第一篇：英語語言學(xué)總結(jié)

1.The fact that there is no logcial or intrinsic connection between a sound and a meaning is called what design feature of language?(Arbitrariness)

2.The actual use of language knowledge is called what by Chomsky?Performance

3.Any syllable can not be exempted from a what?

vowel

4.Free morphemes have two types, what are they?

Lexical morphemes and functional morphemes

5.Which two consonants are liquids?

[l][r]

6.Which vowel is rounded and open?

[o]

7.What is formalism in linguistics?

Formalism or formal linguisitics is the study of the abstract forms of languige and the internal relations.8.What is a minimal pair?

Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.9.What is a bound morpheme?

Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.10.What is langue?

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.11.Describe the sound features:

[g]:stop, velar

[m]:bilabial, nasal

[w]:bilabial,glide

[^]:central, unrounded, semi-open

[f]:labiodental, liquid, fricative

1.The study about the meanings is which branch of linguistics? Smantics

2.Suprasemental features include four, name two.Stress and intonation

3.Sounds that are produced with no obstruction of airstream are called what?

Voiceless sounds

4.Language is used to build or maintain social contact reflects which function?

Phatic function/communion

5.Name the two affricates.6.Which vowel is close, front and long?

[i:]

7.What is phonetics?

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.8.What is allomorph?

An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme.9.What is competence?

10.What is a derivation morpheme?

Derivation morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.11.Describe the sound features:

[b]:bilabial, stop

[k]:velar,stop

[f]:labiodental, fricative

[∫]:palatal, fricative

[a:]unrounded, back, long, open

1.The fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication reflects what design feature of language?

Specialization

2.The particular realization of langue is what?

3.Describe the syllable structure.V CV VC CVC CCVC VCC CCCVC CVCC CVCCC

4.Words formed from the first letters of a series of words and

pronounced as single words, what are they called?

Acronym

5.Voiced palatal fricative is which sound?

6.Which vowel is unrounded and back?[a:]

7.What is language?

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.8.What is syntagmatic relation?

Syntagmatic relation refers to the horizontal relationship between linguisitc elements, which form linear squences.9.What is a morpheme?

A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.10.What is derivation?0

Dereivation is a way of word formation, which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.11.Describe the sound features:

[i:]:long, closed, front

[t]:alveolar, stop

[v]:labiodental, fricative

[l]:liquid,fricative

[h]:liquid, frictive, glottal

1.Who distinguishes Competence and Performance?

Noam Chosmsky

2.The vertical relation between linguistic elements is called what relation?

Paradigmatic relations.3.The two levels of language--sound and meaning make which design feature of language?

Duality

4.The phenomenon that one sound is influenced by neighboring sounds is called what?

Assimilation

5.The two semi-vowels are what?

[j] [w]

6.Which vowel is long, central?

7.What is a phoneme?

Phonemes are the phonological units of language.8.What is an inflectional morpheme?

9.What is synchronic linguistics?

Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at one particular time.10.What is a compound?

Building new words by putting two words together is called compound.11.Describe the sound features:

[p]:bilabial, stop, liquid

[v]:labioldental, fricative

[l]:alveolar, liquid

[n]:nasal, alveolar

[e]:semi-opened, front, short, unrounded

卡號10385211密碼5635

第二篇：《英語語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論》課程總結(jié)

外國語系《英語語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論》課程建設(shè)總結(jié)

一、課程介紹

《語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論》是英語專業(yè)高年級的英語專業(yè)知識必修課程。教學(xué)目的在于使學(xué)生了解人類語言研究的豐富成果，提高其對語言的社會、人文、經(jīng)濟(jì)、科技以及個人修養(yǎng)等方面重要性的認(rèn)識，培養(yǎng)語言意識，發(fā)展理性思維。有助于拓寬學(xué)生的思路和視野，全面提高學(xué)生的素質(zhì)。教學(xué)內(nèi)容主要包括：語言的性質(zhì)、特征和功能；語言構(gòu)造；語義研究；語言與社會、文化的關(guān)系；語用原則。語言學(xué)理論與語言教學(xué)的關(guān)系以及現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)流派作為選講內(nèi)容。開設(shè)在第6學(xué)期，3學(xué)時／周，總學(xué)時為54學(xué)時。

二、課程負(fù)責(zé)人 余澤標(biāo) 副教授

三、教學(xué)隊伍 余澤標(biāo) 副教授 張安律 副教授 徐飛 講師

四、教材及教學(xué)參考書目

1、胡壯麟，《語言學(xué)教程（修訂版）》，北京大學(xué)出版社，2001年第1版。

2、戴偉棟，何兆熊，《簡明英語語言學(xué)教程》，上海外語教育出版社，2002年第1版。

3、王德春，《語言學(xué)概論》，上海外語教育出版社，2000年第1版。

4、胡壯麟，《語言學(xué)教程（修訂版中譯本）》，北京大學(xué)出版社，2002年第1版。

5、楊信彰，《語言學(xué)概論》，高等教育出版社，2005年第1版。

五、教學(xué)大綱

已制訂有《語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論》課程教學(xué)大綱

六、教案（附后）

七、教學(xué)改革及效果

1、改革教學(xué)內(nèi)容和手段，采用自制多媒體課件教學(xué)，重點(diǎn)突出與實(shí)際語言運(yùn)用相關(guān)的內(nèi)容，以利于學(xué)生接受和理解。

2、突破傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)模式，把系統(tǒng)的語言理論與語言分析相結(jié)合，從根本上改變語言學(xué)教學(xué)枯燥無味的教學(xué)模式，有利地促使學(xué)生認(rèn)識到了對語言學(xué)理論學(xué)習(xí)的必要性和重要性。

3、學(xué)習(xí)形式多樣化，重在激發(fā)學(xué)生興趣、擴(kuò)展學(xué)生積極投入學(xué)習(xí)的空間、培養(yǎng)有效語言思維習(xí)慣。課堂學(xué)習(xí)既有準(zhǔn)備充分的講解又有啟發(fā)思維的討論，使學(xué)生既受到系統(tǒng)的專業(yè)訓(xùn)練又獲得實(shí)際操作的技能。

八、建設(shè)規(guī)劃

規(guī)劃在2008年將該課程建設(shè)成為校級重點(diǎn)課程，同時加強(qiáng)教學(xué)內(nèi)容和手段的改革，制作更完善的多媒體教學(xué)課件，提高教學(xué)效果。

第三篇：英語語言學(xué)概論--整理

1.Design feature(識別特征)refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2.Productivity(能產(chǎn)性)refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.3.arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4.symbol(符號)Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5.discreteness(離散性)Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6.displacement(不受時空限制的特性)Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7.duality of structure(結(jié)構(gòu)二重性)The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.8.culture transmission(文化傳播)Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9.interchangeability(互換性)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1)Productivity.2)Discreteness.3)Displacement 4)Arbitrariness.5)Cultural transmission 6)Duality of structure.7)Interchangeability.3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules.By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates.And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4.★(Function of language.)According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1)Instrumental function.工具功能 2)Regulatory function.調(diào)節(jié)功能

3)Representational function.表現(xiàn)功能 4)Interactional function.互動功能 5)Personal function.自指性功能

6)Heuristic function.啟發(fā)功能 [osbQtq`kf`h] 7)Imaginative function.想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1)Interpersonal components.人際 2)Ideational components.概念 3)Textual components.語篇

Chapter 1 Language語言

1.general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通語言學(xué)與描寫語言學(xué))The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2.synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共時語言學(xué)與歷時語言學(xué))Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3.theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics(理論語言學(xué)與應(yīng)用語言學(xué))The former copes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4.microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微觀語言學(xué)與宏觀語言學(xué))The former studies only the structure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5.langue and parole(語言與言語)The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6.competence and performance(語言能力與語言運(yùn)用)The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7.speech and writing(口頭語與書面語)Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior(語言行為潛勢與實(shí)際語言行為)People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior.And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(橫組合關(guān)系與縱聚合關(guān)系)The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10.verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言語交際與非言語交際)Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication.The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics? According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following: 1)General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2)Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3)Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4)Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1)Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2)Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3)Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3.★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system? Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following: 1)Phonetics.語音學(xué) is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2)Phonology.音位學(xué) studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3)Morphology.形態(tài)學(xué) studies about how a word is formed.4)Syntax.句法學(xué) studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5)Semantics.語義學(xué) studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6)Pragmatics.語用學(xué)

★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 2 Linguistics語言學(xué)

1.articulatory phonetics(發(fā)音語音學(xué))The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2.acoustic phonetics(聲學(xué)語音學(xué))The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3.auditory phonetics(聽覺語音學(xué))The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.consonant(輔音)Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5.vowel(元音)is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6.bilabials(雙唇音)Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips.[p] [b] [m] [w] 7.affricates(塞擦音)The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates.[tX] [dY] [tr] [dr] 8.glottis(聲門)Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9.rounded vowel(圓唇元音)Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening.[u:] [u] [OB] [O] 10.diphthongs(雙元音)Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][Oi] [Qu][au] 11.triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one.[eiQ][aiQ][OiQ] [QuQ][auQ] 12.lax vowels(松元音)According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels.All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1.★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria? The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.2.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria? Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1)The state of the velum 2)The position of the tongue.3)The openness of the mouth.4)The shape of the lips.5)The length of the vowels.6)The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3.★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other? Phonetics has three sub-branches as following: 1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3)Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively? I.The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following: 1)Voiced.2)Nasal.3)Consonantal.4)Vocalic.5)Continuant.6)Anterior.Chapter 3 Phonetics語音學(xué) 7)Coronal.8)Aspirated.II.The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following: 1)High.2)Low.3)Front.4)Back.5)Rounded.6)Tense.5 1.2.3.4.5.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位學(xué)

phonemes(音位)Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.allophones(音位變體)Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.phones(單音)The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.minimal pair(最小對立體)Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.contrastive distribution(對比分布)If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6.complementary distribution(互補(bǔ)分布)If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.7.free variation(自由變異)When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8.distinctive features(區(qū)別性特征)A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9.suprasegmental features(超切分特征)The distinctive(phonological)features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10.tone languages(聲調(diào)語言)Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11.intonation languages(語調(diào)語言)Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12.juncture(連音)Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1.★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology? 1)Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2)Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2.Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/.And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3.How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set? A minimal pair should meet three conditions: 1)The two forms are different in meaning.2)The two forms are different in one sound segment.3)The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4.★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1)Contrastive distribution.Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2)Complementary distribution.The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3)Free variation.In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5.What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English? I.1)Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2)The distinctive(phonological)features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3)Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment.They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6.What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?

Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level

7.★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?

The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.7

1.morphemes(語素)Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs(語素變體)Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs(形素)Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2.roots(詞根)Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes(詞綴)Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes(自由語素)Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes(粘著語素)Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3.inflectional affixes(屈折詞綴)refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes(派生詞綴)refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4.empty morph(空語子)Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph(零語子)Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5.IC Analysis(直接成分分析)IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression(both a word and a sentence)into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6.immediate constituents(直接成分)A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents(最后成分)Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7.morphological rules(形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則)The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.8.word-formation process(構(gòu)詞法)Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1.★What is IC Analysis?

IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression(both a word and a sentence)into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2.How are morphemes classified? 1)Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2)Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3.★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a)All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b)All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4.What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph? a)Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b)Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5.Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a)Functionally: i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b)In term of position: i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present.And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6.What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example: a)un-+ adj.->adj.b)Adj./n.+-ify->v.c)V.+-able-> adj.d)Adj.+-ly-> adv.Chapter 5 Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)

Chapter 6 Syntax 句法學(xué)

1.syntagmatic relations(橫組關(guān)系)refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations(縱聚合關(guān)系)refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations(等級關(guān)系)refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2.IC Analysis(直接成分分析)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(標(biāo)記法直接成分分析)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers(短語標(biāo)記法)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing(方括號標(biāo)記法)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3.constituency(成分關(guān)系)

dependency(依存關(guān)系)

4.surface structures(表層結(jié)構(gòu))refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformational rules.deep structures(深層結(jié)構(gòu))deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5.phrase structure rules(短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則)are a way to describe a given language's syntax.They are used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6.transformational rules(轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則)7.structural ambiguity(結(jié)構(gòu)歧義)

1.What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure? They are different from each other in four aspects: 1)Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2)Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3)Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4)Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2.Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1)PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2)T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3.What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are they generated? To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules(PS rules)while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules(T-rules).4.What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?

Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5.What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1)Syntagmatic relations 2)Paradigmatic relations.3)Hierarchical relations.10 1.2.3.4.5.Chapter 7 Semantics 語義學(xué)

Lexical semantics(詞匯語義學(xué))is defined as the study of word meaning in language.Sense(意義)refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.Reference(所指)means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.Concept(概念)is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Denotation(外延)is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6.Connotation(內(nèi)涵)refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7.Componential analysis(成分分析法)is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8.Semantic field(語義場)The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.The areas are semantic fields.9.Hyponymy(上下義關(guān)系)refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10.Synonymy(同義關(guān)系)refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11.Antonymy(反義關(guān)系)refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12.Lexical ambiguity(詞匯歧義)

13.Polysemy(多義性)refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14.Homonymy(同音(同形)異義關(guān)系)refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15.Sentence semantics(句子語義學(xué))refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1.What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics? In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics;it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2.What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning? 1)Object, 2)concept, 3)symbol, 4)user, 5)context.3.What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?

第四篇：《英語語言學(xué)概論》精選試題

《英語語言學(xué)概論》精選試題

1.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true? C A.Language is a system B.Language is symbolic C.Animals also have language D.Language is arbitrary

2.Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language? A A.Symbolic B.Dual C.Productive D.Arbitrary

3.What is the most important function of language? C A.Interpersonal B.Phatic C.Informative D.Metalingual

4.Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole?A

A.Saussure B.Chomsky C.Halliday D.Anonymous

5.According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language? A A.competence B.parole C.performance D.langue

6.The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn't it?” is

B

.A.informative B.phatic C.directive D.performative

7.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies

D

.A.the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B.the perception of sounds C.the combination of sounds D.the production of sounds

8.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in

B

.A.the place of articulation B.the obstruction of airstream C.the position of the tongue D.the shape of the lips

9.Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription? A A.Phonetics B.Phonology C.Semantics D.Pragmatics 10.Which studies the sound systems in a certain language? B A.Phonetics B.Phonology C.Semantics D.Pragmatics 11.Minimal pairs are used to

B

.A.find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C.compare two words

D.find the allophones of language

12.Usually, suprasegmental features include

D

,length and pitch.A.phoneme B.speech sounds C.syllables D.stress 13.Which is an indispensable part of a syllable? D A.Coda B.Onset C.Stem D.Peak

14.Which is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content? B A.Word B.Morpheme C.Allomorph D.Root

15.Which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed? A A.Morphology B.Syntax C.Phonology D.Semantics

16.Lexeme is

B

A.a physically definable unit B.the common factor underlying a set of forms C.a grammatical unit D.an indefinable unit

17.Which of the following sounds does not belong to the allomorphs of the English plural morpheme ? C A.[s] B.[iz] C.[ai] D.[is]

18.All words contain a

A

A.root morpheme B.bound morpheme C.prefix D.suffix

19.The relationship between “fruit” and “apple” is

B A.homonymy B.hyponymy C.polysemy D.synonymy

20.The part of the grammar that represents a speaker's knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences is called

C

A.lexicon B.morphology C.syntax D.semantics

21.Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns? D A.gender B.number C.case D.voice

22.The pair of words “l(fā)end” and “borrow” are

B

.A.gradable opposites B.converse opposites C.co-hyponyms D.synonyms 23.“Big” and “Small” are a pair of

B

opposites.A.complementary B.gradable C.complete D.converse

24.According to C.Morris and R.Carnap, which is studies the relationship between symbols and their interpreters? C A.syntax B.semantics C.pragmatics D.sociolinguistics

25.There are

B

diesis in the sentence she has sold it here yesterday.A.3 B.4 C.5 D.6 26.In the following conversation:-Beirut is in Peru, isn't it?

-And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.The second person violates the

C

A.Quantity Maxim B.Quality Maxim C.Relation Maxim D.Manner Maxim 27.The maxim of requires that a participant's contribution be relevant to the conversation.D A.quantity B.quality C.manner D.relation

三、判斷：Mistake is unintentionally deriant from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner, which suggests failure in competence.答案是：F

四、簡答題共30分，3題，要求字?jǐn)?shù)不得超過100。1 畫出樹形圖：The president thinks that he will win.這個題型年年考，07年的句子和06年的幾乎是換湯不換藥： 3 分析reference, sense 之間的聯(lián)系和區(qū)別。

三、判斷

1.Simplification of grammar occurs, so does elaboration or complication.2.Five general types of speech acts share the same illocutionary point, but differ in strength.3.Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending an infinite set of sentences.4.Phonology is concerned with the abstract set if sounds in a language which allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we say and hear.5.The analyst collects samples of the language as it is used, not according to some views of how it should be used.This is called the prescriptive approach.6.The term “l(fā)earning”, when used of language, refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situation.The term “acquisition”, however, applied to a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of voca 7.Broad transcription is normally used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.8.Sense means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world.9.The notion of context is essential to the semantic study of language.10.Language is both arbitrary and non-arbitrary.四、1.Specify the cognitive factors in child language development.2.Draw the tree diagram for the following sentence to show its syntactic structure.The boy who was sleeping was dreaming.3.Specify the five types of synonyms.4.What are the possible causes of language change?

五、評論

Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, pr of the dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground.Walt Whiteman Do you share your opinions with Walt Whiteman or not? What’s your understanding of language?

第五篇：英語語言學(xué)筆記第八章

第八章 語言的使用

在語義那一章里，我們談到“意義”一詞可以有不同的意義，并對其中的幾種作了討論。但是還有一種重要的意義我們沒有涉及到。假定有人對你說“You're a fool（你是個傻子）”，你一般都會反問：“What do you mean?（你什么意思）”。這并不是因?yàn)槟悴恢谰渥又懈髟~的意思，也不是因?yàn)榫渥拥慕Y(jié)構(gòu)太復(fù)雜，讓你難以理解。你清楚地知道you指誰，fool是什么涵義，也知道句子的結(jié)構(gòu)。你不知道的是說話人說這句話究竟是什么意思，有什么意圖。或者，你知道說話人的意圖，卻想用“What do you mean（你什么意思）？”來反駁對方的說法。你這里用的并不是句子的概念意義。這種意義有時稱為“說話者意義”、“語句意義”或者“語境意義”。這種意義與我們在語義學(xué)中研究的意義不同，對它的解釋更多地依賴于說話人是誰，聽話人是誰，什么時候在什么地方說這句話?？傊褪侨Q于語境。研究這種意義的學(xué)科叫語用學(xué)。因?yàn)檫@種意義部分來自語言的使用環(huán)境，語用學(xué)也可以被定義為研究語言使用的學(xué)科?，F(xiàn)在如果我們把意義分成兩大類：一類與所用的詞密切相關(guān)，較穩(wěn)定，是固有意義（語義學(xué)研究的意義）；另一類與語境密切相關(guān)，不太確定，是附加意義（語用學(xué)研究的意義），那么我們就可以說pragmatics=meaning語義學(xué)意義）。

8.1 言語行為理論

這個理論是牛津哲學(xué)家奧斯?。↗.L.Austin）提出的，是研究語言使用的第一個重要理論。奧斯汀從1952年開始講授他的理論。1955年，他去美國哈佛大學(xué)做威廉·詹姆斯（William James）講座時，修訂了自己的講稿，把題目從《言與行》（Words and Deeds）改成了《怎樣用詞做事》（How to Do Things with Words）。該講稿在他去世后，于1962年出版。

8.1.1 施為句（performatives）和表述句（constatives）

奧斯汀理論的第一步是認(rèn)為句子有兩類：施為句和表述句。在《怎樣用詞做事》（How to Do Things with Words）中，奧斯汀認(rèn)為下面的句子并不是用來描述事物的，沒有真假。說出這些句子是（或者部分是）實(shí)施某種行為。所以這些句子稱為施為句。其中的動詞叫施為性動詞。

例8-1

a.I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.（我把這只船命名為伊麗莎白皇后號）

b.I bequeath my watch to my brother.（我把手表遺贈給我弟弟）

c.I bet you six pences it will rain tomorrow.（我用六便士跟你打賭明天會下雨）

d.I promise to finish it in time．（我答應(yīng)按時完成）

e.I apologize.（我道歉）

f.I declare the meeting open．（我宣布會議開始）

g.I warn you that the bull will charge．（我警告你這頭公牛會撞人）

相反，化學(xué)老師在演示實(shí)驗(yàn)時說的例8-2，卻不是施為句。它只是描述了說話人說話的同時在做什么。說話人不能通過說這句話把液體倒入試管，他必須同時做倒液體的動作。否則，我們可以說他作了虛假陳述。這樣的句子叫表述句。

例8-2

I pour some liquid into the tube．（我把一些液體倒入試管）

雖然施為句沒有真假，但必須滿足一些條件才是合適的。我們把奧斯汀提出的合適條件簡化如下：

A．（?。┍仨氂幸粋€相應(yīng)的規(guī)約程序。并且

（ⅱ）相關(guān)的參與者和環(huán)境是合適的。

B.該程序必須正確全面地得到執(zhí)行。

C.通常，（ⅰ）有關(guān)人員必須有相關(guān)的思想、感情和意圖。而且（ⅱ）能付諸實(shí)際行動。

所以，在新船下水儀式上，只有被指定的那個人才有權(quán)給船命名，并且這個人必須說出符合命名程序的話；遺贈手表的人必須有一塊手表；如果第二天是晴天，那么，打賭會有雨的人必須給另一個參與者六便士。

但是，奧斯汀很快認(rèn)識到，這些條件只適用于部分情況。有些情況，并不需要規(guī)約程序來完成。例如發(fā)誓，可以說“I promise”，也可以說“I give my word for it”，沒有嚴(yán)格的程序。另一方面，所謂的表述句也可能必須滿足其中的某些條件。例如，說“The present King of France is bald（法國現(xiàn)在的國王是個禿子）”是不合適的，就像一個沒有手表的人說“I bequeath my watch to my brother（我把我的手表遺贈給我弟弟）”一樣。他們都假定某種實(shí)際并不存在的東西存在。而且表述句中，說話人也必須要有相關(guān)的思想、感情和意圖。例如，我們不能說“The cat is on the mat，but I don't believe it.（貓在墊子上，但是我不相信）”

后來，奧斯汀嘗試從語法和詞匯上找到區(qū)分施為句和表述句的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。他注意到，典型的施為句一般是第一人稱單數(shù)作主語；用一般現(xiàn)在時；用直陳語氣；用主動語態(tài)；動詞是施為性動詞。不過也有反例。用被動語態(tài)的如“Pedestrians are warned to keep off the grass（行人禁止踐踏草坪）”還是很常見的。在非正式場合，其他語氣和時態(tài)也是可能的。我們可以不說“I order you turn right（我命令你向右轉(zhuǎn)）”，而只是簡單地說“Turn right（向右轉(zhuǎn)）”。陪審團(tuán)可以不說“I find you guilty（我裁決你有罪）”，而說“You did it（你犯了罪）”。最明顯的例子可能是“Thank you”。因?yàn)闆]有主語，表面上看起來像個祈使句，但實(shí)際上這是個施為句。通過說這句話，說話人表達(dá)了對聽話人的謝意，沒有必要再做別的事，雖然對方有時會開玩笑說：“你不能只是口頭上謝我”。另一方面，state一般被用來表述事情，是最典型的表述動詞，卻也可以被用來做事。說“I state that I'm alone responsible（我聲明我承擔(dān)全部責(zé)任）”的時候，說話人就發(fā)表了聲明，承擔(dān)了責(zé)任。換句話說，看來施為句和表述句的區(qū)分很難維持，所有的句子都能用來做事。

8.1.2 行事行為（illocutionary act）理論

在《怎樣用詞做事》（How to Do Things with Words）后面的部分，奧斯汀嘗試從一種新的角度來解決這個問題，討論在什么意義上說話就是做事。

根據(jù)他的觀點(diǎn)，說話可以在三種意義上被看成做事。第一種是普通意義。那就是，我們說話的時候，要移動發(fā)音器官，發(fā)出按照一定方式組織起來，并被賦予了一定意義的聲音。在這個意義上，當(dāng)有人說“Morning！”時，我們可以問：“他做了什么？”，而不問“他說了什么？”。答案可以是他發(fā)出了一個聲音，單詞或者句子--“Morning”。這種意義上的行為叫作發(fā)話行為（locutionary act）。然而，奧斯汀認(rèn)為在發(fā)話行為中還有一種行為，“在實(shí)施發(fā)話行為的時候，我們同時也在實(shí)施另一種行為，例如：提出或回答問題，提供信息、保證或警告，宣告裁定或意圖，公布判決或任命，提出申訴或批評，作出辯認(rèn)或描述，等等”。（1962：98－99）例如，當(dāng)有人說“Morning！”時，另一個人問“他做了什么？”我們完全可以回答：“他表示了問候?！?/p>

換句話說，我們說話時，不只是說出一些具有一定意義的語言單位，而且說明我們的說話目的，我們希望怎樣被理解，也就是奧斯汀說的具有一定的語力（force）。在上面的例子中，我們可以說“Morning！”有問候的語力，或者說，它應(yīng)該被理解成問候。這是說話可

以是做事的第二種意義，這種行為叫行事行為。奧斯汀承認(rèn)語力（force）可以被看成意義（meaning）的一部分，這時的意義是廣義的。就我們剛才討論的例子，我們也可以說“他的意思是問候”。在本章開頭的那個反問句“What do you mean？（你什么意思）”中，mean也是廣義的。但是奧斯汀主張還是把語力（force）與意義（meaning）區(qū)分開，后者只用作狹義；只指較穩(wěn)定的固有的意義。語力（force），或者叫行事語力（illocutionary force），相當(dāng)于說話者意義、語境意義或附加意義，可以譯成漢語的“言外之意”。不過illocutionary act不能翻譯成“言外行為”，因?yàn)榍熬Y-il的意思是“在……里面”，而不是否定。

說話可以看成做事的第三種意義，涉及話語對聽話人產(chǎn)生的效果。通過告訴聽話人某事，說話人可以改變聽話人對某件事的觀點(diǎn)，或者誤導(dǎo)他，讓他驚奇，誘導(dǎo)他做某事，等等。不管這些效果是否符合說話人的本意，它們都可以看作說話人行為的一部分。這種行為，叫做取效行為（perlocutionary act）。

例如，說“Morning！”的時候，說話人表示他想和聽話人保持友好的關(guān)系。這種友好的表示無疑會對聽話人產(chǎn)生一定的影響。如果對話雙方的關(guān)系很正常，效果可能不太明顯。但如果兩人的關(guān)系有些緊張，一方說出一個簡單的“Morning！”，就可能使他們的關(guān)系發(fā)生很大的變化。聽話人可能會接受他這種友好的表示，和他重歸于好。如果是這樣，回答“他做什么？”時，我們就可以說：“他和朋友重修舊好了?！币部赡埽犜捜藢φf話人有偏見，把他的友好表示看成是虛偽，一句問候語反而使兩人的關(guān)系更加惡化了。雖然這并非說話人所愿，但這的確是他的取效行為（perlocutionary act）。取效行為和行事行為（illocutionary act）不同，前者與說話人的意圖有關(guān)，而后者與此無關(guān)。

如果這樣定義，那么語言學(xué)家歷來研究的就是發(fā)話行為（locutionary act）。他們關(guān)心怎么發(fā)音，怎么組詞，怎么造句，它們又有什么固有的意義。取效行為（perlocutionary act）涉及許多現(xiàn)在仍然沒有搞清楚的心理和社會因素。所以奧斯汀真正關(guān)注的是行事行為（illocutionary act）。在這個意義上，言語行為理論實(shí)際上就是行事行為理論。

這個概括性更強(qiáng)的理論適用于所有的句子。前面所講的施為句只是比較特殊的一類，它的行事語力(illocutionary force)已由施為性動詞清楚地表明。（004km.cnics．The beer was warm.（約翰打開野餐，啤酒還是溫的）

（b）The beer was part of the picnics．（啤酒是野餐的一部分）

常規(guī)型：

（a）John said“hello” to the secretary and then he smiled.（約翰向秘書問好，然后他微微一笑）

（b）John said “hello” to the female secretary and then John smiled．（約翰向女秘書問好，然后約翰微微一笑）

聯(lián)袂型：

（a）Harry and Sue bought a piano.（哈里和蘇買了一架鋼琴）

（b）They bought it together，not one each.（他們一起買了一架鋼琴，不是每人各買一架）

偏好同指型：

（a）John came in and he sat down．（約翰進(jìn)來，他坐下）

（b）John(1)came in and he(1)sat down．（約翰進(jìn)來，約翰坐下）

為了避免數(shù)量原則和信息量原則發(fā)生可能的沖突，列文森建議限制數(shù)量原則的使用范圍，規(guī)定它只對荷恩等級有效。并對荷恩等級加了如下的限制： 要使＜S，W＞構(gòu)成荷恩等級，則：

（?。θ我庖粋€句子框架A，A（S）必須衍推A（W）；

（ⅱ）S和W必須同等詞匯化（因此，沒有＜ iff, if＞這樣的荷恩等級，以免妨礙“條件句完善化”

（ⅲ）S和W必須“關(guān)涉”同樣的語義關(guān)系，或同屬相同的語義場（因此沒有＜since，and＞這樣的荷恩等級關(guān)系，以免妨礙“連接詞強(qiáng)化”（同上：407）

另一方面，如果含義與假設(shè)矛盾，含義就會被取消?！癐f the door is locked I have a key in my pocket．（如果門鎖著，我口袋里有鑰匙）”不能推導(dǎo)出相應(yīng)的“條件句完善型”“If and only if...”，因?yàn)檫@與我們的假設(shè)矛盾--門鎖著的時候，鑰匙是不會自動到口袋里的。

下面讓我們來看看方式原則（M－Principle）。對此，在1987年的論文里，列文森還沒有給出具體的表述。他把對荷恩原則的批評和表達(dá)自己的觀點(diǎn)結(jié)合在一起。他指出荷恩沒有區(qū)分兩種“最小化（minimization）”：語義最小化和表達(dá)式最小化。語義最小化，或內(nèi)容最小化等于語義概括化。也就是說，越是一般的詞語，語義量越小，內(nèi)涵越?。ㄏ喾?，其外延會越大）；概括性越差、越具體的詞語，語義量越大。例如，ship和ferry，flower和rose，animal和tiger，前者都比后者概括性強(qiáng)。選擇前者而不選擇后者是個最小化過程。而表達(dá)式最小化或者說形式最小化是就表面的長度和復(fù)雜性而言的。它與一個詞語的語音形式和詞匯形態(tài)有關(guān)，所以，正常重音的詞語要比相應(yīng)的非正常重音的詞語形式小。意義相當(dāng)?shù)脑~語，即同義詞語，組成成分越少的，詞語越短，形式越??；反之，組成成分越多的，詞語越長，形式越大。例如，frequent（頻繁）和hot infrequent（不是稀少），to stop a car（停車）和 to cause a car to stop（讓車停下來）。

列文森的觀點(diǎn)是，只有語義最小化與信息量原則有關(guān)系。相反，表達(dá)式最小化與語言單位的形式相關(guān)，即與表達(dá)的方式有關(guān)，而與表達(dá)的內(nèi)容或表達(dá)的程度無關(guān)，所以表達(dá)式最小化屬于方式原則的范圍。他也批評了荷恩的語用勞動分工。他說“荷恩語用勞動分工中涉及的對立是有標(biāo)記和無標(biāo)記的對立，更準(zhǔn)確地說是常用性和非常用性的對立，或者說是簡潔表達(dá)形式和復(fù)雜表達(dá)形式的對立。這兩種表達(dá)形式是同義的，二者之間的區(qū)別與信息數(shù)量無關(guān)，而與表面形式有關(guān)，所以準(zhǔn)確地說，這種含義來自方式準(zhǔn)則?！保ㄍ希?09）

根據(jù)黃衍的說法（1991：306），方式原則（M-原則）的內(nèi)容如下：

說話人準(zhǔn)則：不要無故使用冗長、隱晦或有標(biāo)記的表達(dá)形式。

聽話人推論：如果說話人使用了冗長或有標(biāo)記的表達(dá)形式M，他的意思就與他本來可以用無標(biāo)記的表達(dá)形式U所表達(dá)的意義不一樣，--具體地說，說話人是在設(shè)法避免U帶來的常規(guī)性的聯(lián)想和信息量含義。

為了說明三原則的實(shí)際作用，列文森較詳細(xì)地討論了照應(yīng)指稱問題。1981年，喬姆斯基（Chomsky）在他的《管轄與約束理論》中用語法規(guī)則給出了一種解釋，列文森不贊成他的觀點(diǎn)。他認(rèn)為照應(yīng)首先是個語義學(xué)和語用學(xué)上的概念，用語用學(xué)原則來解釋這種表達(dá)形式的優(yōu)先解讀更好。他具體地提出了下列關(guān)于照應(yīng)的語用學(xué)機(jī)制：

（a）當(dāng)句法允許直接同指編碼時，例如可以用反身代詞時，如果用了信息較弱的表達(dá)形式，如非反身代詞，就會數(shù)量隱含非同指解讀。

（b）在其它情況下，語義概括性強(qiáng)、信息量較弱的表達(dá)形式（代詞和空形式）根據(jù)信息量原則偏向同指解讀，除非：

（c）用了有標(biāo)記的形式，比如可以用代詞的地方用了詞匯性名詞短語；或者可以用零形式的地方用了代詞，將方式隱含非同指解讀。（同上：410）

換句話說，既然反身代詞和相應(yīng)的普通代詞（如 himself和 him）同等詞匯化，而且語義關(guān)系相同，它們就可以構(gòu)成荷恩等級。因?yàn)榉瓷泶~要求要有先行詞，所以它比普通代詞在語義上更具體，信息量更強(qiáng)，它將排在前面，如＜himself, him＞。因而，在句法允許使用反身代詞的時候，使用普通代詞就數(shù)量隱含，自反代詞編碼的同指解讀不成立。例如，例8-12b中的him從句法上說，可以換成himself,就像（a）一樣，所以，根據(jù)數(shù)量原則，（b）

隱含himself用在這兒語義上不合適，也就是說John（約翰）和him（他）指的不是同一個人。

例 8-21

a.John(1)likes himself(1).（約翰喜歡自己）

b.John(1)likes him(2)．（約翰喜歡他）

相比之下，因?yàn)槔?-22a中的φ和（b）中的he處在himself不能出現(xiàn)的位置，如（c）所表明的，所以，根據(jù)信息量原則，二者都能產(chǎn)生常規(guī)的同指解讀。

例 8-22

a.John(1)came in and φ(1)sat down in the front row immediately.（約翰進(jìn)來，馬上在最前排坐了下來）

b.John(1)came in and he(1)sat down in the front row immediately.（約翰進(jìn)來，他馬上在最前排坐了下來）

C.* John(1)came in and himself(1)sat down in the front row immediately．（*約翰進(jìn)來，他自己馬上在最前排坐了下來）

（d）句用了詞匯性名詞短語the man（那個男人），而沒有用代詞，根據(jù)方式原則，這里有有標(biāo)記意義，也就是說John和the man不是指同一個人。（e）句的HE是重音成分，也就是說在語音形式上是有標(biāo)記的，所以也要根據(jù)方式原則解讀。

d．John(1)came in and the man(2)sat own in the front row immediately．（約翰進(jìn)來，那個人馬上在前排坐了下來）

e.John(l)came in and HE(2)sat own in the front row immediately．

（約翰進(jìn)來，他(2)馬上在前排坐了下來）

但是還存在一些問題。其中一個就是，根據(jù)列文森的語用機(jī)制（c），可以用零形式的地方用了普通代詞，應(yīng)該方式隱含非同指解讀，那么（b）句中的John和he應(yīng)該被解讀為不同指，而這與我們的直覺是相反的。因此，需要進(jìn)行新的探索，改進(jìn)列文森的原則，以及斯波伯、威爾遜和荷恩的原則。問題和練習(xí)

1.解釋下列術(shù)語：

performative(施為句)

constative(表述句)

locutionary act(發(fā)話行為)

illocutionary act(行事行為)

perlocutionary act(取效行為)

cooperative principle(合作原則)

conversational implicature(會話含義)

entailment(衍推)

ostensive communication(明示交際)

communicative principle of relevance(交際關(guān)聯(lián)原則)

relevance(as a comparative notion)(關(guān)聯(lián)性)

(Horn's)Q-principle(荷恩的Q原則)

R-principle(R原則)

division of pragmatic labour(語用勞動分工)

constraints on Horn scales(荷恩等級的約束)

2.下面是父親和女兒的對話，分析說明每句話中的行事語力。

[女兒走進(jìn)廚房，拿著些爆米花]

Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.（我原以為你在練小提琴）

Daughter: I need to get the［violin］stand．（我要去拿琴譜架）

Father: Is it under the popcorn?（它在爆米花下面嗎？）

3.如果你問某人“Can you open the door（你能開開門嗎？）”，他回答說“能”，卻不去做，你會有什么反應(yīng)？為什么？請用言語行為理論來解釋一下。

4.謠傳美國當(dāng)選總統(tǒng)比爾·克林頓要背棄他在總統(tǒng)選舉中許下的一些諾言，1993年1月14日，克林頓就此答記者問。當(dāng)被一些記者窮追不舍，陷入窘境的時候，他說了下面這段話：

I think it would be foolish for the President of the United States, for any President of the United States, not to respond to changing circumstances.Every President of the United States, as far as I know, and particularly those who have done a good job, have known how to respond to changing circumstances.It would clearly be foolish for a President of the United States to do otherwise.（我認(rèn)為對美國總統(tǒng)而言，對每一個美國總統(tǒng)而言，不針對環(huán)境的改變而作出反應(yīng)是愚蠢的。就我所知，每個美國總統(tǒng)，尤其是那些干得很好的，知道怎樣對環(huán)境的變化采取措施。作為一個美國總統(tǒng)不這樣做顯然是很愚蠢的。）

有些語言學(xué)家認(rèn)為，競選演講，就像所有的政治演講，都是CP原則及其準(zhǔn)則被中止的典型場合，你同意嗎？能否列舉出其它類似的場合？

5.“The Club（車棍）”是一種阻塞汽車方向盤的裝置能使其免遭偷竊。下面是它的一個廣告：

THE CLUB！（車棍）

Anti－theft device for cars（反盜車賊的裝置）

POLICE SAY：（警察說：）

“USE IT”（“用它”）

OR LOSE IT（否則失去它）

根據(jù)格萊斯的理論，這里利用了什么準(zhǔn)則？請舉出兩個同樣的漢語廣告。

6.A正在看報，B問他“What's on television tonight？（今天有什么電視節(jié)目？）”他回答說：“Nothing（沒有）?！痹谝话闱闆r下，A是什么意思？找出兩種情況，使得“Nothing”的這種含義被取消。

答案

2.I thought you were practicing your violin．（我原以為你在練小提琴）這句話的行事語力是批評女兒沒有在練小提琴。女兒的回答是在為自己辯護(hù)--我正要練小提琴。而父親的反問揭穿了女兒的托詞。

3.我會很生氣“Can you open the door（你能開開門嗎？）”通常是請求聽話人做某事，而不

是詢問他的能力。他回答說“yes（能）”卻不去做，實(shí)際上就是拒絕了我的請求。4.是的，這是CP原則及其準(zhǔn)則被中止的場合。格萊斯在表述他的CP原則時，用了“normally（通常）”“characteristically（典型情況下）”ceteris paribus（其余情況相同時）“等限制字眼。換句話說，CP原則及其準(zhǔn)則并不是在所有情況下都會得到遵循的?；蛘哒f，”說話人相信他自己說的話“這樣的假設(shè)只是會話含義。在有跡象顯示相反情況時，這些含義會被取消。類似的情況有：葬禮上的悼詞、詩歌創(chuàng)作、開玩笑。

5.這里主要是利用了方式準(zhǔn)則中的”避免歧義“一條。兩個it的意思不同。漢語廣告的例子如：買一送一；要想皮膚好，早晚用大寶。

6.這里的 Nothing意思是”Nothing interesting（沒什么有意思的東西）“。如果A接著說”今天工人在罷工“或”今天晚上要停電“，那么”Nothing interesting（沒什么有意思的東西）"這個解讀就會被取消。