第一篇：H.H.Stern 語言教學的基本概念總結資料

語言教學的基本概念總結資料

第一部分 掃除障礙 clearing the ground Chapter one L1

L1 terms are used to indicate, first of all, that a person has acquired the language in infancy and early childhood and generally within the family.Secondly, the L1 terms signal a characteristic level of proficiency in the language.A person's first language is a basis for sociolinguistic identity.L1 language is also called the native language or primary language, consequently, it would be best to reserve the term “native language” for the language of early-childhood acquisition and “primary language” for the language of dominant or preferred use when the distinction has to be made, with the terms first language to cover both uses, allowing the context to make clear the distinction.L2

The term second language has two meanings.First, it refers to the chronology of language learning.A second language is any language acquired later than the native language.This definition deliberately leaves open how much later second languages are acquired.At one extreme the second language learning process takes place at an early age when the native language command is still rudimentary.At the other, it may take place in adult life when the L1 acquisition process is virtually completed or slowed down.Or, it may take place at any stage between these two extremes.Secondly, the term second language is used to refer to the level of language command in comparison with a primary or dominant language.In this sense, second language indicates a lower level of actual or believed proficiency.Hence second means also ?weaker? or ?secondary?.Bilingualism Bilingualism can be used in two situations.When we say “ Canada is a bilingual country”, we are making a statement about the objectivity or legal status of two languages in that country.It does not necessarily mean that every individual in that country is bilingual.It may mean no more than that some people in Canada are native speakers of one language and other people are native speakers of the other language.The second use of the term, namely that of personal bilingualism, implies(a)notions of manner of language acquisition and(b)level of proficiency in the two languages.With regard to(a), it suggests a simultaneous language learning process in two languages which is analogous to first or native language acquisition in one language.With reference to the level of command, being bilingualism is usually understood to mean a high level of proficiency in two languages.In more technical discussions the use of the concept of bilingualism in this respect has changed.It has tended to be more broadly defined so that any proficiency level in more than one language can be referred to as bilingualism.Second versus foreign language In contrasting second and foreign language there is today consensus that a necessary distinction is to be made between a non-native language learnt and used within one country to which the term second language has been applied, and a non-native language learnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national or territorial boundaries to which the term foreign language is commonly given.A second language usually has official status or a recognized function within a country which a foreign language has not.The purposes of second language are quite different from foreign language.Second language is needed for the full participation in the political or economical life of the nation since it is the official language or educational language, while the foreign language learners hold a variety of purposes in mind, such as traveling or communicating with native speakers.A second language, because it is used within the country, is learnt with much more environmental support than a foreign language whose speech community may be thousands of miles away.A foreign language usually requires more formal instruction and other measures compensating for the lack of environmental support.By contrast, a second language is often learnt informally because of its widespread use within the environment.International language / intranational language Second and foreign language learning both imply a specified speech community or communities as a territorial reference or contact group.International or intranational language lack this characteristic.Thus, English in India which has the status of an official language but has no specified reference group, is learnt as a means of intranational communication.If English is learnt in many countries across the world, this is not only with reference to specified English-speaking territories, but as a means of international communication across national boundaries among speakers of other language.For this role the term international language has been proposed.Language learning The psychological concept of learning includes not only learning of skills and acquisition of knowledge.It refers also to learning to learn and learning to think.Language learning is also widely concerned, it includes all kinds of language learning.From the perspective of the psychology of learning, learning has been approached in two main ways:(1)through theoretical and experimental studies and(2)through empirical studies in educational settings.With regards to the(1), broadly speaking, two groups can be distinguished.The first, derived from the British associationist school of philosophy, adopts a largely environmentalist view of man.Modern milestone in the development of this position are Watson?s behaviorism, Skinner?s operate conditioning, etc.Theories in this school of thought, so-called S-R theories, are characterized by emphasis on externally observable response to specific stimuli, an empirical and experimental approach, and the avoidance of subjective or mentalist concept.The psychology of learning, according to this viewpoint, therefore, is a study of learning phenomena which disregards the intentions, the thinking, the conscious planning and internal processes of the learner.The other trend of thought on learning is cognitive approaches to learning, of which an early representative was Gestalt psychology.It had laid emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception, cognition, sensorimotor skills, learning, and even in social conduct.For Gestalt theory, it is impossible to represent human learning without concepts of subjective experience, such as the sudden click of understanding.Gestalt psychology was able to throw light on perceptual and cognitive learning by describing and demonstrating the subjective cognitive experiences of the learner with such concepts as ?whole and part?, field, structure, and organization.Without necessarily subscribing to all the concepts of the Gestalt school, some psychologists have developed a cognitive theory of learning.They lay emphasis on meaningful learning, meaning being understood not as a behavioral response, but as a conscious experience which emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols or concepts are related to and incorporated within a given individual?s cognitive structure.As far as the empirical studies of learning are concerned, psychology has also investigated learning problems from the applied side in practical learning situations.Critics have deplored the wide gap between the classroom learning theory and the theoretical and laboratory study of learning.Categories of the psychology of learning, commonly applied to formal educational activities, refer to(a)characteristics of the learners and individual differences among learners,(b)different kinds of learning,(c)the learning process and(d)outcomes of learning.(a)Among learner characteristics, factors that are frequently presented in the literature include:(1)the influence of age and maturity on mental development and learning;(2)the influence of heredity and environment on abilities and achievement;(3)specific aptitudes for particular learning tasks, for example, musical aptitude, language learning aptitude, etc.(4)the influence of home and community on motivations and attitudes.(b)What is being learnt has been frequently expressed as three psychological categories.They are conceptual and verbal learning, skill learning and affective and social learning.(c)As for the process of learning, a number of distinctions have been introduced.One is on the time-scale of learning: early learning in contrast with the later learning;learning processes may further differ in the degree of awareness or volitional control on the part of the learner: the conscious learning and the latent learning， the distinction introduced by Krashen between language learning and language acquisition refers to this identification.The contrast between mechanical learning and cognitive learning refers to the degree of conceptual understanding of the learning task by learners.(d)Lastly, the needs of assessing the outcome of learning have led to the development of tests of achievement and proficiency.Techniques of measurement and evaluation, which psychometrics has contributed to educational psychology, have an obvious relevance for the assessment of language learning.Learning and acquisition The American applied linguist Krashen uses the term “acquisition? to describe second language learning which is analogous to the way in which a child acquires his first language, that is naturally, without focus on linguistic form, and learning as conscious language development particularly in formal school-like settings.A disadvantage of Krashen?s terminology is that it runs counter to the terms used in psychology which, as we have noted, comprise Krashen?s acquisition and learning as different ways of learning.Language teaching It can be defined as the activities which are intended to bring about language learning.All that need to be pointed out is that language teaching is more widely interpreted than instructing a language class.Formal instruction or methods of training are included, but so is individualized instruction, self-study, computer-assisted instruction, and the use of media, such as radio or television.Chapter two: theory and practice

Definition of theory The word theory is used in three fairly distinct but related senses.When we speak of theory of art, or educational theory, the term theory is used in the first and widest sense(T1).It refers to the systematic study of the thought related to a topic or activity, for example, art, music, or education.Second, under T1, it is possible to subsume different schools of thought or theories(T2), each with their own assumptions, postulates, principles, models and concepts.What we often loosely referred to as language teaching method.Lastly, in the natural and human sciences the concept of theory is employed in a more rigorous third sense(T3)as “ a hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation or experiment??.The theory of evolution is a case in point.Criteria for a good theory We can identify the following criteria as relevant to theory development in language teaching(1)usefulness and applicability

Since a theory of second language teaching is primarily a theory of practical activities.It should be useful, effective or applicable.It proves its usefulness by making sense of planning, decision making, and practice.It should help decision making both on the broader policy level and at the level of classroom activity.The crucial test of language teaching theory is its effect.Interlanguage

An interlanguage is an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language(or L2)who has not become fully proficient yet but is only approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language(or L1)in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations.An interlanguage is idiosyncratically(特殊物質的, 特殊的, 異質的)based on the learners' experiences with the L2.It can ossify in any of its developmental stages.The learner creates an interlanguage using different learning strategies such as language transfer, overgeneralisation and simplification.Interlanguage is based on the theory that there is a “psychological structure latent in the brain” which is activated when one attempts to learn a second language.Larry Selinker proposed the theory of interlanguage in 1972, noting that in a given situation the utterances produced by the learner are different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey the same meaning.This comparison reveals a separate linguistic system.This system can be observed when studying the utterances of the learners who attempt to produce a target language norm.To study the psychological processes involved one should compare the interlanguage of the learner with two things: Utterances in the native language to convey the same message made by the learner

Utterances in the target language to convey the same message made by the native speaker of that language.Interlanguage yields new linguistic variety.Interlanguage is the basis for diversification of linguistic forms through an outside linguistic influence.Dialects formed by interlanguage are the product of a need to communicate between speakers with varying linguistic ability, and with increased interaction with a more standard dialect, are often marginalized or eliminated in favor of a standard dialect.In this way, interlanguage may be thought of as a temporary tool in language or dialect acquisition.Stephen Krashen & SLA

Stephen Krashen is professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, and is a linguist, educational researcher, and activist.Krashen has contributed to the fields of second language acquisition(SLA), bilingual education, and reading.He is credited with introducing various influential concepts and terms in the study of second language acquisition, including the distinction between acquisition and learning, the Input Hypothesis, Monitor Theory, the Affective Filter, and the Natural Order Hypothesis.The term “l(fā)anguage acquisition” became commonly used after Stephen Krashen contrasted it with formal and non-constructive “l(fā)earning.” However, “second language acquisition” or “SLA” has become established as the preferred term for this academic discipline.Though SLA is often viewed as part of applied linguistics, it is typically concerned with the language system and learning processes themselves, whereas applied linguistics may focus more on the experiences of the learner, particularly in the classroom.Additionally, SLA has mostly examined naturalistic acquisition, where learners acquire a language with little formal training or teaching.The monitor theory 監(jiān)控理論

It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s.The theory consists of the following five hypotheses:

①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have two ways of developing their competence — acquisition and learning.The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language.Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency.Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language.②The monitor hypothesis Different functions— According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for the fluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages.Three conditions — In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the rules of the target language.③The natural order hypothesis Same order — The hypothesis claims that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language.Speed — In Krashen?s point of view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition.It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition.④The input hypothesis Language input and language acquisition— According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input.They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input.They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i+1.That is to say, language is acquired by people?s comprehension of input that is slightly beyond their current level.⑤The affective filter hypothesis Purpose — It attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group.The three affective factors which determines the speed of success — motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety.Influence of the three factors — learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure.That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter.Error analysis Error analysis in SLA was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues(Corder, 1967).Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners' first and second languages to predict errors.Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer.A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language.Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not.They often seek to develop a typology of errors.Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order.They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as “I angry” are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context.Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error.Errors may also be classified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on.They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not.In the above example, “I angry” would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent.From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems.In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making.Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production(speaking and writing)and not with learner reception(listening and reading).Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable.For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned.In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage.Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching.Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology.Pedagogical grammar Pedagogical grammar serves as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy.Drawing on work in several fields such as linguistics, psychology and second language acquisition theory, pedagogical grammar is of a hybrid nature, which usually denotes grammatical analysis and instruction designed for the needs of second language students.In its expanded view it involves decision making processes on behalf of the teacher which requires careful and time-consuming interdisciplinary work.This process is influenced by the teachers? cognition, beliefs, assumptions, and attitudes about the teaching of grammar.Noblitt bases his conception of a pedagogical grammar on a fivefold analysis: a pedagogical grammar requires descriptive and contrastive data and concepts, an ordering of the information in terms of skills(listening, speaking, reading, and writing)and in terms of levels of achievement(elementary, intermediate, and advanced), and evaluation procedures, bearing in mind objectives and educational settings for which the pedagogical grammar in intended.What is the relationship between the linguistics and language teaching? The relationship between linguistics and language teaching has moved through different phases.In spite of the early interest in phonetics around the turn of the 20th century, the language teaching remained unaffected until the interwar period.Equally, the linguists ignored the application of linguistics in the pedagogical activities.From about the 1940s to 1960s, there is a confident application of linguistics in the teaching practice.Linguists in the forties in America were fully aware of their role in language teaching.Bloomfield suggested a professional and almost technical approach in teaching the language.The set of the approach was(1)a structural analysis of the language, forming the basis for graded material,(2)presentation of the analysis by a trained linguist,(3)several hours of drill per day with the help of a native speaker and in small classes, and(4)emphasis on speaking as the first objective.The structuralism forms the linguistic basis of the audiolingual method which was prevailing in the 40s and 50s.The new perspective of language offered by transformational generative grammar led to a violent rejection of structuralism and everything it stood for.It shook the foundations of structuralism in linguistics and by implication of audiolingualism in language teaching.Transformational generative grammar recognizes the language as a rule-governed system, therefore, learning a language involves internalizing the rules.Structural linguistics only treats a language as a collection of habits.In language teaching, therefore, it sanctions imitation, memorization, mechanical drills, ect.Chomsky accused the linguists of sharing the myth that linguistic behavior is habitual and that a fixed of stock of patterns ia acquired through practice and used as a basis for analogy.The new version of Chomsky?s theory leads to the disorienting impact of linguistics to language teaching from 1965 to 1970.The sudden ideological changes reopened the entire question of the contribution of linguistics to language teaching.A shift was taken place from applying linguistics directly to treating linguistics as a resource to be drawn on for the benefit of pedagogy with complete independence of mind.The conviction that linguistic studies cannot be applied to language pedagogy without modification led to the formulation of the concept of pedagogical grammar as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy.Now that we have traced the development of the relations between linguistics and language teaching we will attempt to draw some lessons for the development of our own view of language within a language teaching theory.We will investigate the relationship under the distinction of application and implication and recognize a twofold connection:(1)A language teaching theory incorporates a theory of language,(2)The description of particular language is brought to language teaching.With regard to the theory of language in teaching, a language teaching theory expresses answers to questions about the nature of language.We should identify view of language implicit in language teaching theories from the following 5 aspects: a.analytical and non-analytical approaches to language A basic question to ask is to what extent the language teaching theory treats the language analytically and therefore adopts a linguistics point of view, or whether it presents the language non-analytically.When we treat language non-analytically, the teaching approaches avoids deliberate study of the language, but the rationale underlying this teaching approach still implies a view of nature of language.As we treat language as an object to be studied, practiced, or manipulated in any way, we must conceptualize it or at least to a certain extent.b.the complexity of language Linguistic theory has not presented us with a simple and unified picture of language.The second question to ask is : what aspects of language does our language teaching theory include or exclude, and among those that are included, which of these are espically emphasized? We can ask ourselves to what extent the language teaching theory gives priority to phonology, grammar, vocabulary or discourses aspects.Going on from these, we can further ask how it handles these different components of language.Does it deal with them entirely as language forms or structures? Or does it teach them as meanings? And does it place language features into a social context and thus relate the language to the real world? c.the humpty-dumpty effect it is one thing to isolate and analyse different aspects of language, it is quite another to bring the different aspects of the language together.The categories which linguists have devised in order to study an aspect of language more effectively can become troublesome barriers.To overcome these, linguistics has not only concerned itself with analysis but has also aimed to make a synthesis between the different parts of language.In the same way, the language teacher wishes to teach language as a whole.d.rule versus creativity a language teaching theory, like a linguistic theory, should take into account the regularities(rules, patterns, structures, habits)as well as the possibility of making use of the regularities in varied, novel, and sometimes unique ways as demanded by a given situation.e.a theory of language---a necessary artifact the final question to ask is of a more general nature: what are the main characteristics of the view of language in this language teaching theory? Since the language is comprehensive by nature, both the linguistics and teaching should concern the complexity of language and convey it.However, it is impossible to justice to the whole of language, a language teaching theory inevitably demand choices based on an interpretation of language.That is to say, all language teaching theories are artifacts which highlight some aspects of language at the expense of the others.When we come to the description of languages, there is often a discrepancy between descriptive information on a second language and the needs of pedagogy.Therefore an intermediate device, the pedagogical grammar , has been suggested and the following conceptual steps which link theoretical and descriptive linguistics with the development of a language curriculum can be indicated.The descriptive relationship can be divided into six steps.Theoretical linguistics at step I is concerned with the development of general categories and research strategies for studies of particular language.Research at step II can be visualized as detailed studies of linguistic features of particular languages.These studies form the descriptions of given language at step III.The descriptions provide the basis for a pedagogical grammar at step IV.The pedagogical grammar forms the linguistic resource for curriculum development which takes place at step V, with the teaching of language aspect at step VI.Maintaining the dual relationship between linguistics and language teaching is important for language pedagogy, but it is a complex undertaking.The continuing developments in linguistic theory and in language pedagogy as well as the constant changes in the language themselves, demand the permanent study of language and languages and a review of the relations between linguistic theory and language pedagogy.What is communicative competence

Communicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a intuitive mastery that the native speaker possesses to use and interpret language appropriately in the process of interaction and in relation to social context.This concept was coined by Hymes in 1972 to constitute a challenge to Chomsky?s linguistic competence which is confined to internalized rules of syntax and abstracts from social rules of language use.Communicative competence no doubt implies linguistic competence but its main focus is the intuitive grasp of social and cultural rules and meanings that are carried by any utterance.The complexity of the entire rule system makes it impossible for anyone except the native speakers to acquire communicative competence.This observation leads to the conclusion that communicative competence of second language learners must be conceived somewhat differently from that of a native speaker.The definition of the second language learners? communicative competence given by Canale and Swain(1980)has long been viewed as the standard one in applied linguistics.They prescribe this term into four components:

(1)Grammatical competence: this includes the knowledge of the lexicon, syntax and semantics, or words and rules in general.(2)Sociolinguistic competence: it refers to the appropriateness of communication depending on the context including the participants and the rules of interaction.(3)Discourse competence

This is concerned with the cohesion and coherence of utterances in a discourse(4)Strategic competence

It means appropriate use of communication strategies especially when communication fails.Language planning

Language planning consists of organized efforts to find solutions to language problems in a society.It is therefore an application of sociolinguistic concept and information to policy decisions involving language.Language planning process is likely to go through a necessary series of stages?1)fact-finding The planning must be based on a survey and review of the language situation for which the plan is developed.(2)the selection stage At this stage the planner will attempt to identify language goals and choices open to the society or policy makers and suggest strategies for reaching these goals.(3)the development stage.At this stage, the traditionally recognized forms of language planning are employed : cultivation and development of the language or languages that have been selected in previous stage.(4)the implementation phase Defining the steps to take---information, assimilation, instruction---constitute the fourth phase of the planning process.(5)the final phase is one of feedback and evaluation.Linguists recognize eleven language planning goals such as language purification, language revival, language reform, language standardization, language spread ect.Language planning has been divided into three types: status planning, corpus planning and acquisition planning.Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or variety to functional domains within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language, Corpus planning refers to the prescriptive intervention in the forms of a language, Acquisition planning is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy through education.Acquisition planning can also be used by non-governmental organizations, but it is more commonly associated with government planning.Proficiency Proficiency can be looked at as a goal and thus be defined in terms of objectives or standards.These can then serve as criteria by which to assess proficiency as an empirical fact, which is the actual performance of given individual learners or groups of learners.The native-like proficiency is a necessary point of reference for the second language proficiency concept used in language teaching theory.Proficiency in the first or second language can be summarized as: 1.The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language.It means the language user knows the rules governing his native language and he can apply them without paying attention to them.This mastery of the forms of a language which is intuitive and yet can be made conscious under certain circumstance is characteristic of first language proficiency, which the second language learners in the early stages of a second language lack entirely and acquire only gradually as they progress.2.The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meaning, expressed by the language forms.3.The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and 4.The creativity of language use.There are two sets of approaches that have been made to conceptualize and describe second language proficiency.One set of options relates to the levels of proficiency the different degree of actual or required mastery of the second language, or the progression from a basic to a near-native level.This is what rating scales postulate, test measure, and interlanguage studies empirically investigate.The second set of options lies in the components of proficiency which can be expressed in relatively general or abstract terms in increasingly concrete ways.Oller has opted for a single-concept expression of proficiency: expectancy grammar.Most error analysis and interlanguage studies appear to assume a single underlying linguistic competence.Cummins(1979)has recognized a twofold division between the linguistic competence and communicative competence.Canale and Swain?s division of proficiency into linguistic, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence is threefold.A fourfold interpretation is also implicit in the traditional division of proficiency into listening, speaking, reading, and writing.The Council of Europe inventories represent a multiple interpretation of proficiency combing roles, settings, topics, functions, and notions, while Carroll?s analysis of proficiency relates four behavioural to three or more linguistic categories.Given the complexity of language it would seem more reasonable to assume that the proficiency in a language is multifaceted.In future studies on proficiency the four approaches could no doubt complement each other and serve jointly to develop progressive approximations of a more definitive formulation of proficiency of second language learners.Model of second language learning(the factors involving the second language learning)We can consider a diagram consisting of five factors as an uncontroversial synthesis representing the consensus among the different investigators.In this diagram five sets of variables have been distinguished.Three of these----social context, learner characteristics and learning conditions---are represented as determiners of the learning process and, through it , of the learning outcome.Social context can be seen to be of great importance in language learning.First, language must be treated in social context..In addition, for language teaching, it is important to relate language to society, because languages are taught and learnt to establish contact and communication across language boundaries.The factors in social context which respectively exert influence on language learning are: linguistic factors, social and cultural factors, the historical setting and the national or international political situation, geographical aspects, economic and technological development, and educational framework.If we want to understand the influence of learner characteristics on learning and learning outcome, we?d better get a thorough understanding of the learner variables: age, sex, cognition, affection and personality.Since the definitive answers to the major questions of learner psychology still elude us, in formulating a language teaching theory our conceptualizations of learner factors must remain somewhat tentative.With these caution in mind we will now look at a few crucial learner factors—the age question, language learning aptitude and other cognitive characteristics and affective and personality factors.As for the age issue, a series of studies offer the following conclusions: 1.language learning may occur at different maturity levels from the early years into adult life, no age or stage stands out as optimal or critical for aspects of second language learning.2.In some respects, all age levels face second language learning in similar ways.3.The young children respond more readily and intuitively to language acquisition in social and communicative situations, while the older learners can learn languages more readily by means of cognitive and academic approach.4.Each stage of development may have certain advantages and certain disadvantages for second language learning.The language aptitude batteries include the ability to cope with a sound system and its written representation, the ability to absorb its grammatical rule system and verbal memory skills.More recent research has attempted, although quite tentatively, to identify basic cognitive characteristic underlying learning strategies such as field dependence/ independence, transfer/ inference, broad and narrow categorizing.As for the affection and personality of the learners, Gardner distinguishes four main categories: group specific attitudes, course related characteristics, motivational indices, and generalized attitude.The first component consists of attitudes towards the community and people who speak the target language.The second component comprises attitudes towards the learning situation itself.The third category refers to the learner?s motives for learning the language.The fourth group of variables includes a general interest in foreign languages and certain personality characteristics: ethnocentrism, authoritarianism, anomie, Machiavelliannism and the need for achievement.The learning conditions consist of two settings: language learning either inside the target language environment or away from it.The distinction between learning from exposure to the second language in the target language environment and learning from a teacher is not rigid.The two conditions can be visualized as a continuum.The advance from zero competence to whatever level the learner wishes to attain in the second language goes through several stages.At the beginning of the learning process, the second language learner has affective, cognitive and social consequences.Affectively, the second language learner has to come to terms with the frustrations of non-communication.The lack of language contact and of means of expression and the absence of a safe reference system give the learner an initial intellectual and emotional shock.Cognitively, the learner at the start faces disorientation with regard to all linguistic, semantic, and sociolinguistic aspects of the second language.The task for the learner is to overcome the disorientation and constraints to build up, cognitively and affectively, a new reference system and a system of meaning to be able to respond to the communicative situations appropriately and spontaneously and to think in the second language.This process has been described as internalization.In social terms, the second language learner is dependent on the model given to him by the teacher, the native informant or the second language milieu.This linguistic and sociolinguistic dependence is necessary early phase, a satellization phase of language acquisition.In the progressive pattern of language learning, the intermediate competence levels which have been referred to as transitional competence or interlanguage ideally become progressive approximations to the second language norm set by the native speaker or teacher.Once the stage, experienced subjectively as a stage of greater freedom of communication, has been reached, the learner enters the desatellization phase.Besides the question about the nature and stages of language development, the language learning process presents three main problems which we labeled as the(1)L1-L2 connection,(2)the explicit-implicit option and(3)the code-communication dilemma.The L1-L2 connection means the disparity between the inevitable dominance in the mind of the learner of the first language and the inadequacy of the learner?s knowledge of the new language.The second is the choice between deliberate, conscious, or relatively cognitive ways of learning a second language and more subconscious, automatic, or more intuitive ways of learning it.The third issue is the learner?s problem of how to cope with the dilemma that is presented by the fact that it is hard, if not impossible, for an individual to pay attention to linguistic forms, the language as a code, and simultaneously to communicate in that code.We have argued that the three issues are dealt with by all the language learners and teachers.In doing so the learning process is best understand as threefold involving the learner intellectually/cognitively, socially and affectively.From all these considerations and from the research, Stern and his colleagues derive four basic sets of strategies which they hypothesize good learners are likely to employ.They are an active planning strategy, an academic(explicit)learning strategy, a social learning strategy, and an affective strategy.For intelligent and intellectual adults, active planning strategy and academic learning strategy may be more important, while for young children, an emphasis on social learning strategy and affective strategy can be expected.The aim of further learning research remains to improve our understanding of second language learning in different social contexts, under different language learning conditions, at different age and maturity levels, and at different levels of proficiency.Acculturation theory

It was put forward by J.Schumann and R.Aderson in 1970s.The meaning of the theory: By acculturation they mean that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture.It involves social and psychological adaptations.The relation between acculturation and second language acquisition: The degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition.Factors which determine the degree of acculturation success: The social and psychological distance plays a decisive role in acculturation success.Negative psychological factors such as high ego boundaries, language shock, culture shock, low motivation that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high boundaries.What is your understanding of the curriculum? The term of curriculum is commonly used in two related senses.It refers, first, to the substance of a programme of studies of an educational institution or system, such as the school curriculum, the university curriculum.In a more restricted sense it refers to the course of study or content in a particular subject, such as the mathematics curriculum.In recent years, however, the term curriculum has come to refer not only to the subject matter or content, but also to the entire instructional process including materials, equipment, examinations and training of teachers, in short, all pedagogical measures related to schooling or to the substance of a course of studies.In other words, curriculum is concerned with “what can and should be taught to whom, when, and how.”

Curriculum theory is concerned with(1)the underlying ideological and philosophical assumptions of curriculum(curriculum philosophy);(2)the conceptualization of three main components of curriculum: purposes and content, instruction, and evaluation, and(3)curriculum processes: systematic curriculum development, the implementation of curriculum in educational institution and curriculum evaluation.(1)Curriculum philosophies.Discussions distinguished five major orientations: the school curriculum should develop cognitive processes.The principal function of the school is not to transmit a predetermined content but to train children in skills of enquiry.So the main object of language teaching is not to acquire a second language to perfection but to provide how to learn language.A second orientation is described as self-actualization.According to this point of view, the curriculum should be meaningful at the given stage of the child?s growth rather than provide him with experience which are useful to him only when he is adult.A third orientation, social reconstruction lays emphasis on the needs of the society which are to be met by education and curriculum.In this sense, bilingualism is very important as a binding force in the society across the linguistic divisions.The fourth orientation is academic rationalism, emphasizes the heritage of classical scholarship and a common literacy as the main core and content of the curriculum.The fifth orientation is described as curriculum as technology.In this approach values are not questioned or consciously established.These five orientations are not mutually exclusive.(2)Essential components of curriculum.The basic concepts of curriculum are broadly agreed upon.Three major distinctions are commonly made.a.Purposes and content.Modern curriculum theory has laid a great deal of emphasis on the definition of goals and the clarification of content.American educationist Bloom has established an ordered classification of educational objectives.They were expressed in three major psychological categories: cognition, affect, and psychomotor skills.The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.b.Instruction This concept centres around the process of teaching and learning to reach these objectives.Consequently, the how of education----teaching methods, the time allocation, the selection and arrangement of content, the modes of presentation, the classroom, the media used, and so on----can also be considered part of curriculum c.Evaluation

The third aspect of curriculum, evaluation, refers to the assessment of whether teaching achieves its object.(3)Curriculum processes.The development of a new curriculum, its implementation in a school system and its periodic evaluation have been recognized as activities that must be carefully planned.a.Curriculum development.What steps should be taken to develop new curricula and carry them into effect? The answers are concerned with efficiency of curriculum construction and its implementation in a school system.b.Implementation and the management of curriculum change.Even if the curriculum has been developed and assuming that the right kind of reaching materials have been created, there is still a problem of implementing the new curriculum.It involves the willing participation of the teachers which has been regarded as the essential aspect of introducing a new curriculum.c.Curriculum evaluation.The evaluation of curriculum is a quality control of the curriculum in answer to two main questions: first, has the curriculum selected goals and a content which are sound and educationally justifiable? Second, is the instruction of a kind that will lead to success among the students to whom the curriculum is directed? With review of the three components in mind, the curriculum philosophy, the basic concept relating to curriculum, and curriculum development, we can get a thorough understanding of the term of curriculum.Can you try to explain the model of teaching? A teaching model proposed by Stern and his colleagues offer us the interrelated factors in the teaching, they are social context, learner characteristics, teacher characteristics, learning process, learning conditions and learning product.The social context influences the learner as well as the teachers.It also directly influences the educational treatment.Considering the teaching model from the educational perspective, the whole teaching should be fulfilled in curriculum terms.Teaching, interpreted in terms of curriculum, is represented as planned action with certain ends in view and means to reach them.A means-end view of teaching is unavoidable in language pedagogy.1.Ends

Let get an explanation of ends at first.When we talk about ends, both objectives and content should be identified in the analysis of teaching.Inspired by the Bloom taxonomy, we can attempt to identify four categories of objectives.It recognizes proficiency in the second language as a first and major objective.The second one is knowledge which comprises an explicit knowledge about the second language and knowledge about the corresponding culture.The third objective expresses the belief that the cultivation of affective objectives forms an integral part of the scheme.This objective includes values and attitudes related to the language and culture.A final behavioral category, which is described as transfer, acknowledge as an objective the possibility of learning a particular language with the purpose of generalizing beyond the language in question.The content categories are broadly conceived as language, culture, communication, and general language education.Language implied the particular L2, culture means the target culture.Communication refers to activities which engage the learner as a participant in communication with speakers of the second language.General knowledge education is the content beyond the particular second language and target culture which will enable the learner to go beyond the language given.2.Means

Making a conceptual distinction between ends and means is particularly important in language teaching because the confusion between them has been another constant source of trouble in the debate on teaching methods.Instruction brings us to the most intense controversy in the method debate.Therefore, we would like to select the concept of teaching strategies.It is not possible to propose a definitive and exhaustive list of teaching strategies, but we can begin by identifying those who can be derived from the three crucial issues which have been labeled as L1-L2 connection, the code-communication dilemma, and the explicit-implicit option.(a)The intralingual-crosslingual(intracultural-crosscultural)dimensions concern the use or non-use of the L1 in L2 learning.(b)The objective-subjective(analytical-experiential)dimension results from the code-communitcation dilemma.It refers to treat the target language as codes and as such as objects of study or as something to experience subjectively.(c)The explicit-implicit dimension relates to techniques which encourage the learner either to adopt a cognitive approach or to employ the techniques which encourage more intuitive absorption and automatically.3.Stages and sequences.Since a language can not be mastered in a single stride a pedagogical progression and division of stages are inevitable.Such progression would be based on several content criteria such as what is known about language learning as a developmental process, the definition of mastery levels, learning objectives, and our knowledge about learners and learning, etc.4.Learning outcome.Learning outcome means the proficiency obtained by the learners.It can be summarized as:(1)The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language.It means the language user knows the rules governing his native language and he can apply them without paying attention to them.This mastery of the forms of a language which is intuitive and yet can be made conscious under certain circumstance is characteristic of first language proficiency, which the second language learners in the early stages of a second language lack entirely and acquire only gradually as they progress.(2)The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meaning, expressed by the language forms.(3)The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and(4)The creativity of language use.Besides proficiency, there are cognitive and affective learning outcomes to bear in mind.We should try to distinguish the immediate outcome from the long-term outcome.The immediate outcomes are important for feedback to further teaching and learning.The long-term outcome can be considered from the point of view of the individual learner, the teacher, and the society.For the individual learner, the outcome should be a permanent acquisition of a second language including the permanent attitude towards L2 learning.For the individual teacher, the evaluation of his own teaching provides feedback for further teaching.For the society, the language learning outcome may influence and modify the sociocultural and sociolinguistic context which forms the background against which the processes of teaching and learning are initiated.The teaching-learning model which has been outlined is intended to enable us to view different aspects of language teaching in relation to one another and in this way to obtain a more balances view of the teaching component for the threefold purpose of theory development, practical decision making, and for research.

第二篇：橋梁工程基本概念總結

1橋梁工程主要內容

1）構造原理

2）計算原理

3）計算方法

4）施工概要

2橋型

1)簡支混凝土梁橋

2）懸臂混凝土梁橋

3）連續(xù)混凝土梁橋

4）混凝土剛構橋 5）圬工及混凝土拱橋

6）混凝土斜拉橋

7)懸索橋

3橋梁的地位

橋梁是一個國家或地區(qū)經濟實力、科學技術、生產力發(fā)展等綜合國力體現；是代表一個地區(qū)經濟、歷史、人文等社會發(fā)展的標志性建筑，可以說是社會歷史發(fā)展的一座不朽的豐碑。

4橋梁的組成，從傳遞荷載功能劃分

（1）橋跨結構（2）支座系統(tǒng)（3）橋墩（4）橋臺

（5）墩臺基礎

5計算跨徑

? 跨徑

? 凈跨徑對于梁式橋是設計洪水位上相鄰兩個橋墩（或墩臺）之間的凈距，用l0 表示

? 建筑高度是橋上行車路面(或軌頂)高程至橋跨結構最能下緣之間的距離

橋下凈空是設計洪水位或計算通航水位至橋跨結構最下緣之間的距離，以H表示

6橋梁附屬設施

1）橋面鋪裝（或稱行車道鋪裝）

2）排水防水系統(tǒng)

3）欄桿（或防撞欄桿）

4）伸縮縫

5）燈光照明

7橋梁的分類，按跨徑大小分類

橋梁類型

多孔跨徑總長L(m)

單孔跨徑L0(m)

特大橋

L≥500

L0≥100

大橋

100≤L﹤500

40≤L0﹤100

中橋

30≤L﹤100

20≤L0﹤40

小橋

8≤L﹤30

5≤L0﹤20

8橋梁的分類，按橋面的位置劃分

上承式——視野好、建筑高度大

下承式——建筑高度小、視野差

中承式——兼有兩者的特點

9橋梁的分類，按橋梁用途來劃分

公路橋、鐵路橋、公路鐵路兩用橋、農橋、人行橋、運水橋、其他專用橋梁

10橋梁的分類，按材料來劃分

木橋、鋼橋、圬工橋（包括磚、石、混凝土橋）、鋼筋混凝土橋、預應力鋼筋混凝土橋

11橋梁的分類，按結構體系劃分

梁式橋、拱橋、剛架橋、纜索承重橋、組合體系橋

12橋梁的分類，按跨越方式

固定式的橋梁、開啟橋、浮橋、漫水橋 13橋梁的分類，按施工方法

整體施工橋梁——上部結構一次澆筑而成 節(jié)段施工橋梁——上部結構分節(jié)段組拼而成14橋梁設計程序

1)“預可”和“工可”研究階段

2)初步設計

3)技術設計

4)施工圖設計

15橋梁的規(guī)劃設計

16橋梁設計原則

公路橋梁的設計，根據其使用任務、性質和所在線路的遠景發(fā)展需要，應符合技術先進、安全可靠、適用耐久、經濟合理的要求外，還應考慮造型美觀和有利于環(huán)保的原則。

17橋梁的體系

由基本構件所組成的各種結構物，在力學上也可以歸結為梁式、拱式和懸吊式三種基本體系以及它們之間的各種組合。

18橋梁的美學

一座橋梁應具有優(yōu)美的外形，應與周圍的景觀相協(xié)調。

19橋梁荷載分類

永久荷載、可變荷載、偶然荷載

20永久荷載

概念：橋梁使用期內，位置、大小、方向不隨時間變化或變化很小可以忽略不計的作用。

主要類型：主梁結構自重、橋面鋪裝及附屬設施

土重、土壓力、體內外預應力、混凝土收縮、徐變影響、基礎變位影響等

21可變荷載

橋梁的使用作用：車輛、人群以及由車輛間接引起的作用。

汽車、掛車、履帶車、人群及特種車，對彎橋考慮離心力、沖擊力

其他可變包括：汽車制動力、支座摩擦力、溫度、風荷載、水壓力等

22偶然荷載

地震力（設計烈度7~8度）、船舶撞擊力、漂流物撞擊力

23橋面布置

行車道：

雙向車道布置——交通量不大的橋梁

單向車道布置——交通量大的橋梁

做法：上下行橋梁分離、分隔帶

雙層橋面布置——充分利用橋梁的承載能力

人行道——城市附近的橋梁

檢修道、安全帶——郊區(qū)或高速公路

24橋面鋪裝類型，常用方法，與主梁的關系

類型：1）水泥混凝土

2）瀝青混凝土

3）瀝青表面處治

4）泥結碎石

5）混合型

常用做法：一層混泥土鋪裝，8~10厘米厚

一層砼+一層瀝青，8+5厘米

防水混凝土鋪裝——抗裂性較好的砼

與主梁的關系：1）橋面鋪裝必須配筋

2）鋪裝層對主梁受力有一定幫助作用

25橋面防水層的類型

1）灑布薄層瀝青或改性瀝青，其上撒布一層砂，經碾壓形成瀝青涂膠下封層。

2）涂刷聚氨酯膠泥、環(huán)氧樹脂、陽離子乳化瀝青、氯丁膠乳等高分子聚合物涂膠。

3）鋪裝瀝青或改性瀝青防水卷材，以及浸漬瀝青的無紡土工布等做法。

26橋面排水系統(tǒng)及常用做法

設置數量：

i﹥2，l﹤50時：不設

i﹥2，l＞50時：12~15米設一個

i﹤2，時：6~8米設一個

泄水管過水面積不小于2cm3 /m2 橋面；距離路緣石20~50cm

常用做法：金屬排水管、混凝土排水管、橫向排水、封閉式

27橋梁伸縮縫使用要求，類型

使用要求：

1）能夠適應橋梁溫度變化所引起的伸縮

2）橋面平坦，行駛性良好的構造

3）施工安裝方便，且與橋梁結構聯(lián)為整體

4）具有能夠安全排水和防水的構造

5）承擔各種車輛荷載的作用

6）養(yǎng)護、修理與更換方面

7）經濟廉價

類型：

28橋面人行道尺寸，做法

人行道：人多——人行道0.75米（1米）+0.5米的倍數

人少——安全帶，0.25~0.5米

高度——0.25~0.4米

做法：現澆——與橋面連成整體

預制——做成配件，現場組合安裝

29橋面護欄作用，種類

作用：封閉沿線兩側的作用；具有吸收碰撞能量的作用

種類：剛性護欄、半剛性護欄、柔性護欄

30混凝土梁橋的特點

受力特點——以主梁受彎承擔使用荷載

結構不產生水平反力

預應力度——鋼筋混凝土、部分預應力、全預應力混凝土梁

受力體系——簡支梁、懸臂梁、連續(xù)梁、連續(xù)剛構

31混凝土梁橋的優(yōu)缺點

優(yōu)點：造價低、耐久性好、可塑性強、剛度大、噪音小

缺點：自重大、鋼筋混凝土梁帶裂縫工作

32混凝土梁橋的主要類型，按截面類型劃分

板梁橋、肋板式截面、箱形截面

33混凝土梁橋的主要類型，按體系劃分

簡支梁橋、懸臂梁橋、連續(xù)梁橋、T形剛構橋、連續(xù)剛構橋

34整體式簡支板橋使用范圍，截面形式，施工方法

適用范圍：常用在4~8米跨徑、不規(guī)則橋梁

截面形式：實心板、矮肋板、空心板

施工方法：整體現澆

35裝配式簡支板橋使用范圍，截面形式，施工方法

適用范圍：實心板

截面形式：實心板、空心板——單孔、雙孔

施工方法：先張法——長線預制 后張法——扁錨

36裝配式簡支板橋的建造類型，劃分類型

37裝配式鋼筋混凝土簡支T梁橋構造布置，主要尺寸，鋼筋構造，橫向連接

構造布置：

常用跨徑——8.0~20米

主梁布置：梁距通常在1.5~2.2米之間

橫梁布置：端橫梁；中橫梁布置在跨中及4分點

主要尺寸：

主梁——高1/11~1/18L，寬15~18cm

橫梁——中橫梁3/4h，端橫梁與主梁同高，寬12~16cm，可挖空

翼板——1/12h，一般為變厚度

鋼筋構造：主鋼筋、斜筋、箍筋、翼板橫向鋼筋、橫梁鋼筋、架立鋼筋、分布鋼筋、支座下局部加強鋼筋

橫向連接：鋼板連接；現澆接縫

38裝配式預應力混凝土簡支T梁橋構造布置，主要尺寸，鋼筋構造

構造布置：常用跨徑——20~50米

主梁布置：梁距通常在1.5~2.2米之間

大跨度盡量增大梁距

主要尺寸：主梁——高1/15~1/25L，寬15~18cm

橫梁——中橫梁3/4h，端橫梁與主梁同高，寬12~16cm，可挖空

翼板——1/12h，一般為變厚度

下馬蹄——占截面總面積的10~20%

1）下馬蹄總寬度約為肋寬的2~4倍，并注意馬蹄部分（特別市斜坡區(qū)），管道保護層不宜小于60mm。

2）下翼緣高度加1/2斜坡區(qū)，高度約為梁高的0.15~0.20倍，斜坡宜陡于

45°。

梁端——與下馬蹄同寬

鋼筋構造：主梁受力鋼筋為預應力筋、箍筋、錨下局部加強鋼筋、翼板橫向鋼筋、架立

鋼筋、分布鋼筋、一般不設斜筋。

39混凝土簡支梁橋的計算內容

內力計算——橋梁工程、基礎工程課解決

截面計算——混凝土結構原理、預應力混凝土結構課程解決

變形計算

40混凝土簡支梁橋行車道板的作用

作用：直接承受車輪荷載，把荷載傳遞給主梁

41混凝土簡支梁橋行車道板分類

分類：

1）單向板

長寬比大于2

短邊承受荷載大

2）雙向板

長寬比小于2

3）懸臂板

4）鉸接板

42懸臂梁橋體系特點

1）由于支點負彎矩的卸載作用，跨中正彎矩大大減小

2）由于彎矩圖面積的減小，跨越能力增大

3）體系形式：雙懸臂、單懸臂、雙懸臂加掛孔、T形剛構

4）缺點：行車條件不好

43懸臂梁橋構造特點

（概括不出來）

44連續(xù)梁橋的體系特點

1）由于支點負彎矩的卸載作用，跨中正彎矩大大減小，恒載、活載均有卸載作用

2）由于彎矩圖面積的減小，跨越能力增大

3）超靜定結構，對基礎變形及溫差荷載較敏感

4）行車條件不好

45連續(xù)梁橋常用施工方法 1）

有支架澆筑施工法 2）平衡懸臂施工法 3）逐跨頂推施工法 4）移動模架施工法

46橋的徐變、收縮理論

47混凝土變形過程

48混凝土收縮徐變的影響

混凝土徐變變形是混凝土構件由荷載引起的瞬時彈性變形隨時間緩慢增加的那部分變形，目前主要有三種理論解釋徐變，即水泥漿與周圍介質氣壓平衡產生的變形、混凝土晶格滑動引起的變形和混凝土粘性流動造成的變形。而當這些變形發(fā)生在超靜定結構中時，在多余的約束力，從而也就產生了次內力，這就是混凝土徐變和收縮的影響力。

49剛構橋的體系特點

1）恒載、活載負彎矩卸載作用基本與連續(xù)梁接近

2）橋墩參加受彎作用，使主梁彎矩進一步減小

3）彎矩圖面積小，跨越能力大，在小跨徑時梁高較低

4）超靜定次數高，對常年溫差、基礎變形、日照溫度均較敏感

50剛構橋的構造特點

截面形式：

單跨剛構橋——矩形截面

斜腿剛構——箱型截面、多肋式

連續(xù)剛構——大跨度：變高度箱梁；小跨度：多室扁箱梁

V型墩剛構——箱型截面、多肋式

15,46,47找不到

43概括不出來

第三篇：java基本概念總結

小結

1、對象的初始化

(1)非靜態(tài)對象的初始化

在創(chuàng)建對象時，對象所在類的所有數據成員會首先進行初始化。

基本類型：int型，初始化為0。

如果為對象：這些對象會按順序初始化。

※在所有類成員初始化完成之后，才調用本類的構造方法創(chuàng)建對象。

構造方法的作用就是初始化。

(2)靜態(tài)對象的初始化

程序中主類的靜態(tài)變量會在main方法執(zhí)行前初始化。

不僅第一次創(chuàng)建對象時，類中的所有靜態(tài)變量都初始化，并且第一次訪問某類（注意此時

未創(chuàng)建此類對象）的靜態(tài)對象時，所有的靜態(tài)變量也要按它們在類中的順序初始化。

2、繼承時，對象的初始化過程

(1)主類的超類由高到低按順序初始化靜態(tài)成員，無論靜態(tài)成員是否為private。

(2)主類靜態(tài)成員的初始化。

(3)主類的超類由高到低進行默認構造方法的調用。注意，在調用每一個超類的默認構造

方法前，先進行對此超類進行非靜態(tài)對象的初始化。

(4)主類非靜態(tài)成員的初始化。

(5)調用主類的構造方法。

3、關于構造方法

(1)類可以沒有構造方法，但如果有多個構造方法，就應該要有默認的構造方法，否則在繼承此類時，需要在子類中顯式調用父類的某一個非默認的構造方法了。

(2)在一個構造方法中，只能調用一次其他的構造方法，并且調用構造方法的語句必須是

第一條語句。

4、有關public、private和protected

(1)無public修飾的類，可以被其他類訪問的條件是：a.兩個類在同一文件中，b.兩個類

在同一文件夾中，c.兩個類在同一軟件包中。

(2)protected：繼承類和同一軟件包的類可訪問。

(3)如果構造方法為private，那么在其他類中不能創(chuàng)建該類的對象。

5、抽象類

(1)抽象類不能創(chuàng)建對象。

(2)如果一個類中一個方法為抽象方法，則這個類必須為abstract抽象類。

(3)繼承抽象類的類在類中必須實現抽象類中的抽象方法。

(4)抽象類中可以有抽象方法，也可有非抽象方法。抽象方法不能為private。

(5)間接繼承抽象類的類可以不給出抽象方法的定義。

6、final關鍵字

(1)一個對象是常量，不代表不能轉變對象的成員，仍可以其成員進行操作。

(2)常量在使用前必須賦值，但除了在聲明的同時初始化外，就只能在構造方法中初始化。

(3)final修飾的方法不能被重置（在子類中不能出現同名方法）。

(4)如果聲明一個類為final，則所有的方法均為final，無論其是否被final修飾，但數據 成員可為final也可不是。

7、接口interface（用implements來實現接口）

(1)接口中的所有數據均為 static和final即靜態(tài)常量。盡管可以不用這兩個關鍵字修飾，但必須給常量賦初值。

(2)接口中的方法均為public，在實現接口類中，實現方法必須可public關鍵字。

(3)如果使用public來修飾接口，則接口必須與文件名相同。

8、多重繼承

(1)一個類繼承了一個類和接口，那么必須將類寫在前面，接口寫在后面，接口之間用逗

號分隔。

(2)接口之間可多重繼承，注意使用關鍵字extends。

(3)一個類雖只實現了一個接口，但不僅要實現這個接口的所有方法，還要實現這個接口

繼承的接口的方法，接口中的所有方法均須在類中實現。

9、接口的嵌入

(1)接口嵌入類中，可以使用private修飾。此時，接口只能在所在的類中實現，其他類不

能訪問。

(2)嵌入接口中的接口一定要為public。

10、類的嵌入

(1)類可以嵌入另一個類中，但不能嵌入接口中。

(2)在靜態(tài)方法或其他方法中，不能直接創(chuàng)建內部類對象，需通過手

段來取得。

手段有兩種：

class A {

class B {}

B getB(){

B b = new B();

return b;

}

}

static void m(){

A a = new A();

A.B ab = a.getB();// 或者是 A.B ab = a.new B();

}

(3)一個類繼承了另一個類的內部類，因為超類是內部類，而內部類的構造方法不能自動

被調用，這樣就需要在子類的構造方法中明確的調用超類的構造方法。

接上例：

class C extends A.B { C(){

new A().super();// 這一句就實現了對內部類構造方法的調用。

}

}

構造方法也可這樣寫：

C(A a){

a.super();

} // 使用這個構造方法創(chuàng)建對象，要寫成C c = new C(a);a是A的對象。

11、異常類

JAVA中除了RunTimeException 類，其他異常均須捕獲或拋出。JAVA一直是很多人喜愛的一種編程語言，在這里北大青鳥徐東校區(qū)的老師希望各位努力并快樂的學習這門語言。學習JAVA需要多看SUN公司提供我們的資料信息，了解常用類的屬性和方法。我發(fā)現我們有很多同學在用常用類的時候，經常會把類里面的方法和自定義的方法搞混。記得有一位老師說過“學習要抱有一種鉆研的態(tài)度”。我對這句話的理解是當我們學習到一個新的知識點的時候，需要不斷理解和消化。這可能是一個長期的過程，不能抱有一種急于求成的態(tài)度。以下內容是北大青鳥老師整理的一些JAVA基礎：

一、SDK和JDK的區(qū)別 SDK是軟件開發(fā)工具包，JDK是SＤK的一種，其實它是JAVA SDK。JDK在早期的版本中也是叫SDK，在1.2版本以后才叫JDK。

二、J2EE、J2SE、J2ME區(qū)別

J2EE：JAVA2平臺的企業(yè)版，主要應用于WEB和大型企業(yè)的開發(fā)。

J2SE：JAVA2平臺的標準版，學習和一般的開發(fā)。它包含于J2EE。

J2ME：JAVA2平臺的微縮版，主要應用于電子設備（手機）方面，它包含有J2SE的核心部分之外，還有一個專業(yè)的類。

三、JVM的運行機制類加載→類校驗→類執(zhí)行

四、JAVA、JAVAC、用法

JAVA：JAVA解釋器用于執(zhí)行JAVA字節(jié)碼。它所執(zhí)行的是一個類并不是一個文件，所以后面類的名字區(qū)分大小寫。

JAVAC：JAVAC解釋器用于將JAVA源代碼編譯字節(jié)碼。

五、JAVA標識符

1、標識符由數字、字母下劃線“_”或“$”符號組成。

2、標識符必須以字母、下劃線“_”或“$”符號開頭。

3、不能使用JAVA關鍵字。

4、字母區(qū)分大小寫

六、數據類型原始數據類型數值類型

l BYTE

l 整型：SHORT、INT、INT l 浮點：FLOAT、DOUBLE 2 BOOLEAN類型引用數據類型數組類接口

七、變量

變量可分為類變量、局部變量、方法變量。

類變量在定義時就有默認值，數值類型的默認為0，CAHR的默認a，BOOLEAN默認FALSE。

方法變量中沒有默認值，需要賦值才能使用。

八、類和對象的區(qū)別

類是對象的模板，對象是類的特例

類是抽象的，客觀上并不存在的對象是具體的，是客觀存的九、類的構造方法

構造方法具有和類相同的名字，它是一個沒有返回值的方法。有隱式

構造方法和自定義構造方法兩種。JVM在沒有自定義造構方法時提供一個沒有參數也沒有方法主體的默認構造方法。但是如果有自定義的構造方法時，JVM不再提供默認的構造方法。如果在類的實例化是需要用默認構造方法時，必須顯示的定義。

十、方法的重載

可以對構造方法或者自定義的方法進行重載，對方法的重載必須滿足以下三個條件：

1、參數個數不同

2、參數類型不同

3、參數順序不同

十一、面向對象的特性

1、封裝

2、繼承

3、多態(tài)

十二、繼承的特性

繼承允許重用現有的類來構造新類的機制。在繼承中具有如下特性：

1、默認繼承Object

2、單繼承，只能有一個父類

3、子類繼承父類除private以外的全部成員和方法。

十三、方法的重寫

構成方法重寫的條件：

1、兩個繼承關系的類里

2、方法名、返回值、參數必須一致。

十四、靜態(tài)（變量、方法、塊）

靜態(tài)類型的變量或方法都是屬于類的，并不是屬某個具體對象的。所以也稱類變量和類方法，所有對象共享一份類變量。定義類變量或類方法的關鍵字是static。靜態(tài)塊是在類第一次 加載時執(zhí)行。它的作用是初始化類變量成員。

十五、抽象類

抽象類是具體抽象方法的、不可以實例化對象的類。構成抽象類的條件：

a)具有一個以上的抽象方法。

b)繼承一個抽象類，但沒有實現全部的抽象方法。

c)繼承一個接口，沒有實現全部的抽象方法。

十六、異常

Error：內部錯誤，不期望用戶捕獲的一種錯誤。

try語句：try句子里面主要是放置要監(jiān)控的程序句子

catch：以合理的方式捕獲和處理異常，主有try語句出錯才會執(zhí)行。

finally：釋放資源，不管try里面的語句是否出錯都要執(zhí)行。

throw：手動引發(fā)異常

throws：由方法引發(fā)的異常

多層捕獲：異常子類一定要位于異常父類之前。最后一個catch塊要用Exception捕獲，以便捕獲到所有異常。執(zhí)行其中一條catch語句之后，其它的catch將被忽略。

《JAVA基礎》基本概念總結

1、在JAVA中所有萬物皆對象，所有的代碼都要寫在一個類中，在類中主要包含屬性（變量）和方法（函數），其它代碼必須寫在某一個方法中，方法與方法之間是平行的，不能在方法中定義方法。

2、如果一個類名使用了public修飾符，則包含該類的JAVA文件名必須該類名一樣，一個JAVA文件中只能有一個類前面可以用public修飾符。

3、類是客觀實體的抽象，包含屬性（該類的數據），和對屬性進行操作的方法，為了避免用戶對類的屬性進行誤操作，我們一般把類的屬性定義為私有的，并提供相應的get與 set方法去引用和修改這些屬性。

4、類的屬性與方法可以使用static修飾符，用static修飾的屬性與方法是該類的所有對象所共享的，它們可以直接通過類名去引用，在靜態(tài)方法中只能引用該類的靜態(tài)變量與靜態(tài)方法，因為非靜態(tài)的屬性與方法在該類沒有被實例化之前是不存在的，即沒有相應的執(zhí)行空間，為了使用的方便，我們可以把不依賴于類的屬性(即在方法中不對類的屬性進行操作)的方法定義為靜態(tài)的。

5、構造函數是當一個類被實例化時執(zhí)行的一段代碼，它決定了該類被實例化后的狀態(tài)，其名稱與相應的類名一樣，并且不寫返回值的類型，我們一般在構造函數中對類的屬性進行初始化。當不寫構造函數時，系統(tǒng)會給我們提供一個不帶參數的空構造函數，如果我們寫了一個帶參的構造函數，系統(tǒng)就不再提供不帶參的構造構數了。

6、為了引用一個類中定義的非靜態(tài)屬性與方法，我們需要實例化一個該類的對象，通過該對象去引用相應的方法。（這是我們實例化一個類的最直接的原因）

7、繼承可以實現代碼的復用，當子類繼承了父類之后，子類就擁有了父類中定義的非私有屬性與方法。

8、子類對象可以直接賦值給父類變量，但賦值后就不能通過父類對象去引用在子類中定義的方法了。如果子類覆蓋了父類中的方法，則

當子類對象賦值給父類后，通過父類去引用該方法時，執(zhí)行的是子類中該方法的代碼。

9、為了強制子類覆蓋父類中的某一方法，可以在父類中將該方法定義為抽象的，如果一個類中含有抽象方法，則該類必須被定義為抽象的，抽象類不能被實例化。

10、接口是一種特殊的抽象類，在接口中定義方法全是抽象的，它定義了一種上層規(guī)則或協(xié)議，使實現該接口的不同類之間可以交互。

11、接口與抽象類可以定義變量，可以作為函數的參數，但傳遞給它的只能是實現該抽象類或接口中所有抽象方法的類的對象。

12、在JAVA中一個類一次只能繼承一個類，但可以實現多個接口，這是接口存在的一個非常重要的原因。

13、在程序中，有些代碼是不安全的，即在執(zhí)行的過程中有可能會產生錯誤，為了處理這些錯誤，在JAVA中引入了異常處理機制，異常的處理分為拋出（throws）和處理(try…catch..)，我們一般在寫給其它地方用的方法中將有可能產生的異常拋出，而在main方法中，或實際使用時進行處理。

14、異常是一種帶有強制性的業(yè)務規(guī)則，當一個方法將異常拋出后，我們在使用該法時就必須處理該異常，使用try…catch…可以將我們處理正常業(yè)務規(guī)則的代碼與處理錯誤（即異常）的代碼分割開來，使程序的結構更加清晰。寫在try語句中的代碼都是受保護的。

第四篇：藝術學基本概念總結

藝術學概念（包括一些文學概念）

1.藝術的認識本質：藝術的掌握方式，或者說，認識世界、反映社會生活的方式，是運用形象進行創(chuàng)造性想象活動，認識世界的重點是事物的特征個性和美，以高度概括的具體可感的形式和形象揭示事物的特征本質和普遍性，是在個別之中顯示一半，在特殊之中表現普遍。藝術也掌握真理，但它掌握的是具體形象的真理，即藝術美，所以，藝術認識內容，則要求真實性，要求通過藝術形象真實地反映社會生活。

2.藝術形象：是藝術家對社會生活進行審美認識按照美的規(guī)律進行審美創(chuàng)造的結果，同時又是觀眾的審美對象。

3.美的規(guī)律：一個事物，只有當它以其現象的真實充分的體現出其本質的真實，以其具體的形式充分的表現出 其內容的必然性，以其形象的個別性充分的顯現出其種類的普遍性，而且這現象、這形式、這形象又必須是 非常突出、鮮明、生動，那它就是美的。

4.藝術典型：高度真實和高度概括的藝術形象。它一方面以非常鮮明生動的現象和特殊性充分的集中的表現出社會生活的本質和普遍性，同時它又凝聚著創(chuàng)作主題突出的個性、真摯的情感和獨特的審美創(chuàng)造，相比一般的藝術形象，它的真實性更高，概括性更廣，思想性更深刻，情感更強烈，感染性更持久，是藝術家對于生活真理的獨特發(fā)現和對美的獨特創(chuàng)造。

5.美感：是客觀事物的美作用與人而引起的一種意識活動和情感活動。

6.現實美：即現實中美的事物的美?，F實美可分為兩大類：自然美和社會美。自然美是指自然中存在的美，即自然事物的美；社會美是指人類社會關系中的美，即社會事物的美。

7.藝術美：指的是藝術作品的美，是由創(chuàng)作主體的審美認識而產生的，“按照美的規(guī)律”并為著美的目的而創(chuàng)造的事物的美。

8.再現：是指藝術家在其作品中對他所認識的客觀對象或社會生活的具體描繪，在創(chuàng)作手法上偏重于寫實，追求感性形式的完美和現象的真實，在創(chuàng)作傾向上偏重于認識客體，摹仿現實。

9.表現：是指藝術家運用藝術表現手段來表達自己的情感體驗和審美理想，在創(chuàng)作手法上偏重于理想地、情感地表現對象或拋棄具體物象，追求超感覺的內容和觀念，常采取的象征、寓言、夸張、變形以至于抽象等藝術語言，以突破感受的經驗習慣，在創(chuàng)作傾向上，則偏重于表現主體意識，直抒胸懷。

10.形式美：是指藝術作品可直接訴諸于感官的外在形式的美，即色彩、線條、形體、聲音等按照一定規(guī)律如均衡、對稱、對比、和諧、整衣、多樣統(tǒng)一等排列和組合的形式，并能喚起美感的審美特征。

11.藝術直覺：就是在一定的藝術心理定勢的不知不覺的導向和作用下，對客觀事物干之后，不經過復雜的治理思考的邏輯過程而直接、迅速地認識和把握事物的思維活動。它的特點是直接面對觀察事物和對其認識不經過慣常的邏輯思考的認識瞬間性。它標志著藝術家藝術素養(yǎng)的超常水平。

12.藝術創(chuàng)作活動：是指藝術家運用已經掌握的藝術創(chuàng)作本領（主要表現在已經形成的藝術心理定勢和創(chuàng)作才能上），將生活中得來的素材——諸多表象作材料，圍繞一定的主題傾向，進行藝術思維（特別是其中的形象思維），從而在頭腦中形成比較完整的藝術胎兒——藝術意象，隨即運用藝術語言和各種表現方法，把它物化為供人鑒賞的藝術形象，即藝術作品的全部創(chuàng)作活動過程。

13.藝術創(chuàng)作方法：藝術家創(chuàng)作過程中對主體思想感情和客觀生活的關系所持的基本態(tài)度和所遵循的基本原則。

14.藝術體驗：是一種活躍的、豐富的、深刻的內心活動，它伴隨著強烈的情感情緒，把藝術家長期對于生活的感受、觀察和思考，形成藝術創(chuàng)作的基礎和前提，乃至萌發(fā)不可遏制的創(chuàng)作欲望。

15.藝術發(fā)現：是藝術家在社會生活中積累了一定的生活材料的基礎上，依據自己認識生活和評價生活的思想原則和審美趨向，對外在事物進行觀察和審視時所得到的一種獨特的感知。

16.藝術想象：指藝術家在創(chuàng)作過程中，按照創(chuàng)作主旨的需要，在頭腦中對生活中得來的有關的諸多表象進行分解，重組，連接等加工，把實際上并不在一起的事物從觀念上把它們組合在一起，使之成為新的理想化了的藝術意象的創(chuàng)造的能力。

17.藝術構思：是藝術家在既定的藝術心理定勢和創(chuàng)作目的的指導下，圍繞著從生活的暗示中初步形成的主題意向，運用于此有關的生活素材進行藝術思維，進而在頭腦中孕育成一個全新的藝術胎兒，即完整的藝術意象。

18.審美意象：是指在對客觀世界審美感知與體驗的基礎上，融會了主觀思想、感情、愿望、理想，在藝術家頭腦中經過藝術創(chuàng)造形成的意象。

19.意象物化：是指藝術家運用藝術語言，將構思成熟的藝術意象表現為專供審美和鑒賞的藝術形象即藝術作品，其實質是一種審美表現活動。

20.藝術傳達：指藝術家借助一定的物質材料和藝術媒介，運用藝術技巧和藝術手法，將自己在藝術構思活動中形成的審美意象物態(tài)化，成為可供其它人欣賞的藝術作品和藝術形象。

21.藝術語言：它不僅包括文學語言，也包括了其它藝術門類中起類似文學語言作用的一切藝術想象的材料（如表象這種廣為使用的藝術語言符號）和藝術表現手段以及各種藝術媒介。

22.藝術意蘊：是指藝術作品應當在有限中體現出無限，在偶然中蘊藏著必然，在個別中包含著普遍。優(yōu)秀的藝術作品總是通過生動感人的藝術形象，來傳達出深刻的人生哲理或思想內涵。

23.集體無意識：是指一個民族（或國家、集團、人類）在生理進化和文化歷史發(fā)展過程中所獲得的一種心理積淀起來的潛在共同心理。

24.藝術靈感：是藝術家創(chuàng)作構思過程中突然爆發(fā)出來的一種豁然貫通、才思如潮的心理現象。往往起著推動創(chuàng)作過程、促成藝術形象完成的作用。雖然它是在藝術家面對大量生活素材和生活感受而感到難以處置的苦思中，因某一機緣的出動，以出乎意外、茅塞頓開的突然性形態(tài)表現出來，但它的產生的基礎，則是藝術家平日積累的豐富的生活經驗和長期艱苦的藝術探索。是藝術家在持續(xù)構思過程中，從感性認識上升到理性認識飛躍的心理上的反映。

25.形象思維：是指在藝術構思過程中，以表象作材料，通過藝術想象，對表象予以升華或對表象予以分解、重組、聯(lián)結等，加工成藝術意象的思維過程。

26.藝術思維：是指在藝術創(chuàng)作中和藝術欣賞過程中的形象思維與抽象思維相統(tǒng)一的系統(tǒng)中，以捕捉藝術意象為目標，因而以形象思維占相對優(yōu)勢的一種思維方式。

27.藝術個性（藝術風格）：是指藝術家在藝術心理定勢、藝術意象、藝術想象等內容中體現出來的獨特的特點和特性，它是獨一無二的藝術體驗和獨特的藝術技巧高度統(tǒng)一的結果。

28.藝術風格的民族特色：是由本民族的地理環(huán)境、社會狀況、文化傳統(tǒng)、風俗習慣等多種因素決定的，體現出本民族的審美理想和審美需要，但歸根結底還是根源于本民族的社會基礎與經濟生活。

29.藝術風格的時代特色：是指同一時代的藝術創(chuàng)作常常具有某些共同特征，體現出

這個時代占主導地位的審美理想和審美追求。

30.藝術流派：在一定的歷史階段內，由一些思想傾向、藝術主張、創(chuàng)作手法、藝術風格等方面相近或相似的藝術家，自覺不自覺地形成的藝術家群體。

31.藝術思潮：在一定社會思潮和哲學思潮的影響下，在藝術領域中出現的新的藝術思想和創(chuàng)作傾向的一般潮流。

32.藝術的審美教育作用：指人們通過藝術欣賞活動，受到真善美的熏陶和感染，思想上受到啟迪，實踐上找到榜樣，認識上得到提高，在潛移默化的作用下，引起人的思想、感情、理想、追求發(fā)生深刻變化，引導人們正確的理解和認識生活，樹立起正確的人生觀和世界觀。

33.藝術的審美認識作用：指人們通過藝術鑒賞活動，能更加深刻地認識自然、認識社會、認識歷史、認識人生。

34.藝術的審美娛樂作用：指通過藝術欣賞活動，使人們的審美需要得到滿足，獲得精神享受和審美愉悅，愉悅心目，暢神益智，通過閱讀作品獲觀賞演出，使身心得到愉快和休息。

35.藝術鑒賞：是指人們對藝術形象感受理解和評判的過程。人們在鑒賞中的思維活動和感情活動一般都從藝術形象的具體感受出發(fā)，實現由感性階段到理性階段的飛躍。

36.再造想象：根據語言的描述或圖形、音響的示意，在頭腦中再造出相應的新形象的過程。

37.創(chuàng)造想象：不依據現成的描述而獨立地創(chuàng)造出新形象的過程。

38.審美直覺：是指人們在審美活動或藝術鑒賞過程中，對審美對象或藝術形象具有一種不假思索而即刻把握與領悟的能力，使人剎那間暫時忘卻一切，聚精會神的觀賞它，全部身心沉浸在審美愉悅中。

39.通感：是指在藝術創(chuàng)作與鑒賞活動中，各種感覺互相滲透或挪移，從而大大豐富和擴展了審美感受。

40.定向期待（期待視野）：由讀者的文化素養(yǎng)、審美趣味、鑒賞能力等多種因素構成的一種慣性心理力量，“它以不經意的，有時甚至是無意識的習慣方式支配著閱讀過程，讀者閱讀中的定向、選擇和童話，完全是在不知不覺、不假思索中進行的。

41.審美體驗：是指鑒賞主體在審美直覺的基礎上，達到藝術審美活動的高潮階段，調動再創(chuàng)造的想象力和聯(lián)想力，激起豐富的情感，設身處地地生活到藝術作品中，獲得心靈的審美愉悅，把外在作品中的藝術形象轉化為鑒賞者自身的生命活動。

42.審美升華：是指鑒賞主體在審美直覺和審美體驗的基礎上達到一種精神的自由境界，通過藝術鑒賞的審美再創(chuàng)造活動，在藝術作品和藝術形象重直觀自身實現本質力量的對象化。

43.共鳴：是指在藝術鑒賞過程中鑒賞主體在審美直覺和審美體驗的基礎上進而深深地被藝術作品所感動、所吸引，以至于達到忘我的境界，實踐上主體與藝術形象之間契合一致，物我同一，物我兩忘。

第五篇：教學設計基本概念

概念：

教學系統(tǒng)設計(Instructional SystemDesign,簡稱ISD)，也稱作教學設計(Instructional Design,簡稱ISD)是以傳播理論、學習理論和教學理論為基礎，運用系統(tǒng)論的觀點和方法，分析教學中的問題和需求從而找出最佳解決方案的一種理論和方法。

教學設計構成要素：一份完整的教案一般來說主要包括以下幾部分：

1、基本情況：主要包括：課程名稱、授課內容、教學日期，授課教師姓名、職稱、授課對象、授課時數以及教材名稱及版本等。

2、教學目標：即，對應每堂課設計明確的教學目標。這種目標制定要符合大綱和學生的實際，要在50分鐘里實現的實“在”的具體目標要求，既包括知識、能力的要求，也包括德育、智育的要求。根據這種目標要求確定每堂課的重點、難點。

3、教學過程即教學步驟：這部分內容是教案設計的重點。主要指教學活動的整個流程。包括課堂提問的順序、內容，課件的演示等細節(jié)。為掌握好時間的進度，有時還需要標記每個環(huán)節(jié)所需要的時間。

教學過程一般從復習檢查導入新課開始，這階段重點要設計如何導入？導入時引導學生參與那些活動？如何給學生創(chuàng)設良好的學習氛圍。進入學習新課階段后，突出問題和情景的設計，如設計怎樣的問題或情景讓學生對新課內容進行探究，如何探究？如何激發(fā)學生的學習興趣？這部分又是教案設計中教學過程中的難點。第三階段是對新課的鞏固練習，主要靠設計些練習題，讓學生動手練，是所學知識得以遷移鞏固，最后布置作業(yè)。

教學過程也沒有固定的模式，關鍵是在講與練的處理上，練習不僅是一個教學環(huán)節(jié)，更是一種教學方法。講中有練，練中有講，講練結合，效果更好些。

4、課后要求：主要設計如何獲得必要的反饋信息。即教學評價，為教師反思教學提供重要的依據。代表人物及觀念思想

.加涅的教學系統(tǒng)設計理論 加涅（1965，1985）提出了一個關于知識與技能的描述性理論，認為學校學習的知識與技能可以分為五種類型：言語信息、智慧技能、認知策略、動作技能和態(tài)度。他又進一步根據其學習的信息加工理論提出了一個關于教學策略的描述性理論。由此觀點出發(fā)，他根據學習過程中包含有多個內部心理加工環(huán)節(jié)，從而推斷出相應教學過程應由九個教學事件構成：引起注意、告訴學習者目標、刺激對先前學習的回憶、呈現刺激材料、提供學習指導、誘導學習表現（行為）、提供反饋、評價表現、促進記憶和遷移。加涅特別指出，以上九個教學事件的展開是可能性最大、最合乎邏輯的順序，但也并非機械刻板、一成不變的，也就是說，并非在每一堂課中都要提供全部教學事件。加涅在分析學習的條件時，根據實驗研究和經驗概括，詳盡地區(qū)分了不同學習結果對不同教學事件的要求。這就是加涅的規(guī)定性教學理論。

2.瑞奇魯斯的教學系統(tǒng)設計理論框架及其細化理論 瑞奇魯斯（1983）把教學理論的變量分為教學條件、教學策略和教學結果，并進一步把教學策略變量細分為教學組織策略、教學管理策略和教學傳輸策略。他還就教學內容的宏觀組織問題提出了自己的理論，這就是教學的細化理論（The Elaboration Theory of Instruction，簡稱ET）。他認為這種理論綜合了布魯納的螺旋式課程序列、奧蘇貝爾的逐漸分化課程序列、加涅的分層序列和斯坎杜拉的最短路徑序列，是一種通用的課程序列化的理論。瑞奇魯斯等人的細化理論（ET）和梅瑞爾（1983）的成分顯示理論（Component Display Theory，簡稱CDT）一起構成了一個完整的教學系統(tǒng)設計理論。3.梅瑞爾的成分顯示理論（CDT）梅瑞爾的CDT理論主要是認知領域的教學系統(tǒng)設計理論，對教學策略進行了較詳盡的規(guī)定。他首先提出了一個有關知識的描述性理論，認為知識由行為水平和內容類型構成了兩維分類。梅瑞爾還提出了一個有關教學策略的描述性理論，認為策略有基本呈現形式（PPF）、輔助呈現形式（SPF）和呈現之間的聯(lián)系（IDR）?；境尸F形式由講解通則、講解事例（例子）、探索通則（回憶）、探索事例（實踐）構成。輔助呈現形式（SPF）由附加的促進學習的信息構成，如使注意集中的措施、記憶術和反饋；呈現之間的聯(lián)系（IDR）則是一些序列，包括例子－非例子的配對序列、各種例子的分類序列和例子難度的范圍。對于每一個行為－內容類別，CDT都規(guī)定了PPF、SPF、IDR之間的組合，這些組合就構成了最有效的教學策略。

4.史密斯和雷根的教學系統(tǒng)設計理論 史密斯和雷根的教學系統(tǒng)設計理論是對90年代以前教學系統(tǒng)設計的一個總結，真正把教學系統(tǒng)設計的重點從教學系統(tǒng)設計過程模式轉移到教學系統(tǒng)設計理論和教學模式上來，著眼于具體教學問題，對設計教學策略給予了前所未有的關注。他們首先總結并綜合運用了加涅（1965，1985）、布魯姆（1956）和安德森（1985）有關學習結果的理論。認為學習結果包括：陳述性知識、概念、規(guī)則（關系型規(guī)則、程序型規(guī)則）、問題解決、認知策略、態(tài)度和心因動作技能。同時，他們借鑒了瑞奇魯斯（1983）有關教學策略的分類框架，把教學策略分為教學組織策略、教學管理策略和教學傳輸策略。然后，對加涅的一般教學策略模型進行了擴展。在此基礎上，史密斯和雷根提出了自己的教學事件理論，認為一般教學過程包括以下15個教學事件,并由此對各種不同的學習結果提出了相應的教學策略，這就形成一個與加涅的教學系統(tǒng)設計理論相類似的教學系統(tǒng)設計理論框架

5、何克抗的教學系統(tǒng)設計理論

初步建構了以學為主的教學設計理論體系，并在此基礎上提出了“主導一主體”教學設計模式。第一，注重教學系統(tǒng)設計理論的研究。第二，構建了以學為主的教學設計理論和方法體系，使教學系統(tǒng)設計理論和方法能夠更加深刻和貼切地反映社會轉型與技術進步所提出的實際需求。由于教學系統(tǒng)設計以多學科理論為基礎，與技術發(fā)展息息相關，因此，相關學科理論和技術的每一發(fā)展和變化必然對教學系統(tǒng)設計產生重大影響。近年來，由于信息技術的發(fā)展，特別是多媒體、超媒體、人工智能、網絡技術、虛擬現實技術所具有的多種特性適合于實現建構主義理論所要求的學習環(huán)境，同時由于建構主義主張的以學為中心、在學習過程中充分發(fā)揮學生的主動性和首創(chuàng)精神的思想符合世界教育改革的主流及社會發(fā)展對新型人才培養(yǎng)的需求，使建構主義愈來愈顯示出其強大的生命力。第三，提出了“主導一主體”教學設計理論?！爸鲗б恢黧w”教學系統(tǒng)設計模式是以教為主和以學為主這兩種教學系統(tǒng)設計相結合的產物。該模式在深入分析了以教為主的教學系統(tǒng)設計和以學為主的教學設計模式各自的優(yōu)缺點的基礎上，結合我國教育實際和社會對新型人才培養(yǎng)的需求，將兩種模式取長補短，提出了在教學中既要充分發(fā)揮教師的主導作用，又要創(chuàng)設有利于學生主動探索、主動發(fā)現，有利于體現學生的主體地位和創(chuàng)新人才培養(yǎng)的新型學習環(huán)境的“雙主”教學系統(tǒng)設計思想，初步建構了具有中國特色的教學設計理論體系。第四，注重將教學系統(tǒng)設計理論與實踐相結合。

6、戴爾的經驗之塔

戴爾將人們獲得的經驗分為三大類--做的經驗,觀察的經驗和抽象的經驗,并將獲得這三類經驗的方法分為十種.“經驗之塔”理論要點 塔的底層的經驗，該經驗是直接,具體的,學習時最容易理解,也便于記憶.塔的頂層經驗最抽象,易獲得概念,便于應用.學習方法

教育應從具體經驗入手,逐步過渡到抽象,這是較有效的學習方法.學習經驗教育不能止于直接經驗,不能過于具體化,而必須上升到理論,發(fā)展思維,形成概念.替代經驗位于塔的中部的是替代經驗,它能沖破時空的限制,彌補學生直接經驗的不足,且易于培養(yǎng)學生的觀察能力.形成科學的抽象在學校中,應用各種教育媒體,以使教育更為具體,從而形成科學的抽象

7.結構主義心理學派 ——皮亞杰 主要觀點: a)同化(assimilation),順應(accommodation),平衡(balance)是他提出的三個基本概念: 同化:個體感受刺激時,將它們納入到原有認知結構中的過程;順應:有機體調節(jié)自己內部結構以適應特定刺激情境的過程;平衡:個體通過自我調節(jié)機制使認知發(fā)展從一個平衡狀態(tài)向另一個較高的平衡狀態(tài)過度的過程.b)學習是認知結構的組織與再組織,S-AT-R(A代表同化,T代表主體的認知結構),客體的刺激只有被主體同化于認知結構中,才能引起對刺激的行為反應.c)學習從屬于發(fā)展(只有當兒童達到一定的認知發(fā)展階段時,他們才能通過心理運演來推斷)d)學習是一種能動的建構

使用范圍

教學系統(tǒng)設計的應用范圍

教學系統(tǒng)設計發(fā)展的歷史告訴我們，教學系統(tǒng)設計最早萌芽于軍隊和工業(yè)培訓領域；到60年代才逐漸被引入到學校教育當中。并作為一門獨立的知識體系得到迅速的發(fā)展；目前，教學系統(tǒng)設計在正規(guī)的學校教育、全民的社會教育和繼續(xù)教育以及工業(yè)、農業(yè)、金融、軍事、服務等各行業(yè)、各部門的職業(yè)教育和培訓領域中都得到了廣泛的應用。國外如美國、加拿大和澳大利亞的職業(yè)培訓，英國的開放大學以及美國、日本等國的中小學教育中均在課程設置、培訓計劃和教材資源等方面開展了教學系統(tǒng)設計，取得了許多成功的經驗。我國在九年義務教育的文字教材與聲像教材的編制中，在全國中小學計算機輔助教學軟件的開發(fā)中，在職業(yè)高中、高等院校的部分課程設置和多媒體教材設計中，以及大、中、小學的課堂教學中，教學系統(tǒng)設計的理論和思想也在逐步被接受，教學系統(tǒng)設計的實踐正愈來愈為人們所重視。根據《教育技術國際百科全書》的描述，在學校教育中，教學系統(tǒng)設計常常以現存的課程文獻或一個待完成的課程為出發(fā)點。在職業(yè)環(huán)境里，工作崗位是教學系統(tǒng)設計的參考和出發(fā)點，教學系統(tǒng)設計從具體的工作任務描述和分析開始，使職業(yè)崗位培訓中的教學目標非常明確和有的放矢。某些教學系統(tǒng)設計者企圖把教育和職業(yè)培訓作同樣處理，就容易忽視遍布于教育決策中的政治和道德因素以及很重要但卻難以具體化、任務化的基本思維方式和情感、道德教育。因此學校教育中教學系統(tǒng)設計的應用更加復雜，難度也相對更大。研究的基本內容第八頁

教學系統(tǒng)設計的學科性質

一、在龐大的教育科學體系中，教學系統(tǒng)設計是一門應用性很強的橋梁性學科

教育、教學理論是發(fā)展歷史比較悠久的學科，它著重研究教育、教學的客觀規(guī)律，通過一套范疇（概念）如教育、教學的任務、內容、過程、原則、方法、組織形式和效果等，建立從“教”的角度出發(fā)的本理論體系，揭示了教學機制，但它并不研究學生學習的內部機制。而學習理論則是探索人類學習的內部心理機制，著重研究學生學習的內部因素。這兩方面的基本理論為解決教育、教學問題，為制定和選擇教學方案提供了關于教學機制和學習機制的科學依據。教學系統(tǒng)設計為了追求教學效果的最優(yōu)化，不僅關心如何教，更關心學生如何學，因此在系統(tǒng)分析、解決教學問題的過程中注意把人類對教與學的研究成果和理論綜合應用于教學實踐。教學系統(tǒng)設計起到連接學科的作用一方面是指教學理論與學習理論在設計實踐中的相連接，另一方面尤為重要的，就是教學系統(tǒng)設計把教與學的理論與教學實踐活動緊密地連接起來。

作為應用學科，教學系統(tǒng)設計在其科學實踐中，又不斷地檢驗和發(fā)展學與教的理論，因此有許多教育心理學家致力于教學系統(tǒng)設計的研究并成為教學系統(tǒng)設計的專家。另外，教學系統(tǒng)設計自身的理論和方法也都是操作性、實踐性很強的用于分析、解決教學實際問題的理論和方法。

二、教學系統(tǒng)設計也是一門設計學科

設計的本質在于決策、問題求解和創(chuàng)造。教學系統(tǒng)設計的實質就是教學問題求解，并側重于問題求解中方案的尋找和決策過程。它不是發(fā)現客觀存在的、還不曾為人所知的教學規(guī)律，而是要運用已知的教學規(guī)律去創(chuàng)造性地解決教學問題。面向實際，正是教學系統(tǒng)設計的一個突出標志。

教學系統(tǒng)設計和所有的設計科學一樣，雖然應用了大量的科學原理、科學知識，但其基本出發(fā)點是要告訴人們應當怎樣做才能達到目的，應當如何行事才能更有效。理論按性質可分為規(guī)定性理論和描述性理論兩大類。描述性理論是揭示事物發(fā)展的客觀規(guī)律，用數學語言來表達便是：在條件a(a1,a2,??an)下，如果實施教學策略A(A1、A2??Am)，對出現的結果a(a1、a2??an)進行描述；規(guī)定性理論一般是以描述性理論揭示的客觀規(guī)律為依據，關注達到理想結果所采用的最優(yōu)策略與方法，即在條件a(a1、a2??an）下，為獲得理想結果a(a1,a2,??an)，需要執(zhí)行的策略A(A1、A2??Am)是什么。教學系統(tǒng)設計理論正是以達到教學目標作為出發(fā)點，在一定的教學條件下去選擇和確定最好的教學策略，所以它是一種規(guī)定性理論。但這種策略的制定是以學習理論、教學理論等描述性理論作為科學依據的。

一切設計科學的強大生命力在于它抓住了設計活動最根本的因素--人類設計技能。教學系統(tǒng)設計也是從這種智慧和技能上去描述一般設計過程，提出了普遍適用的教學系統(tǒng)設計過程模式。這樣就為恰當應用已總結出來的現有設計方法和開發(fā)更加有效的設計方法提供了可靠依據。

發(fā)展歷史