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      微分方程英文論文和翻譯(精選五篇)

      時(shí)間:2019-05-14 17:17:41下載本文作者:會(huì)員上傳
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      第一篇:微分方程英文論文和翻譯

      Differential Calculus

      Newton and Leibniz,quite independently of one another,were largely responsible for developing the ideas of integral calculus to the point where hitherto insurmountable problems could be solved by more or less routine methods.The successful accomplishments of these men were primarily due to the fact that they were able to fuse together the integral calculus with the second main branch of calculus,differential calculus.In this article, we establish a result about controllability to the following class of partial neutral functional di?erential equations with in?nite delay:

      ???Dxt?ADxt?Cu(t)?F(t,xt),t?0

      (1)??t?x0?????where the state variablex(.)takes values in a Banach space(E,.)and the control u(.)is given in L2(?0,T?,U),T?0,the Banach space of admissible control functions with U a Banach space.C is a bounded linear operator from U into E, A : D(A)? E → E is a linear operator on E, B is the phase space of functions mapping(?∞, 0] into E, which will be speci?ed later, D is a bounded linear operator from B into E de?ned by

      D???(0)?D0?,??B

      D0is a bounded linear operator from B into E and for each x :(?∞, T ] → E, T > 0, and t ∈ [0, T ], xt represents, as usual, the mapping from(?∞, 0] into E de?ned by

      xt(?)?x(t??),??(??,0]

      F is an E-valued nonlinear continuous mapping on????.The problem of controllability of linear and nonlinear systems represented by ODE in ?nit dimensional space was extensively studied.Many authors extended the controllability concept to in?nite dimensional systems in Banach space with unbounded operators.Up to now, there are a lot of works on this topic, see, for example, [4, 7, 10, 21].There are many systems that can be written as abstract neutral evolution equations with in?nite delay to study [23].In recent years, the theory of neutral functional di?erential equations with in?nite delay in in?nite.dimension was developed and it is still a ?eld of research(see, for instance, [2, 9, 14, 15] and the references therein).Meanwhile, the controllability problem of such systems was also discussed by many mathematicians, see, for example, [5, 8].The objective of this article is to discuss the controllability for Eq.(1), where the linear part is supposed to be non-densely de?ned but satis?es the resolvent estimates of the Hille-Yosida theorem.We shall assume conditions that assure global existence and give the su?cient conditions for controllability of some partial neutral functional di?erential equations with in?nite delay.The results are obtained using the integrated semigroups theory and Banach ?xed point theorem.Besides, we make use of the notion of integral solution and we do not use the analytic semigroups theory.Treating equations with in?nite delay such as Eq.(1), we need to introduce the phase space B.To avoid repetitions and understand the interesting properties of the phase space, suppose that(B,.B)is a(semi)normed abstract linear space of functions mapping(?∞, 0] into E, and satis?es the following fundamental axioms that were ?rst introduced in [13] and widely discussed in [16].??(A)There exist a positive constant H and functions K(.), M(.):???,with K continuous and M locally bounded, such that, for any ???and a?0,if x :(?∞, σ + a] → E, x??B and x(.)is continuous on [σ, σ+a], then, for every t in [σ, σ+a], the following conditions hold:(i)xt?B.(ii)x(t)?HxtB,which is equivalent to

      ?(0)?H?Bor every??B.(iii)xtB?K(t??)supx(s)?M(t??)x???s?tB

      (A)For the function x(.)in(A), t → xt is a B-valued continuous function for t in [σ, σ + a].(B)1.The space B is complete.Throughout this article, we also assume that the operator A satis?es the Hille-Yosida condition :(H1)There exist and ???,such that(?,??)??(A)and

      n?n:n?N,????M

      (2)

      sup(???)(?I?A)

      ??Let A0 be the part of operator A in D(A)de?ned by

      ?D(A0)?x?D(A):Ax?D(A)??A0x?Ax,for,x?D(A0)It is well known that D(A0)?D(A)and the operator A0 generates a strongly continuous semigroup(T0(t)t?0)on D(A).Recall that [19] for allx?D(A)and t?0,one has f0tT0(s)xds?D(A0)and

      t??A?0T0(s)sds???x?T0(t)x.????We also recall that(T0(t))t?0coincides on D(A)with the derivative of the locally Lipschitz integrated semigroup(S(t))t?0 generated by A on E, which is, according to [3, 17, 18], a family of bounded linear operators on E, that satis?es

      (i)S(0)= 0,(ii)for any y ∈ E, t → S(t)y is strongly continuous with values in E,(iii)S(s)S(t)??(S(t?r)?s(r))drfor all t, s ≥ 0, and for any τ > 0 there exists a

      0sconstant l(τ)> 0, such that

      S(t)?S(s)?l(?)t?s or all t, s ∈ [0, τ].The C0-semigroup(S?(t))t?0 is exponentially bounded, that is, there exist two constants Mand ?,such that S?(t)?Me?t for all t ≥ 0.Notice that the controllability of a class of non-densely de?ned functional di?erential equations was studied in [12] in the ?nite delay case.、Main Results

      We start with introducing the following de?nition.De?nition 1 Let T > 0 and ? ∈ B.We consider the following de?nition.We say that a function x := x(., ?):(?∞, T)→ E, 0 < T ≤ +∞, is an integral solution of Eq.(1)if(i)x is continuous on [0, T),(ii)(iii)(iv)?t0Dxsds?D(A)for t ∈ [0, T),tt00Dxt?D??A?Dxsds??Cu(s)?F(s,xs)dsfor t ∈ [0, T), x(t)??(t)for all t ∈(?∞, 0].We deduce from [1] and [22] that integral solutions of Eq.(1)are given for ? ∈ B, such that D??D(A)by the following system

      t??Dxt?S?(t)D??lim?S?(t?s)B?(Cu(s)?F(s,xs))ds,t?[0,t),、(????0??x(t)??(t),t?(??,0],?Where B???(?I?A)?1.To obtain global existence and uniqueness, we supposed as in [1] that(H2)K(0)D0?1.(H3)F:[0,??]???Eis continuous and there exists

      F(t,?1)?F(t,?2)??0?0> 0, such that

      ?1??2?for ?1, ?2 ∈ B and t ≥ 0.(4)

      Using Theorem 7 in [1], we obtain the following result.Theorem 1 Assume that(H1),(H2), and(H3)hold.Let ? ∈ B such that D? ∈ D(A).Then, there exists a unique integral solution x(., ?)of Eq.(1), de?ned on(?∞,+∞).De?nition 2 Under the above conditions, Eq.(1)is said to be controllable on the interval J = [0, δ], δ > 0, if for every initial function ? ∈ B with D? ∈ D(A)and for any e1 ∈ D(A), there exists a control u ∈ L2(J,U), such that the solution x(.)of Eq.(1)satis?es x(?)?e1.Theorem 2 Suppose that(H1),(H2), and(H3)hold.Let x(.)be the integral solution of Eq.(1)on(?∞, δ), δ > 0, and assume that(see [20])the linear operator W from U into D(A)de?ned by

      Wu?lim~????0??S?(??s)B?Cu(s)ds,(5)

      nduces an invertible operator Won L2(J,U)/KerW,such that there exist positive constants

      ~N1and N2satisfying C?N1and W?1?N2,then, Eq.(1)is controllable on J provided that

      Where(D0)??0Me?????0N1N2M2e???2)K??1,(6)

      0?t??K?:?maxK(t)

      .Proof Following [1], when the integral solution x(.)of Eq.(1)exists on(?∞, δ), δ > 0, it is given for all t ∈ [0, δ] by

      dx(t)?D0xt?S?(t)D??dtOr

      dS(t?s)F(s,x)ds?s?0dtt?S(t?s)Cu(s)ds

      0tx(t)?D0xt?S?(t)D??lim?S?(t?s)B?(s,xs)ds????0t

      ?lim?S?(t?s)B?Cu(s)ds

      ????0tThen, an arbitrary integral solution x(.)of Eq.(1)on(?∞, δ), δ > 0, satis?es x(δ)= e1 if and only if e1?D0x??S?(?)D??dd???0S(??s)F(s,xs)ds?lim????0?S?(t?s)B?Cu(s)dstThis implies that, by use of(5), it su?ces to take, for all t ∈ J,t~?1u(t)?Wlim?S?(t?s)B?Cu(s)ds(t)?????0?

      t~?1?We1?D0x??S?(?)D??lim?S?(t?s)B?(s,xs)ds(t)

      ?????0?in order to have x(δ)= e1.Hence, we must take the control as above, and consequently, the proof is reduced to the existence of the integral solution given for all t ∈ [0, δ] by

      dt(Pz)(t):?D0zt?S?(t)D???S(t?s)F(s,zs)ds

      dt0dt~??S(t?s)CW?1?z(?)?D0z??S?(?)D? dt0?lim?S?(???)B?F(?,z?)d?}(s)ds

      ????0?Without loss of generality, suppose that hat, for every

      ? ≥ 0.Using similar arguments as in [1], we can see z1,z2?Z?(?)and t ∈ [0, δ] ,(Pz1)(t)?(Pz2)(t)?(D0??0Me??)K?z1?z2As K is continuous and

      ?

      D0K(0)?1,we can choose δ > 0 small enough, such that

      D0??0Me????0N1N2M2e???2)K??1.Then, P is a strict contraction in Z?(?),and the ?xed point of P gives the unique integral olution x(., ?)on(?∞, δ] that veri?es x(δ)= e1.Remark 1 Suppose that all linear operators W from U into D(A)de?ned by

      Wu?lim?S?(b?s)B?Cu(s)ds

      ????0~20 ≤ a < b ≤ T, T > 0, induce invertible operators W on L([a,b],U)/KerW,such that there

      T~?1?N2,taking ??,N exist positive constants N1 and N2 satisfying C?N1 and WNlarge enough and following [1].A similar argument as the above proof can be used inductively

      1?n?N?1,to see that Eq.(1)is controllable on [0, T ] for all T > 0.in [n?,(n?1)?],The study of differential equations is one part of mathematics that, perhaps more than any other, has been directly inspired by mechanics, astronomy, and mathematical physics.Its history began in the 17th century when Newton, Leibniz, and the Bernoullis solved some simple differential equation arising from problems in geometry and mechanics.There early discoveries, beginning about 1690, gradually led to the development of a lot of “special tricks” for solving certain special kinds of differential equations.Although these special tricks are applicable in mechanics and geometry, so their study is of practical importance.?

      微分方程

      牛頓和萊布尼茨,完全相互獨(dú)立,主要負(fù)責(zé)開發(fā)積分學(xué)思想的地步,迄今無法解決的問題可以解決更多或更少的常規(guī)方法。這些成功的人主要是由于他們能夠?qū)⒎e分學(xué)和微分融合在一起的事實(shí)。中心思想是微分學(xué)的概念衍生。

      在這篇文章中,我們建立一個(gè)關(guān)于可控的結(jié)果偏中性與無限時(shí)滯泛函微分方程的下面的類:

      ???Dxt?ADxt?Cu(t)?F(t,xt),t?0

      (1)??t?x0?????狀態(tài)變量x(.)在(E,.)空間值和控制用u(.)受理控制范圍L(?0,T?,U),T?0的Banach空

      2間,Banach空間。C是一個(gè)有界的線性算子從U到E,A:A : D(A)? E → E上的線性算子,B是函數(shù)的映射相空間(∞,0]到由E定義為

      xt(?)?x(t??),??(??,0]

      F是一個(gè)E值非線性連續(xù)映射在????。

      ODE的代表在三維空間中的線性和非線性系統(tǒng)的可控性問題進(jìn)行了廣泛的研究。許多作者延長無限維系統(tǒng)的可控性概念,在Banach空間無限算子。到現(xiàn)在,也有很多關(guān)于這一主題的作品,看到的,例如,[4,7,10,21]。有許多方程可以無限延遲的研究[23]為抽象的中性演化方程的書面。近年來,中立與無限時(shí)滯泛函微分方程理論在無限

      維度仍然是一個(gè)研究領(lǐng)域(見,例如,[2,9,14,15]和其中的參考文獻(xiàn))。同時(shí),這種系統(tǒng)的可控性問題也受到許多數(shù)學(xué)家討論可以看到的,例如,[5,8]。本文的目的是討論方程的可控性。(1),其中線性部分是應(yīng)該被非密集的定義,但滿足的Hille-Yosida定理解估計(jì)。我們應(yīng)當(dāng)保證全局存在的條件,并給一些偏中性無限時(shí)滯泛函微分方程的可控性的充分條件。結(jié)果獲得的積分半群理論和Banach不動(dòng)點(diǎn)定理。此外,我們使用的整體解決方案的概念和我們不使用半群的理論分析。方程式,如無限時(shí)滯方程。(1),我們需要引入相空間B.為了避免重復(fù)和了解的相空間的有趣的性質(zhì),假設(shè)是(半)賦范抽象線性空間函數(shù)的映射(∞,T)→E,0

      00?t?t4.x(t)??(t)對于所有t ∈(?∞, 0].我們推斷[1]和[22]式的整體解決方法。(1)給出了? ∈ B,D??D(A)如以下結(jié)論

      t??Dxt?S?(t)D??lim?S?(t?s)B?(Cu(s)?F(s,xs))ds,t?[0,t),(3)????0??x(t)??(t),t?(??,0],?當(dāng)B???(?I?A)?1。

      為了獲得全局的存在性和唯一,我們應(yīng)該在[1]中

      (H2)K(0)D0?1.(H3)F:[0,??]???Ei是連續(xù)的,存在 F(t,?1)?F(t,?2)??0?0> 0, 所以

      ?1??2?for ?1, ?2 ∈ B 和 t ≥ 0.(4)

      使用[1]定理7中,我們得到以下結(jié)論。定理1 假設(shè)(H1),(H2)(H3)。設(shè)? ∈ B,這樣D? ∈ D(A).。則,存在一個(gè)獨(dú)特的整數(shù)解x(., ?)對于Eq.(1),。(1),定義在(?∞,+∞).。

      定義2 在上述條件下,方程Eq.(1)被說成是在區(qū)間J = [0, δ], δ > 0,如果為每一個(gè)初始函數(shù)? ∈ B,? ∈ D(A)和任何e1 ∈ D(A),存在可控一個(gè)控制u ∈ L2(J,U)的,這樣的解x(.)的Eq.(1)滿足x(?)?e1。

      定理2假設(shè)(H1),(H2),(H3).x(.)式為整體解決方法在Eq.(1)中(?∞, δ), δ > 0。并假設(shè)(見[20])的線性算子從W到U在D(A)定義為

      Wu?lim~么,Eq.(1)是可控的前提是在J

      當(dāng)K?0?t??????0??S?(??s)B?Cu(s)ds,(5)

      ~?1?N2那 W存在L2(J,U)/KerW正數(shù)N1和N2滿足C?N1 和 W誘導(dǎo)可逆的算子,(D0)??0Me?????0N1N2M2e???2)K??1,(6)

      :?maxK(t).證明

      以下[1],當(dāng)整體解決方案x(.)式。Eq.(1)存在于(?∞, δ), δ > 0,這是對所有的t ∈ [0, δ]

      dx(t)?D0xt?S?(t)D??dt或者

      dS(t?s)F(s,x)ds?s?0dtt?S(t?s)Cu(s)ds

      0tx(t)?D0xt?S?(t)D??lim?S?(t?s)B?(s,xs)ds????0t

      ?lim?S?(t?s)B?Cu(s)ds

      ????0t然后,一個(gè)任意整數(shù)解x(.)式。(1)在(?∞, δ), δ > 0,滿足x(δ)= e1,當(dāng)且僅當(dāng)

      de1?D0x??S?(?)D??d???0S(??s)F(s,xs)ds?lim????0?S?(t?s)B?Cu(s)dst這意味著,使用(5),它足以采取對所有的t ∈ J,t~?1u(t)?Wlim?S?(t?s)B?Cu(s)ds(t)

      t~?1?We1?D0x??S?(?)D??lim?S?(t?s)B?(s,xs)ds(t)??????0?????0?以x(δ)= e1因此,我們必須采取上述控制,因此,證明是減少對所有的t ∈ [0, δ]的整體解的存在性

      (Pz)(t):?D0zt?S?(t)D??d?dtddt?S(t?s)F(s,z0ts)ds

      ?t0~S(t?s)CW?1?z(?)?D0z??S?(?)D?

      ??lim?S?(???)B?F(?,z?)d?}(s)ds

      ????0為了不失一般性,假設(shè)? ≥ 0。[1]類似的論點(diǎn),我們可以看到的z,z[0,δ]

      12?Z?(?)和t∈

      ?(Pz1)(t)?(Pz2)(t)?(D0??0Me??)K?z1?z2為K是

      D0K(0)?1連續(xù)的,δ > 0足夠小,這樣我們可以選擇

      D0??0Me????0N1N2M2e???2)K??1.然后,P是一個(gè)嚴(yán)格的收縮在Z?(?),和固定的P點(diǎn)給出了獨(dú)特的不可分割的線上的x(., ?)on(?∞, δ],驗(yàn)證x(δ)= e1。

      注1 假設(shè)所有D(A)從U W時(shí)的線性算子定義

      Wu?lim?S?(b?s)B?Cu(s)ds

      ????0~20 ≤ a < b ≤ T, T > 0,誘發(fā)可逆的算子W在L([a,b],U)/KerW,如存在正常數(shù)N1和N

      2T~?1??W?N滿足C?N1,同時(shí)中N足夠大,下面的[1]。上述證明的一個(gè)類2,N1?n?N?1,看到Eq.(1)在[0,T]的所有T>0是可控似的說法可以使用[n?,(n?1)?],的。

      微分方程的研究是數(shù)學(xué)的一部分,也許比其他分支更多的直接受到力學(xué),天文學(xué)和數(shù)學(xué)物理的推動(dòng)。他的歷史起源于17世紀(jì),當(dāng)時(shí)牛頓、萊布尼茨、伯努利家族解決了一些來自幾何和力學(xué)的簡單的微分方程。哲學(xué)開始于1690年的早期發(fā)現(xiàn),逐漸引起了解某些特殊類型的微分方程的大量特殊技巧的發(fā)展。盡管這些特殊的技巧只是用于相對較少的幾種情況,但是他們能夠解決力學(xué)和幾何中出現(xiàn)的許多微分方程,因此,他們的研究具有重要的實(shí)際應(yīng)

      用。

      ?

      第二篇:英文論文翻譯

      鄉(xiāng)村旅游及旅游業(yè)多元化帶來的挑戰(zhàn):

      以塞浦路斯為例 Richard Sharpley 摘要

      鄉(xiāng)村旅游長期以來一直被認(rèn)為是一種實(shí)現(xiàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)發(fā)展與更新的途徑,更確切地說,它已被推廣成為一種高效的收入來源和及實(shí)現(xiàn)就業(yè)的產(chǎn)業(yè),特別是在一些偏遠(yuǎn)的傳統(tǒng)農(nóng)業(yè)已經(jīng)開始萎縮的農(nóng)村地區(qū)。為了帶來像沿海度假村一樣的旅游效益,現(xiàn)在有很多旅游都開始轉(zhuǎn)向內(nèi)陸以鄉(xiāng)村旅游的方式多元化他們的旅游產(chǎn)品和市場。本論文的目的在于在一定程度上探討這種鄉(xiāng)村旅游所代表的一個(gè)現(xiàn)實(shí)的旅游發(fā)展政策?;谘芯哭r(nóng)業(yè)旅游的發(fā)展在塞浦路斯所遇到的挑戰(zhàn)和問題,強(qiáng)調(diào)鄉(xiāng)村旅游的企業(yè)家在開發(fā)鄉(xiāng)村旅游中遇到的一些問題。特別指出鄉(xiāng)村旅游開發(fā)成本高回報(bào)率低,許多旅游經(jīng)營者缺少必要的技能和的支配能力等重大挑戰(zhàn)??偟膩碚f,長期的資金與技術(shù)支持是鄉(xiāng)村旅游能否取得發(fā)展的重要因素。1.簡介

      旅游長期以來一直被認(rèn)為是一種有效的促進(jìn)農(nóng)村經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展與更新的方法。在整個(gè)歐洲,特別是那些亟需解決社會(huì)和經(jīng)濟(jì)面臨的各種挑戰(zhàn),傳統(tǒng)農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)的逐漸衰落的周邊農(nóng)村區(qū),旅游業(yè)被廣泛推廣和依賴成為的一種有效的解決手段。另外,它對整個(gè)歐洲的財(cái)政結(jié)構(gòu)有重要的影響。例如,在1989年到1993年間,歐盟的5.5%結(jié)構(gòu)性資金都分配在旅游開發(fā)投資項(xiàng)目。而在1994年和1999年,一共有73億歐元的資金用于促進(jìn)旅游業(yè)的發(fā)展。

      更具體地說,超過三分之一的投資項(xiàng)目涉及到旅游業(yè)。鄉(xiāng)村旅游發(fā)展方案也在其他地方變得越來越明顯,雖然與在歐洲的開發(fā)程度不同。例如,在美國,已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)有30個(gè)州的開發(fā)旅游政策專門針對農(nóng)村地區(qū),還有另外14個(gè)已包括鄉(xiāng)村旅游的整體旅游發(fā)展方案。同樣,鄉(xiāng)村旅游企業(yè)也越來越多為了彌補(bǔ)農(nóng)業(yè)收入及其他合營機(jī)構(gòu)收入的下降。然而,在許多其他國家,包括加拿大,澳大利亞,新西蘭和那些兩個(gè)前東歐及亞太地區(qū),旅游業(yè)是促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)增長和改變在農(nóng)村地區(qū)的主要?jiǎng)恿Α?/p>

      同時(shí),這也超越了一般的的發(fā)展與再生作用,鄉(xiāng)村旅游正日益成為促進(jìn)以與大量的包裝型旅游目的地相對應(yīng)。也就是說,一些流行陽關(guān)海灘旅游目項(xiàng)目,近年來,準(zhǔn)備多元化旅游項(xiàng)目,分散投資于鄉(xiāng)村旅游,這既是一種區(qū)域化又是一種形式化,作為農(nóng)村傳統(tǒng)旅游反對沿海現(xiàn)代旅游的方式,從而使旅游業(yè)以更均衡的、可持續(xù)的方法發(fā)展。更具體地說,鄉(xiāng)村旅游業(yè)的發(fā)展傳統(tǒng)上是被看作是一個(gè)夏日陽關(guān)目的地,他不僅是改變農(nóng)村發(fā)展的手段也是實(shí)現(xiàn)旅游多元化增加旅游吸引力的重要手段,緩和市場高速發(fā)展存在的問題;減輕季節(jié)性聯(lián)系問題;鼓勵(lì)自主旅游使旅游經(jīng)濟(jì)效益的傳播到旅游內(nèi)地;更多的促進(jìn)文化發(fā)展,并不單一的強(qiáng)調(diào)氣候、景點(diǎn);而且滿足環(huán)境境需求平均這種個(gè)人旅游形式。這樣的一個(gè)旅游目的地,已要求通過多樣化和經(jīng)濟(jì)復(fù)興的鄉(xiāng)村旅游推廣塞浦路斯。在過去的40多年來,塞浦路斯已成為一個(gè)重要要的地中海夏日太陽目的地,成功生長旅游基礎(chǔ)顯示著島嶼社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展。在1991年后,該項(xiàng)目領(lǐng)導(dǎo)勞納推出了一體化島嶼為元素旅游發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略。

      然而,盡管塞浦路斯農(nóng)業(yè)旅游項(xiàng)目表面上已經(jīng)遇到了一些成功,包括獲得英國航空的“旅游為明天”獎(jiǎng),但對其以保持其可行性和有效性的一個(gè)旅游多樣化政策仍存在懷疑。正如本文所展示的,許多證據(jù)表明存在的問題和挑戰(zhàn)這不僅不利于塞浦路斯農(nóng)業(yè)旅游的發(fā)展,也農(nóng)村傳統(tǒng)觀念旅游業(yè)相矛盾。本文的目的是要強(qiáng)調(diào)這些挑戰(zhàn),指出相關(guān)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)教訓(xùn),向其他旅游地區(qū),如加那利群島,這個(gè)也在尋找通過鄉(xiāng)村旅游多元化旅游產(chǎn)業(yè)的地區(qū)提供借鑒。但是,首先有必要簡單回顧一下鄉(xiāng)村旅游發(fā)展的潛在好處和的挑戰(zhàn),作為具體分析塞浦路斯農(nóng)業(yè)旅游的框架。

      2.鄉(xiāng)村旅游: 經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的靈丹妙藥?

      在許多國家,鄉(xiāng)村旅游受到很多實(shí)質(zhì)性的鼓勵(lì)與支持,在某些情況下同時(shí)從公共和私營企業(yè)取得財(cái)政援助。在過去三十年來,許多農(nóng)村經(jīng)濟(jì)體都遭受了嚴(yán)重的衰敗,就業(yè)率的下降和收入水平減少使傳統(tǒng)農(nóng)業(yè)進(jìn)入經(jīng)濟(jì)的惡性循環(huán)。特別是農(nóng)村人均收入已經(jīng)遠(yuǎn)低于全國平均值,而公共服務(wù)的損耗,高失業(yè)水平和年輕人的外出,使受教育的農(nóng)村成員在社區(qū)集體結(jié)構(gòu)中處于瀕危的狀態(tài)。因此鄉(xiāng)村旅游不僅僅被作為一種潛在的扭轉(zhuǎn)這種局面的手段而且,由于它促進(jìn)農(nóng)村各種關(guān)系的緊密聯(lián)系使得農(nóng)村社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)得以健康發(fā)展。它已成為一個(gè)不可分割的農(nóng)村發(fā)展的政策。

      這種對鄉(xiāng)村旅游業(yè)日益增長的依賴和支持是取決于農(nóng)村地區(qū)感知的許多好處。一般來說,鄉(xiāng)村旅游業(yè)被視為一種寶貴的和不斷增長的行業(yè)在整體旅游市場,占有重要收入來源。例如據(jù)估計(jì)在英格蘭鄉(xiāng)村旅游,每年約90億英鎊的利潤。更具體地說,農(nóng)村旅游業(yè)的發(fā)展對農(nóng)村地區(qū)所面臨的問題提供了解決方案。歸納如下:

      (1)通過旅游業(yè)及現(xiàn)有企業(yè)促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)增長,實(shí)現(xiàn)產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)多樣化和穩(wěn)定性,提供更多的就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)增加人民收入。創(chuàng)造的新市場農(nóng)產(chǎn)品,以及不斷擴(kuò)大的地區(qū)的經(jīng)濟(jì)基礎(chǔ)。

      (2)社會(huì)文化發(fā)展,包括重農(nóng)村地區(qū)的革新,維護(hù)和改善,公共服務(wù)的加強(qiáng)及地方的振興對當(dāng)?shù)刈匀患碍h(huán)境結(jié)構(gòu)的改善。

      在一定程度上實(shí)現(xiàn)了這些好處仍引起爭議。當(dāng)然,有證據(jù)指出,作為經(jīng)濟(jì)增長的工具和多樣化的手段,旅游業(yè)在提高農(nóng)民收入水平和促進(jìn)當(dāng)?shù)亟?jīng)濟(jì)增長作出了重要貢獻(xiàn)。同樣,毫無疑問,旅游業(yè)是就業(yè)的重要來源,特別是在傳統(tǒng)上受歡迎的農(nóng)村目的地,對農(nóng)村地區(qū)社會(huì)和環(huán)境發(fā)展,起到重要的作用,同時(shí)旅游業(yè)作為農(nóng)村地區(qū)所面臨的問題的靈丹妙藥這種說法必須謹(jǐn)慎對待。

      也就是說,在某種程度上旅游有利于農(nóng)村發(fā)展的多樣性,因此它值得政府的支持和資助。然而在有些地區(qū),鄉(xiāng)村旅游業(yè)的發(fā)展與他本固有的經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展矛盾。研究表明有很多因素不利于農(nóng)村通過鄉(xiāng)村旅游實(shí)現(xiàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)多樣化和增長。

      特別是已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn),旅游業(yè)對農(nóng)村額外收入的增加很少達(dá)到預(yù)期的希望。在某種程度上,這可以解釋的是,鄉(xiāng)村旅游企業(yè)往往是小規(guī)模和高度季節(jié)性市場,這些包括:

      (1)并非所有農(nóng)村地區(qū)都同樣吸引游客,簡單的提供住宿并不能保證需求。產(chǎn)品包裝必須足以吸引和留住游客,提供適當(dāng)?shù)南M(fèi)機(jī)會(huì)。

      (2)鄉(xiāng)村旅游發(fā)展和組織可能會(huì)要求重要投資能夠取得更大潛在回報(bào)。在這種情況下,政府補(bǔ)可能需要維持旅游業(yè)的利潤。

      (3)當(dāng)?shù)厣鐓^(qū)和企業(yè)可能會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)難以適應(yīng)這種服務(wù)。例如,歐洲農(nóng)民 發(fā)現(xiàn)它難以通過與旅游工業(yè)農(nóng)業(yè)結(jié)合的實(shí)現(xiàn)商品化農(nóng)業(yè)。換句話說,農(nóng)業(yè)價(jià)值和客戶服務(wù)價(jià)值往往不可壓縮。

      (4)產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)的質(zhì)量必須符合游客的需求和期望。在在羅馬尼亞中部地區(qū),因鄉(xiāng)村旅游不符合海外游客的需求而阻礙了成功。(5)個(gè)人通常不具有鄉(xiāng)村旅游業(yè)的技能和有效的資源市場營銷以及成功的先決條件。在許多地區(qū)或國家,市場營銷和廣告支持是可用的,盡管當(dāng)?shù)剞r(nóng)村社區(qū)對外來援助可能表示反感。

      這些挑戰(zhàn)并不是出現(xiàn)在每一種情況。然而,他們確實(shí)表明,旅游業(yè)并不是解決農(nóng)村所面臨的問題的必須手段。也就是說,旅游可能并不是最適合的發(fā)展道路,而成本和以上總結(jié)的其他困難可能限制 潛在的經(jīng)濟(jì)回報(bào)。此外,由于以下對

      塞浦路斯研究表明,這些困難會(huì)在與那些帶有傳統(tǒng)的陽關(guān)沙灘的旅游地點(diǎn)競爭時(shí)加劇。

      3.塞浦路斯的旅游業(yè)

      塞浦路斯旅游業(yè)的發(fā)展是1960年從英國統(tǒng)治下獨(dú)立后開始的。當(dāng)時(shí),島上極度落后,旅游業(yè)幾乎不存在。事實(shí)上,在1960年僅25000旅客人數(shù),旅游收益占本地生產(chǎn)總值約百分之2.5。有趣的是在這個(gè)數(shù)字的背景下,旅游業(yè)也只是在山上度假勝地,在1960年占幾乎島上的4000個(gè)床位的一半。當(dāng)?shù)卣趯ふ野l(fā)展島上鄉(xiāng)村旅游的途徑。

      從20世紀(jì)60年代開始,塞浦路斯的旅游業(yè)開始繁華。直到1974年,這個(gè)島的年接待旅游人數(shù)以每年20%的速度增長,在1973年參觀者的人數(shù)已經(jīng)達(dá)到264000人.在此期間,凱里尼亞和法瑪古斯塔的沿海地區(qū)發(fā)展的最快,這為小島發(fā)展為一個(gè)主要的夏日陽光目的地打下了基礎(chǔ)。但是在1974年隨著土耳其人的入侵其對塞浦路斯北部的占領(lǐng),小島的經(jīng)濟(jì)幾近崩潰。大部分酒店,以及位于尼科西亞的國際機(jī)場和其他的一些旅游設(shè)施都以被破壞,到1975年只剩下僅僅47000家。

      盡管如此,旅游產(chǎn)業(yè)再次出現(xiàn)不可思議的恢復(fù)和增長。到20世紀(jì)80年代。小島的旅客人數(shù)相比于全球4.2%的增長率,其增長了16%。旅游收入再次恢復(fù)到1977年的2.38億。

      到20世紀(jì)80年代,小島旅游的年平均增長率達(dá)到了23%。在1999年,旅游收入達(dá)到兩千四百萬,旅游業(yè)已經(jīng)發(fā)展成為塞浦路斯的經(jīng)濟(jì)支柱產(chǎn)業(yè),占整個(gè)GDP的20%,就業(yè)率的25%,出口額的40%。也是因?yàn)槁糜螛I(yè)的發(fā)展,塞浦路斯人的生活水平在地中海地區(qū)僅此于法國和意大利,達(dá)到第三位。

      塞浦路斯旅游業(yè)的發(fā)展已經(jīng)被很好的記錄下來,但是盡管塞浦路斯的取得了令人矚目的發(fā)展,仍然存在許多對以后發(fā)展有為威脅的因素。

      到1992年,人們已經(jīng)認(rèn)識到塞浦路斯的快速發(fā)展是不可持續(xù)的。沿海的大部分土地已經(jīng)被開發(fā)殆盡,島上的自然資源和人力資源面臨嚴(yán)重的壓力。由于經(jīng)濟(jì)增長嚴(yán)重依賴旅游業(yè)使得整個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)面臨威脅。然而塞浦路斯旅游業(yè)的經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展仍然因?yàn)橐韵略蚶^續(xù)增長:

      (1)自上世紀(jì)80年代,島上開始玩數(shù)字游戲即以到來的人數(shù)來測量旅游業(yè)的成功。然而90年代到此的旅客人數(shù)并不穩(wěn)定,其中大部分是被圣拿帕的短暫流行的俱樂部和舞蹈所吸引。

      (2)盡管在其他方面也有所努力,塞浦路斯的依然依靠它的傳統(tǒng)核心產(chǎn)業(yè)。英國游客一直是島上的主要來源,在1992 年占到了54.6%。由于塞浦路斯制定的旅游政策,英國游客在1996年下降到36.9%,但在1999年又重新達(dá)到47.5%。塞浦路斯的其他市場,如斯堪的納維亞半島和德國大概占到10%。

      (3)在90年代,來塞浦路斯的游客由于本地旅游業(yè)的包容性,停留時(shí)間由1991年的12.5天下降到1996年的10.92天,從一定程度上來說,游客的平均花費(fèi)也比預(yù)期的要少。

      (4)塞浦路斯的旅游業(yè)有很強(qiáng)的季節(jié)性。超多四分之一的游客主要在七月到八月,整個(gè)從7月到9月的夏季游客占到全年游客的40%。

      (5)大多數(shù)來塞浦路斯的游客都是跟團(tuán)旅游。特別是英國和斯堪的納維亞市場,分別占80%呵100%。不僅是這個(gè)因素制約了旅游業(yè)的發(fā)展,同時(shí)旅游業(yè)掌握在少數(shù)經(jīng)營者手中也是個(gè)不利因素。這些都限制了島上旅游業(yè)的發(fā)展?jié)摿Γ?0%的游客都由一家名為德曼集團(tuán)控制著。1999年,島上能夠提供86000個(gè)床位,其中大部分在沿海地區(qū)。例如在法瑪古斯塔東南部地區(qū)已經(jīng)從孤立的鄉(xiāng)村旅游轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)閸u上最熱鬧的度假勝地。占據(jù)整個(gè)游客的40%,帕福斯以24%緊隨其后,后者相比1991年增長了50%。更重要的是,從8年代興起的自助式住宿對塞浦路斯的旅游業(yè)有很重要的影響。

      總的來說,塞浦路斯旅游業(yè)的迅速發(fā)展有著季節(jié)性,跟團(tuán)性及被少數(shù)商家操控的特點(diǎn)。相反的內(nèi)陸的鄉(xiāng)村地區(qū)卻只占很少的一部分。4.塞浦路斯農(nóng)業(yè)旅游的發(fā)展

      塞浦路斯當(dāng)局也認(rèn)識到旅游業(yè)發(fā)展所面臨的問題,在80年代中期當(dāng)旅游業(yè)發(fā)展至最好時(shí)期時(shí),有關(guān)發(fā)展方向及發(fā)展規(guī)模的措施也相應(yīng)出臺。特別是針對鼓勵(lì)山丘地區(qū)的旅游發(fā)展,目的在與增加多樣性及旅游收入。

      從那時(shí)起,歷任計(jì)劃和政策所追求的是實(shí)現(xiàn)更平衡以旅游的方式,雖然成果有限但含蓄的目標(biāo)正在放緩旅游業(yè)的發(fā)展,改善和多樣化旅游產(chǎn)品,以吸引高消費(fèi)游客減少季節(jié)性的影響;以及擴(kuò)大環(huán)島旅游的利潤。在過去的十年來,為實(shí)現(xiàn)這些目標(biāo)農(nóng)業(yè)旅游的發(fā)展一直是主要的手段。

      塞浦路斯的農(nóng)業(yè)旅游項(xiàng)目在1991年由當(dāng)局旅游部門發(fā)起,旨在改革島上的社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)。以下是具體措施:

      (1)激活鄉(xiāng)村旅游以減少人口遷出。

      (2)借助鄉(xiāng)村旅游開辟一個(gè)更具意義的通道。(3)通過多樣化的旅游吸引新的旅游市場。

      (4)根據(jù)塞浦路斯傳統(tǒng)文化特色發(fā)展獨(dú)特的旅游模式。

      (5)保護(hù)和保存現(xiàn)有的自然及建筑環(huán)境,并增強(qiáng)傳統(tǒng)的生活習(xí)慣和文化??偟膩碚f,農(nóng)業(yè)旅游包含典型的鄉(xiāng)村旅游發(fā)展的目標(biāo)。這不是說將要取代傳統(tǒng)的鄉(xiāng)村經(jīng)濟(jì),而是一種更加可持續(xù)的發(fā)展,同時(shí)也將島上的旅游產(chǎn)品重新定位。

      5.鄉(xiāng)村旅游:挑戰(zhàn) 5.1缺乏支持

      無一例外,所有的受采訪的農(nóng)業(yè)旅游企業(yè)家都在抱怨缺乏政府的支持,特別是關(guān)于降低相關(guān)的財(cái)政支持。相比于某些裝修費(fèi)用已達(dá)到300,000,這其中利息補(bǔ)貼是微不足道的。與此同時(shí),很多業(yè)主無法拿到相關(guān)部門所宣稱的銀行貸款。這些是因?yàn)槠渲邢喈?dāng)一部分人事老年人,銀行不愿意提供他們貸款。大部分受采訪的經(jīng)營者表示,他們的旅游項(xiàng)目成本高且收入來源有限。5.2 缺乏培訓(xùn)

      與相關(guān)部門的政策相反,很少有人說他們得到了相應(yīng)的建議培訓(xùn)及有關(guān)塞浦路斯傳統(tǒng)文化的教育。盡管有些人從希臘和愛爾蘭的的經(jīng)驗(yàn)中獲得相關(guān)的知識,但這僅僅局限于早期的發(fā)展。相反的越來越來的人接受相關(guān)的培訓(xùn),結(jié)果受采訪者中只有5人覺得他們具有為游客提供專業(yè)服務(wù)的素質(zhì)。5.3 缺少設(shè)施 大部分受訪者提到了他們的村莊缺乏設(shè)施和景點(diǎn)。特別是,很多大的村莊只有一到二個(gè)旅館這對游客的選擇性有很大的局限。大概有50%以上的旅館不提供食物以及缺乏繼續(xù)擴(kuò)大的能力。同樣,這里缺乏能讓游客感受當(dāng)?shù)匚幕?,藝術(shù)的設(shè)施。

      總的來說,顯而易見的是,塞浦路斯農(nóng)業(yè)旅游已取得了一些成功,但與預(yù)設(shè)的目標(biāo)仍有很大的差距。另一方面,一些傳統(tǒng)的特色得益于這項(xiàng)項(xiàng)目的修復(fù)。與此同時(shí),研究當(dāng)?shù)厣鐓^(qū)之間的積極的態(tài)度以及對重新建立傳統(tǒng)文化做法和信念,極大鼓舞農(nóng)業(yè)旅游的再生發(fā)展。

      第三篇:英文論文翻譯

      英文論文翻譯

      英文論文翻譯

      一,英文題名的翻譯題名的結(jié)構(gòu)

      英文題名以短語為主要形式,尤以名詞短語(nounphrase)最常見,即題名基本上由1個(gè)或幾個(gè)名詞加上其前置和(或)后置定語構(gòu)成。短語型題名短語型題名要確定好中心詞,再進(jìn)行前后修飾。各短語型題名個(gè)詞的順序很重要,詞序不當(dāng),會(huì)導(dǎo)致表達(dá)不準(zhǔn)。題名一般不應(yīng)是陳述句,因?yàn)轭}名主要起標(biāo)示作用,而陳述句容易使題名具有判斷式的語義;且陳述句不夠精練和醒目,重點(diǎn)也不易突出。少數(shù)情況(評述性,綜述性和駁斥性)下可以用疑問句做題名,疑問句可有探討性語氣,易引起讀者興趣。

      題名的字?jǐn)?shù)題名不應(yīng)過長。國外科技期刊一般對題名字?jǐn)?shù)有所限制。例如,美國醫(yī)學(xué)會(huì)規(guī)定題名不超過2行,每行不超過42個(gè)印刷符號和空格;英國數(shù)學(xué)會(huì)要求題名不超過12個(gè)詞??偟脑瓌t是,題名應(yīng)確切,簡練,醒目題名應(yīng)確切,題名應(yīng)確切簡練,醒目,在能準(zhǔn)確反映論文特定內(nèi)容的前提下,題名詞數(shù)越少越好。中英文題名的一致性翻譯

      同一篇論文,其英文題名與中文題名內(nèi)容上應(yīng)一致,但不等于說詞語要一一對應(yīng)。在許多情況下,個(gè)別非實(shí)質(zhì)性的詞可以省略或變動(dòng)。題名中的冠詞的翻譯

      科技論文題名中的冠詞簡化冠詞有簡化冠詞簡化的趨勢,凡可用可不用的冠詞均可不用。題名中的大小寫翻譯

      題名字母的大小寫有以下3種格式:全部字母大寫翻譯;

      每個(gè)詞的首字母大寫,但3個(gè)或4個(gè)字母以下的冠詞,連詞,介詞全部小寫;題名第1個(gè)詞的首字母大寫,其余字母均小寫。題名中的縮略詞語翻譯

      已得到整個(gè)科技界或本行業(yè)科技人員公認(rèn)的縮略詞語,才可用于題名中,否則不要輕易使用。

      二,作者與作者單位的英譯

      作者:中國人名按漢語拼音拼寫

      單位:單位名稱要寫全(由小到大),并附地址和郵政編碼,確保聯(lián)系方便。三,英文論文翻譯中英文摘要翻譯英文摘要的時(shí)態(tài):

      英文摘要時(shí)態(tài)的運(yùn)用也以簡練為佳。

      一般現(xiàn)在時(shí):用于說明研究目的,敘述研究內(nèi)容,描述結(jié)果,得出結(jié)論,提出建議或討論等;涉及到公認(rèn)事實(shí),自然規(guī)律,永恒真理等,也要用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)。

      一般過去時(shí):用于敘述過去某一時(shí)刻的發(fā)現(xiàn),某一研究過程(實(shí)驗(yàn),觀察,調(diào)查,醫(yī)療等過程)。用一般過去時(shí)描述的發(fā)現(xiàn),現(xiàn)象,往往是尚不能確認(rèn)為自然規(guī)律,永恒真理,只是當(dāng)時(shí)情況;所描述的研究過程也明顯帶有過去時(shí)間的痕跡。

      現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)和過去完成時(shí):完成時(shí)少用完成時(shí)少用。現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)把過去發(fā)生的或過去已

      完成的事情完成時(shí)少用與現(xiàn)在聯(lián)系起來,而過去完成時(shí)可用來表示過去某一時(shí)間以前已經(jīng)完成的事情,或在一個(gè)過去事情完成之前就已完成的另一過去行為。英文論文翻譯中英文摘要的語態(tài):

      采用何種語態(tài),既要考慮摘要的特點(diǎn),又要滿足表達(dá)的需要。一篇摘要很短,盡量不要隨便混用,更不要在一個(gè)句子里混用。

      主動(dòng)語態(tài):摘要中謂語動(dòng)詞采用主動(dòng)語態(tài),有助于文字簡潔,表達(dá)有力。

      被動(dòng)語態(tài):以前強(qiáng)調(diào)多用被動(dòng)語態(tài),理由是科技論文主要是說明事實(shí)經(jīng)過,至于那件事是誰做的,無須一一證明。為強(qiáng)調(diào)動(dòng)作承受者,采用被動(dòng)語態(tài)為好;被動(dòng)者無關(guān)緊要,也必須用強(qiáng)調(diào)的事物做主語。英文摘要的人稱:原來摘要的首句多用第三人稱Thispaper…等開頭,現(xiàn)在傾向于采用更簡潔的被動(dòng)語態(tài)或原形動(dòng)詞開頭。例如:Todescribe…,Tostudy…,Toinvestigate…,Toassess…,Todetermine…,行文時(shí)最好不用第一人稱行文時(shí)最好不用第一人稱。行文時(shí)最好不用第一人稱注意事項(xiàng)

      冠詞:主要是定冠詞the易被漏用。the用于表示整個(gè)群體,分類,時(shí)間,地名以及的獨(dú)一無二的事物,形容詞最高級等較易掌握,用于特指時(shí)常被漏用。這里有個(gè)原則,即當(dāng)我們用the時(shí),聽者或讀者已經(jīng)明確我們所指的是什么。

      數(shù)詞:避免用阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字作首詞避免用阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字作首詞。避免用阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字作首詞單復(fù)數(shù):一些名詞單復(fù)數(shù)形式不易辨認(rèn),從而造成謂語形式出錯(cuò)。

      使用短句使用短句:長句容易造成語義不清;但要避免單調(diào)和重復(fù)。使用短句

      四 英文論文翻譯中《EI》對英文摘要的基本要求

      1,英文摘要的完整性

      目前,大多數(shù)作者在寫英文摘要時(shí),都是把論文前面的中文摘要翻譯成英文。這種做法忽略了這樣一個(gè)事實(shí):由于論文是用中文寫作的,中文讀者在看了中文摘要后,不詳之處還可以從論文全文中獲得全面,詳細(xì)的信息,但由于英文讀者(如《EI》的編輯)一般看不懂中文,英文摘要成了他唯一的信息源。因此,這里要特別提出并強(qiáng)調(diào)英文摘要的完整性,即英文摘要所提供的信息必須是完整的。通過英文摘要就能對論文的主要目的,解決問題的主要方法,過程,及主要的結(jié)果,結(jié)論和文章的創(chuàng)新,獨(dú)到之處,有一個(gè)較為完整的了解。注重定量分析是科學(xué)研究的重要特征之一,這一點(diǎn)也應(yīng)該體現(xiàn)在英文摘要的寫作中。英文論文翻譯中,在寫作英文摘要時(shí),要避免過于籠統(tǒng)的,空洞無物的一般論述和結(jié)論。要盡量利用文章中的最具體的語言來闡述你的方法,過程,結(jié)果和結(jié)論,這樣既可以給讀者一個(gè)清晰的思路,又可以使你的論述言之有物,有根有據(jù),使讀者對你的研究工作有一個(gè)清晰,全面的認(rèn)識。

      2,《EI》對英文摘要的寫作要求

      《EI》中國信息部要求信息性文摘(InformationAbstract)應(yīng)該用簡潔,明確的語言(一般不超過150words)將論文的目的(Purposes),主要的研究過程(Procedures)及所采用的方法(Methods),由此得到的主要結(jié)果(Results)和得出的重要結(jié)論(Conclusions)表達(dá)清楚。

      如有可能,還應(yīng)盡量提一句論文結(jié)果和結(jié)論的應(yīng)用范圍和應(yīng)用情況。也就是說,要寫好英文摘要,作者必須回答好以下幾個(gè)問題:

      本文的目的或要解決的問題(WhatIwanttodo?)

      解決問題的方法及過程(HowIdidit?)

      主要結(jié)果及結(jié)論(WhatresultsdidIgetandwhatconclusionscanIdraw?)

      本文的創(chuàng)新,獨(dú)到之處(Whatisnewandoriginalinthispaper?)英文論文翻譯中英文摘要各部分的寫作

      根據(jù)《EI》對英文摘要的寫作要求,英文摘要是對原始文獻(xiàn)不加詮釋或評論的準(zhǔn)確而簡短的概括,能反映原始文獻(xiàn)的主要信息。

      目的(WhatIwanttodo?):主要說明作者寫作此文的目的,或本文主要解決的問題。一般來說,一篇好的英文摘要,一開頭就應(yīng)該把作者本文的目的或要解決的主要問題非常明確地交待清楚。在這方面,《EI》提出了兩點(diǎn)具體要求:

      1)Eliminateorminimizebackgroundinformation(不談或盡量少談背景信息),2)Avoidrepeatingthetitleorpartofthetitleinthefirstsentenceoftheabstract(避免在摘要的第一句話重復(fù)使用題目或題目的一部分)。

      過程與方法(HowIdidit?):主要說明作者主要工作過程及所用的方法,也應(yīng)包括眾多的邊界條件,使用的主要設(shè)備和儀器。在英文摘要中,過程與方法的闡述起著承前啟后的作用。開頭交待了要解決的問題之后,接著要回答的自然就是如何解決問題,最后的結(jié)果和結(jié)論也往往與研究過程及方法是密切相關(guān)的。最常見的問題是泛泛而談,空洞無物,只有定性的描述,使讀者很難清楚地了解論文中解決問題的過程和方法。因此,在說明過程與方法時(shí),應(yīng)結(jié)合(指向)論文中的公式,實(shí)驗(yàn)框圖等來進(jìn)行闡述,這樣可以既給讀者一個(gè)清晰的思路,又給那些看不懂中文(但卻可以看懂公式,圖,表等)的英文讀者以一種可信的感覺。

      結(jié)果和結(jié)論(WhatresultsdidIgetandwhatconclusionscanIdraw?):代表著文章的主要成就和貢獻(xiàn),論文有沒有價(jià)值,主要取決于你所獲得的結(jié)果和所得出的結(jié)論。因此,在寫作結(jié)果和結(jié)論部分時(shí),一般都要盡量結(jié)合實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果或仿真結(jié)果的圖,表,曲線等來加以說明,使結(jié)論部分言之有物,有根有據(jù);同時(shí),對那些看不懂中文的英文讀者來說,通過這些圖表,結(jié)合英文摘要的說明就可以比較清楚地了解論文的結(jié)果和結(jié)論。也只有這樣,論文的結(jié)論才有說服力。如有可能,在結(jié)尾部分還可以將論文的結(jié)果和他人最新的研究結(jié)果進(jìn)行比較,以突出論文的主要貢獻(xiàn)和創(chuàng)新,獨(dú)到之處(回答Whatisnewandoriginalinthispaper)。提高英文摘要的文字效能:《EI》很看重英文摘要的文字效能。為了提高文字效能,應(yīng)盡量刪去所有多余的字,句。在這方面,《EI》提出了兩個(gè)原則:

      Limittheabstracttonewinformation(摘要中只談新的信息),Tryforbrevity(盡量使摘要簡潔):

      4,英文論文翻譯中英文摘要的句法原則

      盡量用短句(useshortsentences)

      描述作者的工作一般用過去時(shí)態(tài)(因?yàn)楣ぷ魇窃谶^去做的),但在陳述由這些工作所得出的結(jié)論時(shí),應(yīng)該用現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)。

      使用動(dòng)詞的主動(dòng)語態(tài),如:寫成AexceedsB比寫成BisexceededbyA更好。

      第四篇:英文論文翻譯

      數(shù)控技術(shù)

      摘要

      數(shù)控技術(shù)是機(jī)械運(yùn)動(dòng)和控制技術(shù)的工作與數(shù)字信息處理技術(shù)。這是一個(gè)非常迅速發(fā)展的現(xiàn)代工業(yè)生產(chǎn)技術(shù)。數(shù)控設(shè)備是新技術(shù)的數(shù)控技術(shù)的形式向制造業(yè)的傳統(tǒng)和新興制造業(yè)的滲透,即所謂的數(shù)字設(shè)備。本文分析了高速、高精度、可靠性、工藝復(fù)雜的、多軸數(shù)控機(jī)床的發(fā)展趨勢,并提出了一些在中國數(shù)控機(jī)床的發(fā)展存在的問題。

      關(guān)鍵詞:精度材料市場

      1、在我們的時(shí)代數(shù)控機(jī)床的研究現(xiàn)狀

      世界各國對數(shù)控車床,加工中心,F(xiàn)MS,CIMS等各種新技術(shù)的研究和發(fā)展過程,與國際經(jīng)濟(jì)形勢密切聯(lián)系。機(jī)床行業(yè)和國際經(jīng)濟(jì)相互促進(jìn)和發(fā)展,進(jìn)入21世紀(jì)知識機(jī)警時(shí)代,人們的知識中所發(fā)揮的作用更為突出,機(jī)床行業(yè)作為機(jī)械制造業(yè)的基礎(chǔ),其核心地位和戰(zhàn)略意義更加明顯。在1991-1994年,全球的經(jīng)濟(jì)衰退,昂貴的FMS,CIMS降低溫度,1995-2000年之間,國際經(jīng)濟(jì)以一個(gè)較低的速度增加,根據(jù)當(dāng)今世界市場的不同領(lǐng)域用戶對數(shù)控機(jī)床生產(chǎn)力提高的要求和世界四大國際機(jī)床展覽會(huì)(EMO,IMT日本,中國CIMT JIMTOF,美國的歐洲)的展品分析,在我們的時(shí)代在數(shù)控車床的技術(shù)研究主要有以下幾點(diǎn):

      (1)重視新技術(shù)和創(chuàng)新

      在世界范圍內(nèi),推出的新工藝,新材料,新結(jié)構(gòu),新的單位,以一個(gè)更具成本效益的方式進(jìn)行新的組件的研究與開發(fā),例如新的刀具材料、新的電主軸的主軸結(jié)構(gòu)、高速、高速直線電機(jī)等。以創(chuàng)新的加工工藝的改進(jìn)為基礎(chǔ),為加工超硬、難加工材料和特殊的復(fù)合和復(fù)雜的部分,不規(guī)則的曲面等,不斷研究和開發(fā)新的機(jī)床品種。

      (2)提高機(jī)床的精度和研究

      為了提高加工中心加工精度,提高機(jī)床的剛性,減少振動(dòng)的時(shí)刻,消除熱變形,降低噪音,提高數(shù)控機(jī)床的定位精度、重復(fù)精度高、工作可靠、穩(wěn)定性、精度保持性,世界上許多國家進(jìn)行機(jī)床熱誤差運(yùn)動(dòng)負(fù)荷、車床的誤差軟件補(bǔ)償技術(shù)研究的形狀,以提高精度補(bǔ)償,軟件補(bǔ)償措施,有的已經(jīng)可能使這種誤差的消除60%。并在不斷開發(fā)精細(xì)加工,納米加工。

      (3)提高機(jī)加工生產(chǎn)率的研究

      世界數(shù)控車床、主軸加工中心及相應(yīng)的高速點(diǎn)軸、測量系統(tǒng)的直線、電機(jī)、高速數(shù)控系統(tǒng)的開發(fā),都是以提高生產(chǎn)率為前提。

      (4)很多國家已經(jīng)開始對數(shù)控系統(tǒng)的研究智能化、公開化、網(wǎng)絡(luò)化

      A、數(shù)控系統(tǒng)的智能化研究

      主要表現(xiàn)在以下幾個(gè)方面:它是智能化為追求加工效率和加工質(zhì)量,自我適應(yīng)加工過程控制,工藝參數(shù)自動(dòng)生成的研究;為提高驅(qū)動(dòng)性能及使用連接方便的智能化,對反饋控制、電機(jī)參數(shù)的自適應(yīng)運(yùn)算、自動(dòng)識別負(fù)載自動(dòng)選定模型、自整定等進(jìn)行研究;還有智能化自動(dòng)編程、智能化的人機(jī)界面、智能診斷、智能監(jiān)控等方面的研究。

      B、數(shù)控系統(tǒng)的公開化研究

      主要表現(xiàn)在以下幾個(gè)方面:數(shù)控系統(tǒng)的開發(fā)是在統(tǒng)一的運(yùn)行平臺上,面向機(jī)床廠家和支持,最后,通過改變,增加或剪裁結(jié)構(gòu)對象(數(shù)值控制目標(biāo)),形成系列化,并可方便地將用戶的特殊應(yīng)用和技術(shù)訣竅集成到控制系統(tǒng),快速實(shí)現(xiàn)不同品種、不同等級的開放式數(shù)控系統(tǒng),形成具有鮮明個(gè)性的名牌產(chǎn)品。目前開放式數(shù)控系統(tǒng)的體系結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)范、通行規(guī)范、配置規(guī)范,運(yùn)行平臺、數(shù)控系統(tǒng)功能庫以及數(shù)控系統(tǒng)功能軟件開發(fā)工具等是當(dāng)前研究的核心。

      C、滿足生產(chǎn)線的制造系統(tǒng),用于制造企業(yè)的網(wǎng)絡(luò)化將極大地?cái)?shù)控設(shè)備的信息集成的需求,也是實(shí)現(xiàn)新的制造模式的基本單位。

      2、加工中心的分類

      (1)根據(jù)主軸空間位置分類如下,臥式和立式加工中心。

      臥式加工中心,是指加工中心的主軸軸線水平設(shè)置。3-5個(gè)運(yùn)動(dòng)坐標(biāo)軸臥式加工中心,常見的是三直線運(yùn)動(dòng)的坐標(biāo)軸和回轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)坐標(biāo)軸(轉(zhuǎn)工作臺輪),它能在工件一次裝夾完成除安裝面和頂面以外的其余4個(gè)面的加工,最適合加工箱體類工件。它與立式加工中心相比,結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜,占地面積大,質(zhì)量大,價(jià)格高。

      立式加工中心,立式加工中心的主軸軸線,為垂直設(shè)置,其結(jié)構(gòu)多為固定立柱式,工作臺為十字滑臺,適合加工盤類零件,一般具有3個(gè)直線運(yùn)動(dòng)坐標(biāo)軸,并可在工作臺上安置一個(gè)水平軸的數(shù)控轉(zhuǎn)臺(第4軸)來加工螺旋類零件。立式加工中心結(jié)構(gòu)簡單,占地面積小,價(jià)格低,配備各種附件后,可對大多數(shù)工件的加工。

      大型龍門加工中心的主軸,多為垂直設(shè)置,特別適用于大型或形狀復(fù)雜的工件,這是在許多坐標(biāo)龍門加工中心需要如航空,航天工業(yè),一些加工大型汽輪機(jī)部分。

      五面加工中心,這種加工中心有立式和臥式加工中心的功能,一個(gè)是插入后,可以完成除安裝面外所有五個(gè)面的加工,這種加工使工件的形狀誤差降到最低,節(jié)省2次裝夾工作,從而提高生產(chǎn)效率,降低處理成本。

      (2)按工藝用途分

      鏜銑加工中心,它分為立式鏜銑加工中心,臥式鏜銑加工中心和龍門鏜銑加工中心。它的處理技術(shù)主要依靠鏜銑,用于殼體,殼和各種復(fù)雜零件特殊曲線和大過程,彎曲的輪廓加工表面,適用于多品種小批量生產(chǎn)。

      復(fù)合加工中心,主要指五面復(fù)合加工,主軸頭可自動(dòng)回轉(zhuǎn),進(jìn)行立,臥加工,在主軸自動(dòng)回轉(zhuǎn)后,在水平和垂直方向?qū)崿F(xiàn)知道變換。

      (3)按特殊功能分

      單工作臺、雙工作臺加工中心;

      單軸、雙軸、三軸及可換主軸箱的加工中心;

      立式轉(zhuǎn)塔加工中心和臥式轉(zhuǎn)塔加工中心;

      刀庫加主軸換刀加工中心;

      刀庫接寫手加主軸換刀加工中心;

      刀庫加機(jī)械手加雙主軸轉(zhuǎn)塔加工中心。

      3、目前數(shù)控機(jī)床的發(fā)展趨勢

      目前,世界上先進(jìn)制造技術(shù)的不斷提高,超快切削、超精密加工等技術(shù)的應(yīng)用,柔性制造系統(tǒng)的迅速發(fā)展和計(jì)算機(jī)集成系統(tǒng)的不斷成熟,對數(shù)控技術(shù)也提出了更高的要求。目前正在開發(fā)的數(shù)控車床在以下幾個(gè)方向:

      (1)、高速度、高精度化速度和精度是數(shù)控機(jī)床的兩個(gè)重要指標(biāo),它直接關(guān)系到加工效率和產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量。目前,數(shù)控系統(tǒng)采用的型號,頻率高的處理器,以提高系統(tǒng)的基本運(yùn)行速度。同時(shí),采用超大規(guī)模的集成電路和多微處理器結(jié)構(gòu),以提高系統(tǒng)的數(shù)據(jù)處理能力,即提高插補(bǔ)運(yùn)算的速度和精度。并采用直線電動(dòng)機(jī)直接驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)床工作臺的直線伺服進(jìn)給方式,其高速度和動(dòng)態(tài)響應(yīng)特性相當(dāng)優(yōu)越。采用前饋控制技術(shù),使追蹤滯后誤差大大減小,從而改善拐角切削的加工精度。

      為適應(yīng)超高速加工的要求,數(shù)控機(jī)床采用主軸電動(dòng)機(jī)與機(jī)床結(jié)構(gòu)形式主軸合二為一,實(shí)現(xiàn)變頻電機(jī)與機(jī)床主軸的整合,軸承、電機(jī)主軸采用磁浮軸承,液體動(dòng)靜壓軸承的形式或陶瓷滾動(dòng)軸承等。目前,陶瓷刀具和金剛石涂層刀具已開始得到應(yīng)用。

      (2)多功能是改變組織各類加工中心(一個(gè)庫容量可達(dá)100以上)的自動(dòng)配置,可以實(shí)現(xiàn)銑削,鏜削,鉆削等多種工藝,車削,擴(kuò)孔,擴(kuò)孔,攻螺紋等過程,在同時(shí)在同一臺機(jī)床上,現(xiàn)代數(shù)控車床采用多主軸、多面體切削,即同時(shí)對一個(gè)零件的不同部位進(jìn)行不同方式的切削加工。由于采用多CPU結(jié)構(gòu)和分級中斷控制方法的數(shù)控系統(tǒng),可以解決部分加工程序,同時(shí)在車床上,實(shí)現(xiàn)所謂的“前臺程序,后臺是編輯”。為了滿足集成系統(tǒng)在柔性制造系統(tǒng)和計(jì)算機(jī)的需求,數(shù)控系統(tǒng)具有遠(yuǎn)距離串行接口,甚至可以聯(lián)網(wǎng),實(shí)現(xiàn)數(shù)控機(jī)床之間的數(shù)據(jù)通信,也可以直接對多臺數(shù)控機(jī)床進(jìn)行控制。

      (3)現(xiàn)代智能化的數(shù)控車床,介紹了自適應(yīng)控制技術(shù),根據(jù)切削條件的變化,自動(dòng)調(diào)節(jié)工作參數(shù),使加工過程能保持最佳的工作狀態(tài),從而得到較高的加工精度和較小的表面粗糙度,可以同時(shí)改善刀具和設(shè)備生產(chǎn)效率的服務(wù)生活。具有自診斷、自修復(fù)功能,在整個(gè)工作狀態(tài)中,系統(tǒng)隨時(shí)對CNC系統(tǒng)本身以及與其相連的各種設(shè)備進(jìn)行自診斷、檢查。一旦出現(xiàn)故障時(shí),立即采用停機(jī)等措施,并進(jìn)行故障報(bào)警,提示發(fā)生故障的部位、原因等。還可以自動(dòng)使故障模塊脫機(jī),而接通備用模塊,以確保無人化工作環(huán)境的要求。為實(shí)現(xiàn)更高的故障診斷要求,其發(fā)展趨勢是采用人工智能專家診斷系統(tǒng)。

      (4)隨著計(jì)算機(jī)應(yīng)用技術(shù)的發(fā)展,數(shù)控編程自動(dòng)化,CAD / CAM圖形交互自動(dòng)編程已得到目前更多的應(yīng)用程序,這是數(shù)控技術(shù)發(fā)展的新趨勢。它利用CAD繪制的零件加工模式,它是計(jì)算后可以通過計(jì)算機(jī)內(nèi)的刀具軌跡數(shù)據(jù)然后處理,從而自動(dòng)生成NC零件加工程序,為了實(shí)現(xiàn)CAD與CAM的集成。隨著CIMS技術(shù)的發(fā)展,自動(dòng)編程的方式在CAD/CAPP/CAM集成當(dāng)前又出現(xiàn)了,它與CAD/CAM系統(tǒng)編程的最大區(qū)別是其編程所需的加工工藝參數(shù)不需要人工參與,直接從系統(tǒng)內(nèi)的CAPP數(shù)據(jù)庫獲得。

      (5)可靠性最大化,數(shù)控機(jī)床的可靠性一直是用戶最關(guān)心的主要指標(biāo)。數(shù)控系統(tǒng)將采用更高集成度的電路芯片,利用大規(guī)?;虺笠?guī)模的專用及混合式集成電路,以減少元器件的數(shù)量,來提高可靠性。通過硬件功能軟件化,以滿足各種控制功能的要求,采用模塊化,標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化,同時(shí)硬件結(jié)構(gòu)機(jī)床本體的通用化、系列化,不僅使提高硬件生產(chǎn)批量,而且便于組織生產(chǎn)和質(zhì)量把關(guān)。還通過自動(dòng)運(yùn)行啟動(dòng)診斷、在線診斷、離線診斷等多種診斷程序,實(shí)現(xiàn)對系統(tǒng)內(nèi)硬件、軟件和各種外部設(shè)備進(jìn)行故障診斷和報(bào)警。利用報(bào)警提示,及時(shí)排除故障;利用容錯(cuò)技術(shù),采用“冗余”設(shè)計(jì)的重要組成部分,以實(shí)現(xiàn)故障自恢復(fù);利用各種測試,控制技術(shù),生產(chǎn)超程、刀損、干擾、斷電等各種意外時(shí),自動(dòng)進(jìn)行相應(yīng)的保護(hù)。

      (6)控制系統(tǒng)小型化數(shù)控系統(tǒng)小型化便于將機(jī)、電裝置結(jié)合為一體。目前,采用三維安裝方法,使電子元器件必須使用高密度安裝,占用空間縮小系統(tǒng)規(guī)模

      更大。而利用新型的彩色液晶超薄顯示替代傳統(tǒng)的陰極射線管,使數(shù)控操作系統(tǒng)進(jìn)一步縮小。所以這樣可以方便地安裝在機(jī)床上,更利于數(shù)控車床的操作的正確性。

      參考文獻(xiàn):

      [1] 中國機(jī)床工具工業(yè)協(xié)會(huì) 行業(yè)發(fā)展部.CIMT2001巡禮[J].世界制造技術(shù)與裝備市場,2001(3):18-20

      [2] 梁訓(xùn)王宣 ,周延佑.機(jī)床技術(shù)發(fā)展的新動(dòng)向[J].世界制造技術(shù)與裝備市場,2001(3):21-28.[3] 中國機(jī)床工具工業(yè)協(xié)會(huì) 數(shù)控系統(tǒng)分會(huì).CIMT2001巡禮[J].世界制造技術(shù)與裝備市場,2001(5):13-17.[4] 楊學(xué)桐,李冬茹,何文立,等?距世紀(jì)數(shù)控機(jī)床技術(shù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略研究[M].北京:國家機(jī)械工業(yè)局,2000.

      第五篇:智能停車場論文翻譯英文

      Intelligent parking system

      Abstract The basic concepts of the parking reservation system and parking revenue management system are discussed in this paper.The proposed intelligent’’ parking space inventory control system that is based on a combination of fuzzy logic and integer programming techniques makes ‘‘on line’’ decisions whether to accept or reject a new driver's request for parking.In the ?rst step of the proposed model, the best parking strategies are developed for many different patterns of vehicle arrivals.These parking strategies are developed using integer programming approach.In the second step, learn-ing from the best strategies, speci?c rules are de?ned.The uniqueness of the proposed approach is that the rules are derived from the set of chosen examples assuming that the future traffic arrival patterns are known.The results were found to be close to the best solution assuming that the future arrival pattern is known.Keywords: Traffic;Uncertainty modeling;Control;Parking;Fuzzy logic 1.Introduction Every day a signi?cant percentage of drivers in single-occupancy vehicles search for a parking space.Additionally, less experienced drivers or out-of-towners further contribute to the increase of traffic congestion.Search for a vacant parking space is a typical example of a search process.Every parking search strategy is composed of a set of vague rules.It is usually difficult to describe these rules explicitly.The type of the planned activity, time of a day, day of the week, current congestion on particular routes, knowledge of city streets, and potentially available parking places have signficant influence on a chosen parking search strategy.During the last four decades numerous parking search models have been developed(Vander Goot, 1982;Axhausen and Polak, 1991;Polak and Axhausen, 1990;Young et al., 1991a,b;saltzman, 1997;Shoup, 1997;Steiner, 1998;Thompson and Richardson, 1998;Arnott and Rowse, 1999;Tam and Lam, 2000;Wong et al., 2000;Waterson et al., 2001).In many decision-making situations in transportation(modal split, choice of air carrier, choice of airport, etc.)the competitive alternatives and their characteristics are reasonably well known in advance to the decision maker(passenger, driver).On the other hand, the drivers usually discover diffierent parking alternatives one by one in a temporal sequence.Clearly, this temporal sequence has a very strong influence on the driver's final decision about the parking place.During the past two decades, traffic authorities in many cities(Helsinki, Cologne, Mainz, Stuttgart, Wiesbaden, Aalborg, Hague)have started to inform and guide drivers to parking facilities with real-time var-iable message signs [directional arrows, names of the parking facilities, status(full, not full, number of available parking spaces, etc.)].Information about the number of available parking spaces could be displayed on the major roads, streets and intersections, or it could be distributed through the Internet.It is logical to ask the question about the bene?ts of the parking guidance systems.Current practice shows that parking guidance systems usually do not change the occupancy rate or average parking duration.Drivers easily become familiar with the parking guidance systems, and majority of them use, thrust and appreciate the help of the systems.Guidance systems signi?cantly increase the probability of finding vacant parking space, mitigate frustration of the drivers–visitors unfamiliar with the city center, decrease the queues in front of parking garages, decrease the total amount of vehicle-miles traveled(particularly in the city centers), decrease the average trip time, energy consumption, and 2 air pollution.Parking guidance system is a part of comprehensive parking policy and traffic management system, whose other elements are street parking control(including sanctions for the illegally parked vehicles), parking fare structure, and parking revenue management system.Parking guidance systems help drivers to ?nd vacant parking spaces when they are already on the network, and approaching their ?nal destination.Throughout this research the concepts of the parking reservation system and parking revenue management system are proposed.Such systems would help drivers to find a vacant parking space even before beginning their trip.The proposed “intelligent” parking space inventory control system that is based on the combination of simulation, optimization techniques, and fuzzy logic makes “real-time” decisions as to whether to reject or accept a new request for parking.The proposed methodology could be applied for parking lots and parking garages in cities and at the big international airports.The paper is organized as follows: Parking-pricing problems are presented in Section 2.Analogies between parking problems and some other industries are presented in Section 3.The parking revenue management system is introduced in Section 4, and the Intelligent parking space inventory control system is introduced in Section 5.The algorithm to create intelligent parking spaces inventory control system is presented in Section 6.Results obtained with the “intelligent” parking system are given in Section 7, and Sec-tion 8 presents the concluding remarks and further research orientations.2.parking pricing In majority of cities throughout the world drivers pay for using different parking facilities.In some instances, traffic congestion can be significantly reduced as a result of parking price.The parking revenue is usually used to cover parking facility costs(access gates, ticket 3 printers, parking meters, parking signs, attendants), or to improve some other traffic and transportation activities.Different parking pricing strategies should be a part of the comprehensive solution approach to the complex traffic congestion problems.There is no doubt that parking pricing represents one of the important demand management strategies.For example, traffic authorities, local governments and private sector could introduce higher parking tariffs for solo drivers or for long-term parkers in congested city areas.They could provide special parking discounts to vanpoolers.Obviously parking pricing should be carefully studied in the context of the considered city area(down-town, residential, commercial, retail use areas).In some cities(Madison, Wisconsin)there are already time dependent parking fees that force commuters to switch to different alternatives of public transportation.Trying to promote public transit San Francisco traffic authorities increased parking tariffs at public and commercial garages.The Chicago authorities raised parking rates few times.As a consequence, the total number of cars parked significantly decreased, as well as parking duration time.The greatest decrease was in the number of all day parkers.Authorities in Seattle signficantly reduced parking tariffs for carpool at two Seattle parking facilities in downtown.Active role in parking pricing strategies could also have employers paying for employees' parking.Employers who remove parking subsidies for the employees could significantly decrease the total number of solo drivers.The main role of any parking pricing strategy should be reducing the total number of vehicle trips during certain time periods, shifting commuters to alternative transportation modes, and to different parking locations.At the same time, when trying to implement any parking strategy, it is very important to provide enough parking space for shoppers, to provide preferential parking for residents in considered city area, to provide 4 preferential parking for different parking locations, to consider low income families, and to protect streets in the neighborhood from illegal parking.The basic economic concepts of supply and demand should be more utilized when solving complex traffic congestion and parking problems(Vickrey, 1969, 1994;Verhoef et al., 1995).So-called value pricing is also known as congestion pricing, or variable tolling.The basic idea behind the concept of congestion pricing is to force drivers to travel and use transportation facilities more during off-peak hours and less during peak hours.The idea of congestion pricing is primarily connected with the road(drivers pay for using private, faster roads, drivers with lower vehicle occupancy pay for using High Occupancy Vehicle lanes, drivers pay more to enter city's downtown on weekdays)or airport operators(more expensive landing fees during peak hours).In the context of parking problems, this means:(a)that different parking tariffs should exist for different users;(b)that the parking fees should increase and/or decrease few times during a day.3.Parking problems and revenue management systems: Analogies with some other industries Airline industry, hotels, car rental, rail, cruise, healthcare, broadcast industry, energy industry, golf,equipment rental, restaurant, and other industries are utilizing revenue management concepts when selling their products(Cross, 1997).Revenue management could be described as a group of different scienti?c techniques of managing the company revenue when trying to deliver the right product to the right client at the right price at the right time.The roots of the revenue management are in the airline industry.The basic characteristics of the industries to which different revenue management concepts were successfully applied are:(a)variable demand over time;(b)variable 5 asset utilization;(c)perishable assets;(d)limited resources;(e)market segmentation;(f)adding new capacity is expensive, difficult or impossible;(g)direct cost per client is negligible part of the total cost of making service available;(h)selling products in advance.The main characteristics of the parking space inventory control problems are the following: · Parking demand is variable over time.· Like hotel rooms, or restaurant chairs, parking spaces also have daily opportunity to be ‘‘sold’’(used by clients).· Any parking lot or garage has limited number of parking spaces that can be used by drivers · Market segmentation means that different customers are willing to pay different prices for the same asset(hotel room, airline seat, seat in a rented car).Businessman wanting to park a car near a meeting point 15 minutes before the meeting would be ready to pay much higher parking fee than a pensioner planning to walk with his wife through the downtown, who made parking reservation four day in advance.· Building new garages and parking lots could be very expensive and sometimes very difficult.· Parking places can be easily reserved in advance.Introducing and developing parking reservation system(created in an Internet and cell phone environ-ment)would present further improvement in modern parking technologies.Drivers would be advised and guided before beginning of the trip, as well as during the trip.Parking reservation system should be coupled with the parking revenue management system.In this way, parking operators and traffic authorities would be able to implement different parking strategies.Once the driver is allowed to park, it is possible to implement internal garage guidance system that guides the driver to an empty parking place.6 4.Introducing parking revenue management system

      Let us assume that we have parking reservation system.Drivers make their requests for parking at random moments of time(by phone from home, by cell phone while driving, through the Internet, etc.).A certain number of drivers would maybe cancel their reservations before beginning of the parking.These cancellations would also be made at random moments of time.Like in some other industries, a certain number of drivers would not appear in parking garage for which they have a con-?rmed reservation and purchased ticket.Would these drivers be penalized for their behavior? Depending on ration between parking demand and parking supply, the answer could be ‘‘Yes’’ or ‘‘No’’.Reservation system should be ?exible enough allowing some drivers to appear right before wished beginning of parking, looking for an empty space in a garage, even though they do not have a con?rmed reservation.Would it be good to have few different parking tariffs? The answer is obviously ‘‘Yes’’.Drivers paying lower parking tariffs could be disabled and senior citizens, people who reserve parking space few days in advance, or HOV drivers.Drivers paying higher tariffs could be solo drivers, long term parking drivers, or drivers showing up and asking for parking without making reservation in advance.Obviously, there is a lot of possible parking pricing strategies.The stochastic nature of reservation generation and cancellation, the stochastic nature of driver show-up during reserved time slot, variety of parking tariffs, and the need to respond to drivers' requests in real time, indicate that the management of parking garage revenues represents a complex problem.In the past 30 years a relatively large number of papers have been devoted to different aspects of the air-line seat inventory control problem(Littlewood, 1972;Belobaba, 1987;Brumelle and McGill, 1993;7 Teodorovic et al., 2002).The model proposed in this paper is highly inspired by the developed airline yield management stochastic and/or deterministic models.Let us assume that we have few different parking tariffs.The simplest reservation system(similar to some airline reservation systems in the past)could be ‘‘distinct tariff class parking space inventories’’(Fig.1(a)),indicating separate parking spaces in the garage for each tariff class.In this case, once the parking space is assigned to a tariff class, it may be booked only in that tariff class or else remains unsold.There are certain advantages, as well as certain disadvantages in the case of distinct parking space inventories.In this case users paying lower tariffs would be relatively well ‘‘protected’’.In other words, this system would pay a lot of attention to the disabled person, senior citizens, people who reserve parking space few days in advance, and HOV drivers.Obvious disadvantage of the distinct parking space inventories is the fact that very often some parking spaces assigned to lower tariff users would be empty even the higher tariff users demand is very high.In other words, it would be possible to reject some drivers even all parking spaces in garage are not occupied.BL1 BL2

      C

      BLm

      (a)

      BL2 BLm

      BL1=C

      (b)

      Fig.1

      In case of a ‘‘nested reservation system’’, the high tariff request will not be rejected as long as any parking spaces are available in lower tariff classes.For example, if we have four tariff classes, then there is no booking limit for class 1, but there are booking limits(BLi, i = 2, 3,..., m)for each of the remaining three classes(Fig.1(b)).As we can see from Fig.1(b), all parking spaces are always available to class 1.There are always a certain number of parking spaces protected for class 1, certain number of parking spaces protected for classes 1 and 2, and certain number of parking spaces protected for classes 1, 2 and 3.If we make a request-by-request revision of booking limits, there is no longer a difference between distinct and nested reservation system.In this research(like in the paper of Teodorovic′ et al., 2002)an attempt was made

      to

      make

      reservation

      decisions

      on

      the ‘‘request-by-request’’ basis.In the scenario that we consider, we assume that there are more than two types of tariffs.The basic characteristic of the parking space inventory control model that we propose is ‘‘real-time’’ decision making about each driver request.The developed model is called an ‘‘intelligent’’ parking space inventory control system.

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