第一篇：英語語言學教案Chapter 9

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A New Concise Course in Linguistics

Chapter 9 Language and culture

Objectives After this period, the students are supposed to understand the relations between language and culture.2 master the following notions: culture, Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, cultural overlap and diffusion and intercultural communication.Key points and Difficulties

The definition of culture The relationship between language and culture Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Linguistic evidence of cultural differences Cultural overlap and diffusion Intercultural communication Teaching presentation 1 Revision 1）Ask the students to answer the following questions；

（l）What is register? How does it affect our choices of linguistic forms?（2）What are the differences between diglossia and bilingualism?（3）How do social factors influence the use of language? Check homework.2 Definitions of culture

(1)Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and languages that characterize the life of the human community.(2)In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs of customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.(3)Types of culture: Material Culture: concrete, substantial and observable.Spiritual Culture: abstract, ambiguous, and hidden.What has been grown and brought up with(through beliefs, traditions, education and other institutional mechanisms);Culture changes slowly with the development of the society.3 The relationship between language and culture

(1)Language expresses cultural reality and embodies cultural identity.(2)Culture affects its people?s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.(3)Culture is a wider system that completely includes language as a subsystem.Linguistic competence is one variety of cultural competence and speech behaviour is one variety of social behavior.The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.(4)Since the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people?s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people, it is extremely difficult to separate the two.On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates and embodies cultural reality.On the other hand, 三門峽職業(yè)技術學院

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language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.3 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis(1)Edward Sapir(/s??p??r/;January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939)was a German-born American anthropologist-linguist and a leader in American structural linguistics.His name is borrowed in what is now called the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis.He was a highly influential figure in American linguistics, influencing several generations of linguists across several schools of the discipline.(2)Benjamin Lee Whorf(April 24, 1897 in Winthrop, Massachusetts – July 26, 1941)was an Americanlinguist.Whorf is widely known for his ideas about linguistic relativity, the hypothesis that language influences thought.An important theme in many of his publications, he has been credited as one of the fathers of this approach, often referred to as the “Sapir–Whorf hypothesis”, named after him and his mentor Edward Sapir.Originally educated as a chemical engineer, he took up an interest in linguistics late in his life, studying with Sapir at Yale University.In the last ten years of his life he dedicated his spare time to linguistic studies, doing field work on Native American languages in the United States and Mexico.He managed to become one of the most influential linguists of his time, even while still working as a fire inspector for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company.He published a grammar of the Hopi language, studies of Nahuatl dialects, Maya hieroglyphic writing, and the first attempt at a reconstruction of Uto-Aztecan.He also published many articles in the most prestigious linguistic journals, many of them dealing with the ways in which he saw that different linguistic systems affected the thought systems and habitual behaviour of language users.；

(3)Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, through their studies of American Indian languages, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave.The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.(4)The hypothesis is now interpreted mainly in two different ways: a strong version and a weak version.While the strong version believes that the language patterns determine people?s thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influence the later.(5)The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights: A.There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think B.More than in Whorf?s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.“The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a medium of expression for the world-view and mental habits proper to the devotees of Ingsoc [English Socialism], but to make all other modes of thought impossible.It was intended that when Newspeak had been adopted once and for all and Oldspeak forgotten, a heretical thought--that is, a thought diverging from the principles of Ingsoc--should be literally unthinkable, at least as far as thought is dependent on words.Its vocabulary was so constructed as to give exact and often very subtle expression to every meaning that a Party member could properly wish to express, while excluding all other meanings and also the possibility of arriving at them by indirect method.This was done partly by the invention of new words and by stripping such words as remained of unorthodox meanings, and so far as possible of all secondary meanings whatever...A person growing up with Newspeak as his sole language would no more know that ?equal' had once had the secondary meaning of ”politically equal,“ or that ?free' had once meant ”intellectually free,“ than, for 三門峽職業(yè)技術學院

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A New Concise Course in Linguistics

instance, a person who had never heard of chess would be aware of the secondary meanings attaching to ?queen' or ?rook.' There would be many crimes and errors which it would be beyond his power to commit, simply because they were nameless and therefore unimaginable.” The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis theorizes that thoughts and behavior are determined(or are at least partially influenced)by language.If true in its strongest sense, the sinister possibility of a culture controlled by Newspeak or some other language is not just science fiction.Since its inception in the 1920s and 1930s, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has caused controversy and spawned research in a variety of disciplines including linguistics, psychology, philosophy, anthropology, and education.To this day it has not been completely disputed or defended, but has continued to intrigue researchers around the world.Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf brought attention to the relationship between language, thought, and culture.Neither of them formally wrote the hypothesis nor supported it with empirical evidence, but through a thorough study of their writings about linguistics, researchers have found two main ideas.First, a theory of linguistic determinism that states that the language you speak determines the way that you will interpret the world around you.Second, a weaker theory of linguistic relativism that states that language merely influences your thoughts about the real world.Edward Sapir studied the research of Wilhelm von Humboldt.About one hundred years before Sapir published his linguistic theories, Humboldt wrote in Gesammelte Werke a strong version of linguistic determinism: “Man lives in the world about him principally, indeed exclusively, as language presents it to him.” Sapir took this idea and expanded on it.Although he did not always support this firm hypothesis, his writings state that there is clearly a connection between language and thought.From “The Status of Linguistics as a Science”(1929)Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression in their society.It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection: The fact of the matter is that the ?real world' is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group.No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality.The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached...Even comparatively simple acts of perception are very much more at the mercy of the social patterns called words than we might suppose...We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation.As the underlined portions show, Sapir used firm language to describe this connection between language and thought.To Sapir, the individual is unconscious to this connection and subject to it without choice.Benjamin Lee Whorf was Sapir's student.Whorf devised the weaker theory of linguistic relativity: “We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe...”(1940/1956).He also supported, at times, the stronger linguistic determinism.To Whorf, this connection between language and thought was also an obligation not a choice.From “Science and Linguistics”(1940/1956): “We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face;三門峽職業(yè)技術學院

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on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds–and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way–an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language.The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory;we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees.” Both Sapir and Whorf agreed that it is our culture that determines our language, which in turn determines the way that we categorize our thoughts about the world and our experiences in it.For more than fifty years researchers have tried to design studies that will support or refute this hypothesis.Support for the strong version has been weak because it is virtually impossible to test one's world view without using language.Support for the weaker version has been minimal.Yet this hypothesis continues to fascinate researchers.Problems with the hypothesis begin when one tries to discern exactly what the hypothesis is stating.Penn notes that the hypothesis is stated “more and less strongly in different places in Sapir's and Whorf's writings”(1972:13).At some points, Sapir and Whorf appear to support the strong version of the hypothesis and at others they only support the weak version.Alford(1980)also notes that neither Sapir nor Whorf actually named any of their ideas about language and cognition the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.This name only appeared after their deaths.This has lead to a wide interpretation of what researchers consider to be the one and only hypothesis.Another problem with the hypothesis is that it requires a measurement of human thought.Measuring thought and one's world view is nearly impossible without the confounding influence of language, another of the variables being studied.Researchers settle for the study of behavior as a direct link to thought.If one is to believe the strong version of linguistic determinism, one also has to agree that thought is not possible without language.What about the pre-linguistic thought of babies? How can babies acquire language without thought? Also, where did language come from? In the linguistic determinist's view, language would have to be derived from a source outside the human realm because thought is impossible without language and before language there would have been no thought.Supporters of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis must acknowledge that their study of language in the “real world” is not without doubt if their language influences how they categorize what they seem to experience.Penn writes, “In short, if one believes in linguistic relativity, one finds oneself in the egocentric quandary, unable to make assertions about reality because of doubting one's own ability to correctly describe reality”(1972:33).Yet another problem with the hypothesis is that languages and linguistic concepts are highly translatable.Under linguistic determinism, a concept in one language would not be understood in a different language because the speakers and their world views are bound by different sets of rules.Languages are in fact translatable and only in select cases of poetry, humor and other creative communications are ideas “l(fā)ost in the translation.” One final problem researchers have found with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is Whorf's lack of empirical support for his linguistic insights.Whorf uses language nuances to prove vast differences between languages and then expects his reader to infer those differences in thought and behavior.Schlesinger attacks Whorf's flimsy thesis support: “...the mere existence of such linguistic diversities is 三門峽職業(yè)技術學院

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insufficient evidence for the parallelist claims of a correspondence between language on the one hand and cognition and culture, on the other, and for the determinist claim of the latter being determined by the former”(1991:18).Schlesinger also fails to see the connection between Whorf's linguistic evidence and any cultural or cognitive data.“Whorf occasionally supplies the translations from a foreign language into English, and leaves it to the good faith of the reader to accept the conclusion that here must have been a corresponding cognitive or cultural phenomenon”(1991:27).One infamous example Whorf used to support his theory was the number of words the Inuit people have for ?snow.' He claimed that because snow is a crucial part of their everyday lives and that they have many different uses for snow that they perceive snow differently than someone who lives in a less snow-dependent environment.Pullum has since dispelled this myth in his book The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax(1991).He shows that while the Inuit use many different terms for snow, other languages transmit the same ideas using phrases instead of single words.Despite all these problems facing the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, there have been several studies performed that support at least the weaker linguistic relativity hypothesis.In 1954, Brown and Lenneberg tested for color codability, or how speakers of one language categorize the color spectrum and how it affects their recognition of those colors.Penn writes, “Lenneberg reports on a study showing how terms of colors influence the actual discrimination.English-speaking subjects were better able to re-recognize those hues which are easily named in English.This finding is clearly in support of the limiting influence of linguistic categories on cognition”(1972:16).Schlesinger explains the path taken in this study from positive correlation to support for linguistic relativity: “...if codability of color affected recognizability, and if languages differed in codability, then recognizability is a function of the individual's language”(1991:27)Lucy and Shweder's color memory test(1979)also supports the linguistic relativity hypothesis.If a language has terms for discriminating between color then actual discrimination/perception of those colors will be affected.Lucy and Shweder found that influences on color recognition memory is mediated exclusively by basic color terms–a language factor.Kay and Kempton's language study(1984)found support for linguistic relativity.They found that language is a part of cognition.In their study, English speakers' perceptions were distorted in the blue-green area while speakers from Tarahumara–who lack a blue-green distinction–showed no distortion.However, under certain conditions they found that universalism of color distinction can be recovered.Peterson and Siegal's “Sally doll” test(1995)was not intended to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis specifically, but their findings support linguistic relativity in a population who at the time had not yet been considered for testing–deaf children.Peterson and Siegal's experiment with deaf children showed a difference in the constructed reality of deaf children with deaf parents and deaf children with hearing parents, especially in the realm of non-concrete items such as feelings and thoughts.Most recently, Wassman and Dasen's Balinese language test(1998)found differences in how the Balinese people orient themselves spatially to that of Westerners.They found that the use of an absolute reference system based on geographic points on the island in the Balinese language correlates to the significant cultural importance of these points to the people.They questioned how language affects the thinking of the Balinese people and found moderate linguistic relativity results.There are, on the other hand, several studies that dispute the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.Most of these studies favor universalism over relativism in the realm of linguistic structure and function.For example, Osgood's common meaning system study found that “human beings the world over, no matter what their 三門峽職業(yè)技術學院

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language or culture, do share a common meaning system, do organize experience along similar symbolic dimensions”(1963:33)In his universalism studies, Greenberg came to the conclusion that “agreement in the fundamentals of human behavior among speakers of radically diverse languages far outweighs the idiosyncratic differences to be expected from a radical theory of linguistic relativity”(1963:125).Alford's interpretation of Whorf shows that Whorf never intended for perception of the color spectrum to be used to defend his principle of linguistic relativity.Alford states, “In fact, he is quite clear in stating that perception is clearly distinct from conception and cognition, or language-related thinking”(1980).Even Dr.Roger Brown, who was one of the first researchers to find empirical support for the hypothesis, now argues that there is much more evidence pointing toward cognitive universalism rather than linguistic relativity(Schlesinger 1991:26).Berlin and Kay's color study(1969)found universal focus colors and differences only in the boundaries of colors in the spectrum.They found that regardless of language or culture, eleven universal color foci emerge.Underlying apparent diversity in color vocabularies, these universal foci remain recognizable.Even in languages which do not discriminate to eleven basic colors, speakers are nonetheless able to sort color chips based on the eleven focus colors.Davies' cross-cultural color sorting test(1998)found an obvious pattern in the similarity of color sorting behavior between speakers of English which has eleven basic colors, Russian which has twelve(they distinguish two blues), and Setswana which has only five(grue=green-blue).Davies concluded that the data showed strong universalism.Culture influences the structure and functions of a group's language, which in turn influences the individual's interpretations of reality.Whorf saw language and culture as two inseparable sides of a single coin.According to Alford, “Whorf sensed something ?chicken-and-egg-y' about the language-culture interaction phenomenon”(1980).Indeed, deciding which came first the language or the culture is impossible to discern.Schlesinger notes that Whorf recognized two directions of influence–from culture to language and vice versa.However, according to Schlesinger, Whorf argues that “since grammar is more resistant to change than culture, the influence from language to culture is predominant”(1991:17).Language reinforces cultural patterns through semantics, syntax and naming.Grammar and the forms of words show hierarchical importance of something to a culture.However, the common color perception tests are not strongly linked to cultural experience.Schlesinger agrees: “Whorf made far-reaching claims about the pervasive effects of language on the mental life of a people, and all that experimental psychologists managed to come up with were such modest results as the effect of the vocabulary of a language on the discriminability of color chips”(1991:30).In 1955, Dr.James Cooke Brown attempted to separate language and culture to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.He suggested the creation of a new language–one not bound to any particular culture--to distinguish the causes from the effects of language, culture, and thought.He called this artificial language LOGLAN, which is short for Logical Language.According to Riner, LOGLAN was designed as an experimental language to answer the question: “In what ways is human thought limited and directed by the language in which one thinks?”(1990).Today with the help of the Internet, many people around the world are learning LOGLAN.Riner appears positive in the continuing work with LOGLAN to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: 三門峽職業(yè)技術學院

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“As far as we can yet know, LOGLAN can accommodate precisely and unambiguously the native ways of saying things in any natural language.In fact, because it is logically rigorous, LOGLAN forces the speaker to make the metaphysical(cultural, worldview)premises in and of the natural language explicit in rendering the thought into(disambiguated)LOGLAN.Those assumptions, made explicit, become propositions that are open for critical review and amendment–so not only can the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis be tested, but its details can be investigated with LOGLAN”(1990).Further research and linguistic development is necessary to find out if LOGLAN will defend or dispute the theory of linguistic relativism.Other aspects of this hypothesis which warrant further research include another look at Peterson and Siegal's study involving deaf children, and Lucy's suggestion of a new theoretical account of language and thought.In Peterson and Siegal's study there are revealed two naturally occurring groups–deaf children of hearing parents and deaf children of deaf parents--which allow for a within culture test of linguistic relativity(Skoyles 1999).Their results offer direct evidence that language molds thought.Additional research in this area with specific testing of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in mind could prove successful.Also, Lucy states that all linguistic relativity proposals claim that language has some influence on thoughts about reality.He further suggests that “a theoretical account needs to articulate exactly how languages interpret experiences and how those interpretations influence thought”(1997:291).In his introduction to Whorf's body of work, John Carroll suggests a reason why so much attention and controversy surround the theory of linguistic relativism.Carroll states, “Perhaps it is the suggestion that all one's life one has been tricked, all unaware, by the structure of language into a certain way of perceiving reality, with the implication that awareness of this trickery will enable one to see the world with fresh insight”(1956:27).The world is getting smaller with the diffusion of computers and new communications technology.Interaction between members of different cultures is becoming easier and more prevalent.On a global scale, the hypothesis could be taken as a possible rationalization why foreign nations fail to communicate successfully.Awareness of linguistic relativity, however, should lead to a better understanding of cultural diversities and help to bridge intercultural communication gaps.4 Linguistic evidence of cultural differences

(1)Greetings and terms of address(2)Thanks and compliments(3)Color words(4)Privacy and taboos(5)Rounding off numbers(6)Words and cultural-specific connotations(7)Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors 5 The significance of cultural teaching and learning

Learning a language is inseparable from learning its culture.When learning a foreign or second language, we should not only learn the mere imitation of the pronunciation, grammar, words and idioms, but also learn to see the world as native speakers do, that is to say, learn the ways in which the foreign language reflects, the ideas, customs, and behavior of that society, learn to understand their “l(fā)anguage of the mind”, or acculturation.Cultural overlap, diffusion and intercultural communication

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(1)Cultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such as

“Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”

(2)Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as cultural diffusion.One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and accepting concepts from other cultures.The attitude towards cultural diffusion(esp.cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)Linguistic imperialism is a kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.(3)Intercultural or cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures(their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.)In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special attention to the significant differences regarding social relations and concept of universe from different perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.7 Homework

1)Revision exercises on page139.2）Have you ever find any instances or examples of cultural imperialism in the present China? What are they? And what are the causes or reasons behind them? 3)How do deal with language imperialism and nationalism? 8 Bibliography

1.戴煒棟、何兆熊主編：《新編簡明英語語言學教程》，上海：上海外語教育出版社，2002 2.Saussure, F.de.Course in General Linguistics, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001.3.Hockett, C.F.A Course in Modern Linguistics, New York: Macmillan, 1958.4、胡壯麟，《語言學教程》[M]，北京大學出版社，2001年。

5、凌征華，《英語語言學》[M]，湖南人民出版社，2006年。9 Reflection

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第二篇：-12-1-9英語演講稿Chapter9

Chapter9.Knowledge is power.Good morning dear judges and friends！My topic today is Knowledge is power.During the days of the Indian Ocean earthquake last year, there was a 10-year-old British girl, Tilly, who was later called “beach angel.”

That day , she was having a holiday with her family on beach in Phuket, Thailand.Suddenly ,she saw the tide rush out.Her geography teacher had told her this was a prediction of a tsunami wave coming in.Tilly quickly realized that they were in terrible danger.“Oh, my god, tsunami ,tsunami is coming ?” She screamed at her parents and alerted the others to get off the beach immediately.The wave crashed a few minutes later, but no one on the beach was injured.All the survivors thanked Tilly for sharp mind and knowledge about quakes.She had saved about 100 people ?s lives because of her accurate mastery and application of knowledge.I admire Tilly , reading a lot about her and tsunami.I gradually realized that knowledge is power, and knowledge is more than equivalent to force, especially when we are in danger.As a pupil, we should cherish time in classes, gain more knowledge, be a knowledgeable person, and make our outlook brighter!

參考譯文：知識就是力量

在去年的印度洋海嘯中,有一個十歲的英國小女孩,她的名字叫蒂莉。她后來被稱為“海灘天使”。

海嘯快要來臨的時候，蒂莉正在和她的父母在泰國普吉島海灘上度假。突然，她發(fā)現(xiàn)潮水在內(nèi)陸不斷地涌動。她的地理老師曾經(jīng)講過這種現(xiàn)象是海嘯即將來臨的預兆?！班?，上帝，海嘯，海嘯要來了！”她 尖 叫 著，并告訴她的父母，并動員海灘上的游客撤離這個危險的地方。當幾百名游客剛剛跑到安全地帶的時候，海嘯的白色巨浪已經(jīng)排山倒海般奔涌而至。但是，這個海灘上，無一人傷亡。所有幸存者都感謝蒂莉，因為她知道海嘯的知識，還有著機智。她憑借著正確地掌握并運用知識，拯救了數(shù)百條人命。

我非常敬佩蒂莉，而且閱讀了有關她和海嘯的很多文章與資料。我漸漸地意識到知識就是力量，特別是當我們遇到危險的時候，知識具有超凡的力量。作為一名學生，我們應該珍惜課堂上的分分秒秒，學習更多的知識，做一個有知識的人，讓我們的未來更美好！

第三篇：英語語言學總結

1.The fact that there is no logcial or intrinsic connection between a sound and a meaning is called what design feature of language?(Arbitrariness)

2.The actual use of language knowledge is called what by Chomsky?Performance

3.Any syllable can not be exempted from a what?

vowel

4.Free morphemes have two types, what are they?

Lexical morphemes and functional morphemes

5.Which two consonants are liquids?

[l][r]

6.Which vowel is rounded and open?

[o]

7.What is formalism in linguistics?

Formalism or formal linguisitics is the study of the abstract forms of languige and the internal relations.8.What is a minimal pair?

Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.9.What is a bound morpheme?

Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.10.What is langue?

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.11.Describe the sound features:

[g]:stop, velar

[m]:bilabial, nasal

[w]:bilabial,glide

[^]:central, unrounded, semi-open

[f]:labiodental, liquid, fricative

1.The study about the meanings is which branch of linguistics? Smantics

2.Suprasemental features include four, name two.Stress and intonation

3.Sounds that are produced with no obstruction of airstream are called what?

Voiceless sounds

4.Language is used to build or maintain social contact reflects which function?

Phatic function/communion

5.Name the two affricates.6.Which vowel is close, front and long?

[i:]

7.What is phonetics?

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.8.What is allomorph?

An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme.9.What is competence?

10.What is a derivation morpheme?

Derivation morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.11.Describe the sound features:

[b]:bilabial, stop

[k]:velar,stop

[f]:labiodental, fricative

[∫]:palatal, fricative

[a:]unrounded, back, long, open

1.The fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication reflects what design feature of language?

Specialization

2.The particular realization of langue is what?

3.Describe the syllable structure.V CV VC CVC CCVC VCC CCCVC CVCC CVCCC

4.Words formed from the first letters of a series of words and

pronounced as single words, what are they called?

Acronym

5.Voiced palatal fricative is which sound?

6.Which vowel is unrounded and back?[a:]

7.What is language?

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.8.What is syntagmatic relation?

Syntagmatic relation refers to the horizontal relationship between linguisitc elements, which form linear squences.9.What is a morpheme?

A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.10.What is derivation?0

Dereivation is a way of word formation, which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.11.Describe the sound features:

[i:]:long, closed, front

[t]:alveolar, stop

[v]:labiodental, fricative

[l]:liquid,fricative

[h]:liquid, frictive, glottal

1.Who distinguishes Competence and Performance?

Noam Chosmsky

2.The vertical relation between linguistic elements is called what relation?

Paradigmatic relations.3.The two levels of language--sound and meaning make which design feature of language?

Duality

4.The phenomenon that one sound is influenced by neighboring sounds is called what?

Assimilation

5.The two semi-vowels are what?

[j] [w]

6.Which vowel is long, central?

7.What is a phoneme?

Phonemes are the phonological units of language.8.What is an inflectional morpheme?

9.What is synchronic linguistics?

Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at one particular time.10.What is a compound?

Building new words by putting two words together is called compound.11.Describe the sound features:

[p]:bilabial, stop, liquid

[v]:labioldental, fricative

[l]:alveolar, liquid

[n]:nasal, alveolar

[e]:semi-opened, front, short, unrounded

卡號10385211密碼5635

第四篇：英語語言學概論--整理

1.Design feature(識別特征)refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2.Productivity(能產(chǎn)性)refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.3.arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4.symbol(符號)Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5.discreteness(離散性)Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6.displacement(不受時空限制的特性)Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7.duality of structure(結構二重性)The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.8.culture transmission(文化傳播)Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9.interchangeability(互換性)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1)Productivity.2)Discreteness.3)Displacement 4)Arbitrariness.5)Cultural transmission 6)Duality of structure.7)Interchangeability.3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules.By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates.And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4.★(Function of language.)According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1)Instrumental function.工具功能 2)Regulatory function.調(diào)節(jié)功能

3)Representational function.表現(xiàn)功能 4)Interactional function.互動功能 5)Personal function.自指性功能

6)Heuristic function.啟發(fā)功能 [osbQtq`kf`h] 7)Imaginative function.想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1)Interpersonal components.人際 2)Ideational components.概念 3)Textual components.語篇

Chapter 1 Language語言

1.general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通語言學與描寫語言學)The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2.synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共時語言學與歷時語言學)Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3.theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics(理論語言學與應用語言學)The former copes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4.microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微觀語言學與宏觀語言學)The former studies only the structure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5.langue and parole(語言與言語)The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6.competence and performance(語言能力與語言運用)The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7.speech and writing(口頭語與書面語)Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior(語言行為潛勢與實際語言行為)People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior.And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(橫組合關系與縱聚合關系)The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10.verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言語交際與非言語交際)Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication.The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics? According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following: 1)General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2)Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3)Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4)Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1)Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2)Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3)Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3.★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system? Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following: 1)Phonetics.語音學 is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2)Phonology.音位學 studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3)Morphology.形態(tài)學 studies about how a word is formed.4)Syntax.句法學 studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5)Semantics.語義學 studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6)Pragmatics.語用學

★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 2 Linguistics語言學

1.articulatory phonetics(發(fā)音語音學)The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2.acoustic phonetics(聲學語音學)The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3.auditory phonetics(聽覺語音學)The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.consonant(輔音)Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5.vowel(元音)is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6.bilabials(雙唇音)Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips.[p] [b] [m] [w] 7.affricates(塞擦音)The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates.[tX] [dY] [tr] [dr] 8.glottis(聲門)Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9.rounded vowel(圓唇元音)Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening.[u:] [u] [OB] [O] 10.diphthongs(雙元音)Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][Oi] [Qu][au] 11.triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one.[eiQ][aiQ][OiQ] [QuQ][auQ] 12.lax vowels(松元音)According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels.All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1.★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria? The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.2.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria? Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1)The state of the velum 2)The position of the tongue.3)The openness of the mouth.4)The shape of the lips.5)The length of the vowels.6)The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3.★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other? Phonetics has three sub-branches as following: 1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3)Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively? I.The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following: 1)Voiced.2)Nasal.3)Consonantal.4)Vocalic.5)Continuant.6)Anterior.Chapter 3 Phonetics語音學 7)Coronal.8)Aspirated.II.The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following: 1)High.2)Low.3)Front.4)Back.5)Rounded.6)Tense.5 1.2.3.4.5.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位學

phonemes(音位)Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.allophones(音位變體)Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.phones(單音)The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.minimal pair(最小對立體)Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.contrastive distribution(對比分布)If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6.complementary distribution(互補分布)If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.7.free variation(自由變異)When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8.distinctive features(區(qū)別性特征)A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9.suprasegmental features(超切分特征)The distinctive(phonological)features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10.tone languages(聲調(diào)語言)Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11.intonation languages(語調(diào)語言)Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12.juncture(連音)Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1.★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology? 1)Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2)Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2.Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/.And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3.How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set? A minimal pair should meet three conditions: 1)The two forms are different in meaning.2)The two forms are different in one sound segment.3)The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4.★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1)Contrastive distribution.Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2)Complementary distribution.The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3)Free variation.In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5.What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English? I.1)Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2)The distinctive(phonological)features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3)Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment.They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6.What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?

Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level

7.★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?

The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.7

1.morphemes(語素)Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs(語素變體)Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs(形素)Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2.roots(詞根)Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes(詞綴)Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes(自由語素)Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes(粘著語素)Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3.inflectional affixes(屈折詞綴)refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes(派生詞綴)refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4.empty morph(空語子)Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph(零語子)Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5.IC Analysis(直接成分分析)IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression(both a word and a sentence)into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6.immediate constituents(直接成分)A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents(最后成分)Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7.morphological rules(形態(tài)學規(guī)則)The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.8.word-formation process(構詞法)Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1.★What is IC Analysis?

IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression(both a word and a sentence)into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2.How are morphemes classified? 1)Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2)Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3.★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a)All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b)All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4.What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph? a)Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b)Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5.Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a)Functionally: i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b)In term of position: i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present.And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6.What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example: a)un-+ adj.->adj.b)Adj./n.+-ify->v.c)V.+-able-> adj.d)Adj.+-ly-> adv.Chapter 5 Morphology 形態(tài)學

Chapter 6 Syntax 句法學

1.syntagmatic relations(橫組關系)refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations(縱聚合關系)refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations(等級關系)refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2.IC Analysis(直接成分分析)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(標記法直接成分分析)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers(短語標記法)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing(方括號標記法)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3.constituency(成分關系)

dependency(依存關系)

4.surface structures(表層結構)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformational rules.deep structures(深層結構)deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5.phrase structure rules(短語結構規(guī)則)are a way to describe a given language's syntax.They are used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6.transformational rules(轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則)7.structural ambiguity(結構歧義)

1.What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure? They are different from each other in four aspects: 1)Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2)Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3)Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4)Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2.Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1)PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2)T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3.What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are they generated? To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules(PS rules)while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules(T-rules).4.What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?

Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5.What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1)Syntagmatic relations 2)Paradigmatic relations.3)Hierarchical relations.10 1.2.3.4.5.Chapter 7 Semantics 語義學

Lexical semantics(詞匯語義學)is defined as the study of word meaning in language.Sense(意義)refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.Reference(所指)means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.Concept(概念)is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Denotation(外延)is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6.Connotation(內(nèi)涵)refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7.Componential analysis(成分分析法)is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8.Semantic field(語義場)The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.The areas are semantic fields.9.Hyponymy(上下義關系)refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10.Synonymy(同義關系)refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11.Antonymy(反義關系)refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12.Lexical ambiguity(詞匯歧義)

13.Polysemy(多義性)refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14.Homonymy(同音(同形)異義關系)refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15.Sentence semantics(句子語義學)refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1.What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics? In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics;it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2.What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning? 1)Object, 2)concept, 3)symbol, 4)user, 5)context.3.What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?

第五篇：《語言學概論》教案.

《語言學概論》教案

選用教材:葉寶奎《語言學概論》 施用范圍:漢語言文學本科 廈門大學中文系語言教研室 緒 論 【教學目的】

認識語言學概論課程的性質(zhì)和語言學的研究對象、基本任務,初步了解語言學的研究方法、基本分類和主要流派,以及語言學的學科地位。

【基本概念】

語言學 語文學 共時語言學 歷時語言學

歷史比較語言學 結構主義語言學 轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法 社會語言學

【基本理論】

一、語言學的對象和任務

二、語言學的建立(發(fā)展階段

三、語言學在科學體系中的地位

四、語言學的類別

五、語言學的流派

六、語言學的功用 【重點難點】

一、語言學的建立過程

二、重要的語言學流派(代表人物、理論觀點、主要貢獻

三、主要的語言學門類和派別 【教學方法】 講授和討論相結合?！舅谜n時】 4課時 【教學內(nèi)容】 第1學時

本課程的學習目的和學習方法:

一、認識課程,明確學習目的

這也是我們過去經(jīng)常碰到的一個問題。理論課,不管是語言學理論還是其他學科的理論課,直接用“有什么用”來提問,確實不好回答,因為它是基礎理論,不是實用性、實踐性的課程;但是反過來,一門科學如果沒有這種基礎理論的教學和研究,或者說,基礎理論研究得不好,那么這門科學就很難得到有效的發(fā)展。語言學的情況當時與此相似,認為誰都會說話,還研究什么!中國語言學和國外先進的語言學的發(fā)展水平相比,現(xiàn)在還比較落后,究其原因,其中最重要的就是我們的語言理論研究嚴重滯后。從這一點來看,語言理論研究就顯得非常重要、非常有用。(文學理論教大家去欣賞文學,語言理論教大家理

解分析語言

重要性:每個人都會說話交流,甚至掌握幾種語言,但不等于對語言都有理性的認識。從大的方面看,語言的一些問題值得探索研究:(1語言的產(chǎn)生和起源--勞動說?交際需要(現(xiàn)在很多民族沒有語言?為什么?/兒童怎樣掌握語言?

(2語言的發(fā)展:很穩(wěn)定--可以看懂古書;發(fā)展性--瞬息萬變(網(wǎng)絡語言,但不影響交際

(3人類思維方式一致,為什么世界語言豐富多彩?(方言差別明顯--但卻能夠互相翻譯? 從具體語言現(xiàn)象看,可思考的問題更多:(1語音:發(fā)現(xiàn)演變規(guī)律,古今音的對應--古音的構擬;方言差別

(2詞匯:探索發(fā)展規(guī)律,文言文翻譯、解釋--現(xiàn)代漢語新詞新語的大量涌現(xiàn)?

(3語法:穩(wěn)定是基礎,但又有發(fā)展?！靶腋Ｖ愕男腋！薄坝肋h有多遠”“非?？蓸贰⒎浅Ｄ信薄昂苁軅?學習目的:樹立科學的語言觀,系統(tǒng)掌握基本概念、理論和知識,具備用語言理論和方法分析語言現(xiàn)象的能力。

因此,學習這門課,要培養(yǎng)對語言的敏感意識。(弄清楚身邊一些特殊語言現(xiàn)象 語言學:研究語言的科學,主要講授語言的性質(zhì)、結構規(guī)律、演變規(guī)律以及語言與文字的關系等問題。

二、學習方法

1、態(tài)度端正,思想重視

(1語言與生活的關系密切:每天接觸,十分平常→容易忽視

語言不僅與日常生活(方言分歧、還與文化生活(推廣普通話、政治生活(語言政策有關

(2語言學與外語的關系

借助語言理論知識→比較學習→提高學習技巧和外語水平

有些理論、概念也要通過外語才能分析明白(漢語中沒有性、數(shù)、格、態(tài)的變化 如英語中的“think”,/n/是舌尖音,/k'/是舌根音,/n/在發(fā)音部位上為了能夠流暢地過渡到/k'/,而受到了k的同化,變成了舌根音/(/。

凡是普通話里后鼻音是/(/的字,日語都念長音:英雄、影響、光明 普通話是前鼻音的字,日語也念前鼻音,即撥音“ん”:精神

(3語言與國家政治的關系

語言是民族標志,社會政治的變化往往影響語言。前蘇聯(lián)→獨立(民族語→哈薩克斯坦總統(tǒng)競選

許多國家原本只有一種語言→分裂→親屬語言(語言不同,但尚存共性 美洲:法語區(qū)/英語區(qū) 歐盟諸國:工作語言不統(tǒng)一 例子:很多國家語言地位的規(guī)定成為政治爭斗的導火線? 語言蘊藏著民族的思維方式、價值觀念、文化習俗等多方面的內(nèi)容(出國后的留學生發(fā)生變化,雖然不是軍事、經(jīng)濟滲透,但潛移默化→地位重要→國家重視推廣、規(guī)范本國語

(4語言和專業(yè)的關系:文學有文學理論,語言有語言理論→提高駕馭語言的能力

語言與其他學科也有聯(lián)系。

機器翻譯、計算語言學:義素分析法、語法生成模式--語義、語法的形式化描寫

2、理解和把握各章節(jié)的基本概念和內(nèi)容 教材共分為八大章+緒論(看教材

緒論、語言、語音、語義、詞匯、語法、文字、語言的起源和發(fā)展、語言教學

緒論、第一章:總論語言的性質(zhì)、功能、性質(zhì)

其中第二節(jié)“語言是一種符號系統(tǒng)”是全書的核心理論。這一節(jié)重點講了兩個問題,一是語言結構的二層性,二是語言運轉(zhuǎn)的組合關系和聚合關系。第一個問題討論的是:語言中如何以幾十個音位有層次地組成各級語言結構單位(語素、詞、詞組、句子,直至能說出無窮無盡的話語,探索語言中“以少馭多”的奧秘。第二個問題討論的是語言中的各級結構單位如音位、語素、詞等如何運轉(zhuǎn),解釋人們何以能靈活地運用有限的規(guī)則造出無窮無盡的話語的奧秘。組合關系和聚合關系由于討論的是語言結構單位的運轉(zhuǎn)規(guī)律,因而成為全書的指導思想,以后各章,無論是討論語言系統(tǒng)的各個側(cè)面(語音、語法、語匯等 ,還是語言的演變,都是圍繞著組合關系和聚合關系展開的,或者說,都是以組合關系和聚合關系為視角去貫串語言的結構。

第二至第五章:分論語言的各構成要素的具體特點(第六章“文字”從另一角度談 第七章:總論語言的歷史演變(產(chǎn)生和發(fā)展

第八章是補充部分,主要從語言應用的角度來談語言

概括地講,包括性質(zhì)特點、結構體系、演變規(guī)律、與文字的關系。

總(本質(zhì)--分(結構:組合與聚合--總(發(fā)展

其中,性質(zhì)結構是課程的重點;組合關系和聚合關系是貫穿主線。

3、注意內(nèi)容的系統(tǒng)性和聯(lián)系性(整體研究

結合各個章節(jié),不能分開孤立的學習。第一章的理論是全書總綱,要理解透徹,并運用到后面各章。如:漢語詞匯的構造、組合規(guī)則、聚合規(guī)則、語言的發(fā)展變化等,都需要第一章的理論。

4、注意自學,加強實踐練習

課后查閱相關資料,閱讀語言理論著作,反復鉆研理論概念。對比聯(lián)系,強化記憶→牢固掌握課堂內(nèi)容(注意結合外語

關注身邊的語言現(xiàn)象,結合語言事實進行理論分析,善于觀察,做有心人,積累有趣的語言事實資料,為抽象理論作根據(jù),提高語言靈敏度和捕捉力。

第2學時

一、語言學的對象和任務

(一“語言學”定義(前面反復提到

語言學是研究語言的科學。研究和探討語言的性質(zhì)、結構規(guī)律和發(fā)展演變規(guī)律。

語言的性質(zhì):

1、人類最重要的交際工具;

2、人類的思維工具;

3、符號系統(tǒng)。

語言的結構:

1、由語音(外在形式[+載體:文字]、意義(內(nèi)容統(tǒng)一構成。

因此,對語言的研究,大致可以分為幾個部分:語音、語義、詞匯、語法[+文字]。

語言的發(fā)展:怎樣產(chǎn)生?有哪些演變規(guī)律?歷史發(fā)展的情況。

(二語言學的對象--語言

“任何語言”:從對象上說,橫向研究--包括書面語,口語和外語;

縱向研究--包括“活”語言(當今交際用和“死”語言(古代書面語;

從結構上說,語言學研究包括語音、詞匯、語法、語義和文字等方面。

(三語言學的任務

理論上闡述語言的性質(zhì)、結構和功能,通過考察語言及應用的現(xiàn)象,揭示語言存在和發(fā)展的規(guī)律。把本質(zhì)的東西挖出,固有規(guī)律概括出來→總結、整理出系統(tǒng)的理論→指導人們的語言實踐。

但語言學的研究主要在于語言的符號性結構上,至于語音、文字的意義,不是它研究的任務。語言學研究的就是這樣的一些結構規(guī)律問題。(雞吃食 / 食,雞吃

當然,它還必須研究語法結構的約定俗成的規(guī)律及其組合的演變規(guī)律。

(四研究方法:語言本身構造復雜→從不同方面和角度進行研究

先分成語音、語義、詞匯和語法四個部分→描寫分析特點和發(fā)展,比較差異(與共同來源的語言→綜合各種研究成果,歸納一般規(guī)律(總--分--總

我們的課程:以漢語研究為基礎,通過漢語了解語言學的基本原理和一般規(guī)律

二、語言學的建立(形成過程

1、語言學產(chǎn)生原因→適應社會需要,逐步擴大范圍,改進方法而產(chǎn)生

2、從語文學到語言學

語言與人類社會同時產(chǎn)生,與人類關系密切→引起人們注意→語言研究有兩千多年的歷史(源于中、印、希臘文明古國--語文學的三個源頭

(1我國:文言文的延續(xù)(注重文字,方言分歧大→古籍閱讀的需要→文字、音韻、訓詁(小學

(2印度:解讀經(jīng)文→梵語語言的研究→前4世紀,對梵語語音的研究,形成“聲明學”;對梵語語法的研究,《巴尼尼經(jīng)》(梵語語法專著?！段饔斡洝啡ノ魈烊〗?jīng)。

(3希臘:哲學的巨大影響(語言研究與哲學研究相隨古希臘學者亞里士塔爾庫斯對羅馬史詩進行了編輯與整理,他的學生迪奧尼修斯·特拉克斯寫出了第一本被稱為“語法最偉大的權威”--《希臘語法》→拉丁語分布廣,使用時間長(一千多年拉丁文語法→哲學家用邏輯研究語言→奠定了語法研究的基礎(現(xiàn)在《語言哲學》的重要性

語文學的局限性:(1研究對象狹窄,不重口語→經(jīng)典古文語法的規(guī)定性,與現(xiàn)實脫節(jié)

古代的語言學主要以書面語為主要研究材料,不重視口頭語言的研究,而今天的語言學則十分重視口語研究,如制定語言規(guī)范,確立共同語的各方面標準等,都要依據(jù)口語的研究成果。

(2研究目的單純,讀懂古籍→不重語言結構本身,缺乏科學認識

古代語言學研究語言,主要是給政治、哲學、宗教、歷史、文學方面的經(jīng)典著作作注解,比如我國古代的語文學主要就是圍繞閱讀先秦經(jīng)典著作的需要來研究文言的,而現(xiàn)代語言學的研究目的主要是分析語言的結構,以此探討語言發(fā)展的共同規(guī)律。

(3研究地位低下,附屬地位→不能形成獨立的科學 所以稱之為語文學而非語言學。雖然語文學存在局限,但卻為語言學的建立準備了材料。社會進步→使用語言的狀況發(fā)展,交往頻繁→交際范圍超越了國界,對語言表達的要求提高→要求語言本身方面的探索

19世紀初歷史比較語言學的建立標志著真正獨立的語言科學誕生。英國人威廉·瓊斯提出“印歐語假設”,成為歷史比較語言學的先驅(qū)。德國學者施列格爾第一個提出“比較語法”。他是歷史比較語言學的草創(chuàng)者。歷史比較語言學的奠基人是丹麥的拉斯克,德國的博普和格林,俄國的沃斯托可夫。他們運用“歷史比較法”,即通過對不同語言的比較研究,揭示語言間的親屬關系以及它們的歷史發(fā)展。他們共同研究使語言納入了歷史的科學的軌道,把它當作研究的獨立對象。

19世紀中葉,普通語言學也建立起來了。隨著計算機技術的開發(fā),又提出了人機交流的語言問題,要求人造的計算機語言逐步接近自然語言。人類使用語言的狀況復雜多樣→提出從一種語言轉(zhuǎn)到另一種語言的各式各樣的“轉(zhuǎn)碼”要求→溝通口語和書面語、方言和共同語、今語和古語、本族語和外族語、自然語言和機器語言。

總之,社會需要指引→語言研究范圍擴大→推進研究→加深人們的認識

第3學時

三、語言學流派

現(xiàn)代語言學一百多年發(fā)展,經(jīng)歷了三個時期:歷史比較語言學、結構主義語言學、轉(zhuǎn)換生成語言學

(簡單了解:各學派的貢獻、地位、代表人物和優(yōu)點、缺點

1、歷史比較語言學→標志著語言學科的正式誕生

19世紀千孤立的分散的研究→進入系統(tǒng)研究,走上獨立發(fā)展的道路

從歷史比較語言學開始,語言學的研究對象和研究目的、研究方法都有別于傳統(tǒng)的語文學。語言學從此擺脫了經(jīng)學的附庸地位,用歷史的觀點和歷史比較法研究語言現(xiàn)象,注意探討規(guī)律,走上了科學軌道。

在理論和方法上大致可以分成三個階段: 19世紀初→初級階段:丹麥的拉斯克、德國的格里木和博普→奠基者

19世紀中期→發(fā)展階段:德國的施萊歇爾→按照語言的來源和親屬關系作“譜系分類”,從事有關親屬語言早期的原始母語的構擬和重建→語言親屬關系的直觀性

19世紀末→新語法學派時期:德國的奧斯特霍夫和布魯克曼,創(chuàng)辦《形態(tài)學研究》,宣布“語音演變規(guī)律不允許任何例外”(1優(yōu)點:相對于語文學時期是一個巨大進步,使語言走上了獨立發(fā)展的道路,是一個里程碑。

語文學:僅限于書面語;目的是?？惫艜?釋經(jīng)解義;忽略了語言本身結構的發(fā)展。

歷史比較語言學:建立比較法,注意古今語言,當代不同語言的對比,重視“活”語言;運用進化論觀點考察歷史來源和親屬關系,作了譜系分類。

(2缺點:對口語的重視仍然不夠,側(cè)重古語及其發(fā)展,將語言事實作孤立的分析;忽視了語言各要素之間的聯(lián)系;忽略了語言整體的系統(tǒng)性考察→已經(jīng)不能適應語言研究的進一步發(fā)展

2、結構主義語言學

當語言研究在觀點、方法上醞釀重大變革之時,瑞士的索緒爾出版了著作《普通語言學教程》,提出了一整套的新理論→奠定了結構主義的基礎 提出了著名的“棋子理論”(1主張系統(tǒng)的研究;認為每種語言都有一套獨特的關系結構

(2每種語言的個別單位都不是孤立存在的,是跟其他單位區(qū)別、對立存在的(3重視共時語言的研究和口語的研究;著重分析、描寫語言的結構體系 從20世紀30年代開始,又發(fā)展出了三個主要的結構主義學派:(1布拉格學派(結構-功能學派:強調(diào)語言是一個功能體系;在國際語言學會上公開音位學觀點,代表作《音位學原理》 代表人物:馬泰修斯、雅科布遜

(2丹麥學派(哥本哈根學派:語言是完整的符號系統(tǒng),符號是表達方式和內(nèi)容的綜合體 成立哥本哈根語言學會,創(chuàng)辦《語言學學報》,論文《結構語言學》

代表人物:葉姆斯列夫、布龍達爾

(3美國的描寫語言學派:結構語言學中發(fā)展最完善,最重要的一個學派

先驅(qū)是鮑阿斯和薩丕爾→強調(diào)對語言作客觀的共時描寫

重要人物布龍非爾德→《語言論》是該派德奠基之作→“布龍非爾德時期” 另外,還有日內(nèi)瓦學派、倫敦學派、莫斯科學派等小的學派。

(1優(yōu)點:強調(diào)語言是一個完整的符號系統(tǒng),不能孤立地研究,要從各成分間的關系,結構的分層符號系統(tǒng)的整體性認識;注重對立成分的分析,影響很大。

(2缺點:后來陷入了形式主義的死胡同,過于追求形式,忽視了語句的具體內(nèi)容。將形式和意義割裂開來。只能描寫語言事實而不能解釋原因。

3、轉(zhuǎn)換生成語言學

是在批判和修正美國描寫語言學理論的過程中發(fā)展起來的→是最近幾十年西方語言學最有影響的一個學派。創(chuàng)始人喬姆斯基→1957年《句法結構》→標志著轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法的誕生(“喬姆斯基革命”

這一理論是建立在理性主義的哲學基礎之上的,不同于建立在經(jīng)驗主義基礎上的結構主義語言學。

受美國描寫語言學的影響,最初用結構主義方法研究語法,但發(fā)現(xiàn)了弊端,發(fā)現(xiàn)以分布和替代的原則方法對語言素材進行切分和分類,只分析語言的表面現(xiàn)象,不能解釋語言 的內(nèi)在結構，特別是不能分析語言的深層和歧義結構。（例：進口機電產(chǎn)品；他走了半小 時了；Flying planes can be dangerous）

喬姆斯基不滿足于觀察語言行為的表面現(xiàn)象，而要求探索人類內(nèi)在的語言能力。（1）不僅描寫語言行為，還要研究體現(xiàn)在人腦中的認知系統(tǒng)和普遍語法。（2）人具有語言習得機制，大腦能自動創(chuàng)造和理解句子→揭示這些規(guī)則（3）語法是生成和描寫句子的規(guī)則系統(tǒng)→由句法、語音、語義三平面組成（4）采用現(xiàn)代數(shù)理邏輯的形式化方法，根據(jù)有限的規(guī)則演繹無限的句子

研究人的語言生成能力，即怎樣用有限的成分和規(guī)則生成無限的句子。目標是提出一 個能產(chǎn)生所有句子的語法系統(tǒng)，它主要包括生成和轉(zhuǎn)換兩個方面。生成規(guī)則又包括一套短 語結構規(guī)則和詞匯插入規(guī)則。前者用一套符號表示，如：S→NP+VP,NP→D+N, VP→V+NP(S代表句子，NP代表名詞短語，VP代表動詞短語，D代表限定詞，N代表名詞，V代表動詞。詞匯規(guī)則是生成合格句子的保證，即對一個句子內(nèi)各成分加以限制。如上 例，“POST”前的名詞一定是生物名詞（一般指人）。違反這個限定，就會生成不合格的句 子。“轉(zhuǎn)換”主要指句式和結構的轉(zhuǎn)換。優(yōu)點：這種學說適合計算機的應用，克服了結構主義語言學只重表層結構忽視深層 結構的不足。為語言研究開辟了新的路子和方向，促進了認知科學的發(fā)展；在計算機科 學、人工智能特別是人機翻譯和對話方面產(chǎn)生了深遠的影響。與形式主義相對峙的還 有系統(tǒng)-功能學派：英國的韓禮德（系統(tǒng)語法和功能語法兩部分）

第4學時

四、語言學類別（分類）語言學是語言研究各個學科的總稱，內(nèi)部還有很多分支學科，內(nèi)容十分豐富。人們研 究語言的目的、角度、方法多樣→形成語言學的各個類別和派別

1、功能角度：理論語言學和應用語言學（功能標準為首要標準）理論語言學：語言學的主體，理論基礎，包括具體、個別的研究和綜合各種語言研究 應用語言學：廣義：與其他學科交叉融合創(chuàng)立的新語言學科，綜合多種學科的研究手 段。狹義：語言教學，指語言理論在語言教學中的運用（語言習得心理）

2、具體研究對象：普通（一般）語言學/個別（專語、具體）語言學 普通語言學：人類所有的語言，探討其性質(zhì)、結構、功能、發(fā)展，揭示其普遍規(guī)律（普通語音學、普通詞匯學、普通語法學、普通語義學）--語言學研究的基礎理論，（我 們的課程就屬于普通語言學）指導個別語言學

個別語言學：一種或幾種語言，為前者提供材料并接受其指導

（漢語語言學/英語語 言學、現(xiàn)漢/古漢；它也可以以幾種有親屬關系的語言為研究對象，分析研究其發(fā)展規(guī)律 特點，如我國的壯語、布衣語、傣語、土語等是來源于侗傣語支的親屬語言，以這幾種語 言為研究對象，叫侗傣語言學。）

普通語言學的理論是在專語語言學研究成果的基礎上建立起來的，其發(fā)展水平取決于 對具體語言進行研究的成果。對具體語言的研究越多，材料越豐富，那么就越有利于普通 語言學理論的發(fā)展。目前對具體語言的研究，還主要局限在世界上一些大的語種，還有很 多語言，比如一些邊遠、落后民族的語言，還沒有得到很好的研究，甚至可能還有不為人 知的語言。所以目前普通語言學的理論只綜合反應了一部分語言的研究成果，隨著語言學 家對各種語言研究的范圍不斷深入，不斷擴大，語言學理論還將進一步得到發(fā)展。

3、研究時段：共時語言學和歷時語言學

任何一種語言，都有它橫向結構的一面，相對穩(wěn)定的一面，又有它縱向發(fā)展的一面，歷史的一面。研究分析語言，既需要看它在當代的狀態(tài)，認識它的現(xiàn)狀，也要看發(fā)展的特 點，找出演變的規(guī)律。

共時語言學：以語言發(fā)展中某個階段為橫斷面，研究相對靜止的狀態(tài)→橫向研究（現(xiàn)

漢、古漢）又可分為描寫語言學和對比語言學兩類。

歷時語言學：研究語言發(fā)展的歷史；在不同階段的演變情況→縱向研究（歷史語音 學）

研究語言發(fā)展的歷史，觀察一種語言的各個結構要素在不同發(fā)展階段的歷史演變，是 從縱的方面研究語言的歷史。涉及到一種語言的，叫做歷史語言學，如歷史語音學、歷史 詞匯學、歷史語法學等；涉及到多種語言和方言的，叫做歷史比較語言學。

4、研究方法：描寫語言學和對比語言學

描寫語言學：斷代似的研究，反映語言在某個時代的客觀細致的面貌（現(xiàn)漢語音、詞 匯、語法）

其中描寫語言學是我們最熟悉的，它對語言進行的是斷代似的研究，對語言在某一個 時代狀況作客觀的深入細致的描寫分析，以期反映出這種語言的基本面貌。如現(xiàn)代漢語、古代漢語、英語語法等都屬于描寫語言學。又可分語音學、詞匯學、語法學、修辭學等。

對比語言學：在描寫的基礎上進行比較研究（包括共時歷時研究：古今漢語、英漢語 法→類型比較）

5、研究對象的狀態(tài)：靜態(tài)語言學和動態(tài)語言學 靜態(tài)語言學：靜態(tài)的語言符號為對象，構成要素的分析描寫 動態(tài)語言學：動態(tài)的言語交際為對象；研究其發(fā)展運動規(guī)律

6、研究角度和范圍：微觀語言學和宏觀語言

學 微觀語言學：理論語言學的各個部門→圍繞語言結構本身進行研究→語音、詞匯、語 法和語義研究 宏觀語言學：應用語言學的各個類別→綜合各門學科展開研究（更大的范圍內(nèi)進行研 究）分類角度不同，一門學科可以劃分在不同類別中，如現(xiàn)漢（功能→理論語言學、對象 →專語語言學、時段→共時語言學、方法→描寫語言學）應用語言學類別：廣義、狹義之分（1）社會語言學：結合社會學和語言學，把語言結構和運用各方面與社會環(huán)境結合 1952年首次出現(xiàn)名稱，1964年學科誕生，吸收運用心理學、人類學、民族學和社會 心理學理論。主要研究語言與社會的關系，關注語言與社會集團的關系； 研究語言的社會本質(zhì)和社會差異（地域方言、社會方言、社會接觸和混合等）（2）心理語言學：心理學與語言學結合形成，語言是個人心理的反映。

重點觀察語言與個人的關系，通過語言了解人的心理認知活動；

研究人類大腦的語言機制，人類怎樣運用語言；

研究兒童語言習得、語言得接受和發(fā)生過程、語法的心理實現(xiàn)。

比如有的語言學家提出“核心句”問題就是具有簡單句、肯定句、主動句和陳述 句性質(zhì)的句子，心理語言學對此進行過實驗，結果發(fā)現(xiàn)，陳述句轉(zhuǎn)換為否定句比否定句轉(zhuǎn) 換為肯定的被動句（被動語態(tài)）的時間短，說明核心句是符合心理現(xiàn)實的。

（3）神經(jīng)語言學：最近20年從心理語言學中分離出來的。

研究語言和大腦結構的關系，通過神經(jīng)控制系統(tǒng)研究言語的產(chǎn)生；

中心問題是大腦如何生成語言。

人腦重量大約為1450克，黑猩猩頭部重量與人類差不多，但大腦只有500克左右。人的大腦皮層具有語言中樞，黑猩猩沒有語言中樞。

人類語言活動主要與大腦左半球的某些部位相聯(lián)系，控制語言活動的大腦左半球主 管理性的抽象思維，右半球主管形象思維。通過對大腦的解剖可以看到，大腦左半球控制 語言的有關部位比右半球相應部位體積要大，結構更加復雜，連嬰兒也不例外。有些十歲 以下的兒童，因為患腦瘤而需要切除大腦左半球皮層，但并不影響他們的語言能力，這表 明兒童的大腦心理過程可以從左半球轉(zhuǎn)移到右半球。但是對于成年人，若將大腦左半球切

除，則將完全喪失語言能力。

實驗表明，人在大腦中的語言機制是特有的，其它動物不具備這樣的機制。人的語 言機制主要是在大腦，大腦和人類的語言的內(nèi)在聯(lián)系現(xiàn)在認識研究還很不夠。語言的起源 問題，語言與思維的關系問

題至今難有突破，關鍵就在于我們對人腦的機制研究不足以回 答上述問題。如果真正把語言與人腦的關系研究透徹，破解其間的秘密，可以想見，語言 及語言學史都將寫下嶄新的一頁。（4）統(tǒng)計語言學；數(shù)理語言學；實驗語音學；計算語言學；語言病理學

統(tǒng)計語言學：作品、作家用詞頻率統(tǒng)計→探索語言風格，為詞典編纂提供依據(jù)

確定語言中借詞的比重，常用漢字，計算機存儲漢字等。

由應用語言學的成果可以看出語言學在學科體系中的重要性。

五、語言學在科學體系中的地位

語言是聯(lián)系人們的紐帶→不同學科對語言研究產(chǎn)生興趣（生物學物種變異→歷史比較 法；數(shù)學、史學、文學→比較法學）

1、作為傳授經(jīng)驗和認識客觀世界的工具→與歷史學、考古學、民族學等關系密切

2、作為思維工具→與哲學、邏輯學、心理學關系密切

3、作為思想的表現(xiàn)形式→與文學、文化學關系密切（英漢比較：稱謂→年齡、血 緣）語言研究領域擴大→成果廣泛運用→與自然科學也發(fā)生著密切的關系

從正式建立到現(xiàn)在的100多年間，語言學的理論和方法引起了自然科學的廣泛重視。它與數(shù)學、信息論、計算機科學、通訊工程、系統(tǒng)論等學科聯(lián)系緊密，產(chǎn)生了一些新的語 言學分支，如心理語言學、生理語言學、統(tǒng)計語言學、地理語言學、數(shù)理語言學、計算語 言學、人工智能、人機對話、機器翻譯等學科→離不開語言理論（語言學發(fā)達的程度成為 衡量國家科技水平的重要標志）

由應用語言學的成果我們可以看到語言學在學科體系中的重要地位：它與生理學、心理學、物理學、社會學、民族學、人類學、文化學、神經(jīng)學等學科都有著極為密切的關 系。過去，語言學是向別的學科學習，學習它們的觀點和方法，而現(xiàn)在，語言學成為方法 與觀點輸出的學科，像文學、社會學、心理學、民族學等都充分吸收語言學的研究成果為 己所用。尤其是現(xiàn)在的計算機科學，完全接受了語言學的理論方法，將語言學的研究成果 最充分地加以利用，比如計算機字庫、詞庫的建立，計算機自動處理自然語言，都需要語 言學的研究成果。計算機學科利用語言學成果，一方面使計算機作為人的大腦的延伸功能 更加擴大，效用更加提高，另一方面使語言獲得了新的表現(xiàn)形式，即在口語（有聲語言）、書面語（文字記錄）之外，獲得了第三種形式――人機對話（計算機語言）形式。我們 可以說，語言學既是一門古老的科學，又是一門年輕的科學（現(xiàn)代語言學的建立只有一百 來年），而且更是一門領先的科學，是

人文科學中的一支先鋒力量。所以瑞士心理學家皮 亞杰這樣評價語言學：“語言學，無論就其理論結構而言，還是就其任務之確切性而言，都是在人文科學中最先進而且對其它各種學科有重大作用的帶頭學科?！?/p>

六、語言學的功用

1、提高文化水平，掌握科學技術的基礎：研究本族語的結構規(guī)律→指導語文教學實 踐

2、指導我們學習語言、運用語言和研究語言：方言、本族語和外語

3、有利于各項語文政策的制定和推行：掃除文盲、漢字改革、推廣普通話、語言規(guī) 范化

4、提高文學作品的分析和鑒賞能力

5、有利于科學技術的現(xiàn)代化：語言是信息載體，發(fā)揮很大作用--計算機對自然語言 的處理

6、對哲學也有重要意義：語言與思維的關系、語言的起源、語言的本質(zhì)、語言習得 等

對個人來說，利用語言學的成果，可取得事半功倍的效果。（如：學習外語或方 言，找出對應規(guī)律，明確規(guī)律）?? ?? ?? ??

《語言學概論》教案 廈門大學人文學院中文系語言教研室 1