some indefinite happening in the past, has some connection with the present.Hence, if an action or state happened in the past and has no connection with the present, it will have to be expressed by the simple past or the past progressive.Compare:

His sister has been an invalid all her life.(―she is still alive.‖)His sister was an invalid all her life.(she is now dead.)

12.2.Uses of past perfective(progressive)

Let us now turn to the uses of the past perfective(progressive).Past perfective

The past perfective also has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back –shifted to a specified past moment.In the ―finished‖ use, the past perfective denotes an action or state already in completion before a specified past，and in its ―unfinished‖ use, an action or state extending over a period up to a past moment and possibly into the future in the past, e.g.:

I had written the article when he came.By six o‘clock they had worked twelve hours.Past perfective progressive

The past perfective progressive is basically similar in use to the present perfective progressive, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past.The chief use of the past perfective progressive has also something in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the past perfective, and, therefore, in many cases, these two forms can be used interchangeably, though in colloquial speech, the past perfective progressive is more frequently used than the past perfective.Compare:

I‘d been working for three hours when he called.I‘d worked for three hour when he called

Past perfective in sentences with when-/ before-/after-/ until-clauses

Subordinators such as when, before, after, until can sometimes be used interchangeably when they connect clauses where two actions happen one after another.The general rule is that the earlier happenings are expressed by the past perfective and the later happening by the simple past.Compare:

When I reached the station, the train had already left.I reached the station after the train had left.I didn‘t reach the station until after the train had left.The train had left before I reached the station.