第一篇：美國棉花生產(chǎn)概況

美國棉花生產(chǎn)概況

1.植棉簡史：目前世界上栽培面積最大的陸地棉品種就發(fā)源在美國邊界附近。公元前500年，美國西南部的祖尼(Zuni)和霍皮(Hopi)地區(qū)的印第安人在舉行宗教儀式時就開始使用棉花。1536年得克薩斯和路易斯安那州就種植了棉花；1607年開始引種陸地棉，在當(dāng)時的作品中發(fā)現(xiàn)了弗吉尼亞移民最早栽培棉花的痕跡，隨后棉花栽培逐漸發(fā)展；1784年美國的原棉從查爾斯頓(南卡羅來納州)出發(fā)海運(yùn)到英國的利物浦；1785年后引種海島棉。1793年美國惠特尼(Whitney)發(fā)明了鋸齒軋花機(jī)后，美國的棉花生產(chǎn)得以迅速擴(kuò)大，并開始更認(rèn)真地從墨西哥引種進(jìn)行培育。從19世紀(jì)初到1925年左右，美國的許多州擴(kuò)種了棉花，形成了“棉花帶”，棉花面積達(dá)1600萬公頃，總產(chǎn)皮棉1700萬包，占世界棉花產(chǎn)量的60％，達(dá)到高峰。同時，各地建立了許多棉花紡織廠；1801年建立了第一座棉籽榨油廠；1879年因新法煉油技術(shù)的成功使棉籽油更受消費(fèi)者歡迎，也促進(jìn)了此業(yè)的飛速發(fā)展，當(dāng)時，美國棉籽油產(chǎn)量25000噸,到1963年達(dá)到創(chuàng)歷史的906000噸，棉籽餅產(chǎn)量達(dá)到2500萬噸。

2.棉區(qū)分布：美國是世界產(chǎn)棉大國，也是棉花的主要出口國。目前，東起大西洋西岸，西到太平洋東岸，橫貫美國南部的17個州均可植棉，統(tǒng)稱“棉花帶”，此帶北界與緯度37°線、無霜期200天線基本相符。只在密西西比河流域和土質(zhì)肥沃，植棉收益較高的弗吉尼亞州南部，以及加利福尼亞州的圣華金河谷地棉區(qū)稍北越過此界，達(dá)北緯38.2°。棉區(qū)多屬河流沖積平原，土壤多為砂壤土或黑鈣土，土質(zhì)肥沃，氣候溫暖，自然條件比較適宜于棉花生產(chǎn)。美國棉花帶劃分為四個棉區(qū)：(1)西部棉區(qū)：包括加利福尼亞、亞利桑那和新墨西哥三個州。干旱少雨，棉田全部實行灌溉。棉花收獲面積約占全國的18％，總產(chǎn)占全國棉花產(chǎn)量30％。皮棉單產(chǎn)50-99公斤。(2)西南棉區(qū)：又稱高原棉區(qū)，包括得克薩斯、俄克拉何馬和堪薩斯州三個州。海拔1500－3500米，屬半干旱地區(qū)。棉花收獲面積約占全國棉田44％，總產(chǎn)占全國棉花產(chǎn)量29％。(3)中南棉區(qū)：又稱密西西比三角洲棉區(qū)，包括密西西比、路易斯安那、阿肯色、田納西、密蘇里五個州、靠自然降雨植棉。年降雨量800-1000毫米。棉花收獲面積約占全國的30%，總產(chǎn)占32％，皮棉折合畝產(chǎn)為48公斤左右。(4)東部地區(qū)：包括南卡羅來納、北卡羅來納、佐治亞、亞拉巴馬、佛羅里達(dá)、弗吉尼亞六個州。年降雨量1000-1500毫米，靠自然降雨植棉。棉田收獲面積約占全國的8％，皮棉單產(chǎn)45公斤左右，總產(chǎn)占全國的9％。我們所考察的得克薩斯州是全美國棉花產(chǎn)量最大的州，年種植面積達(dá)550萬英畝，產(chǎn)值達(dá)15.6億美元，總產(chǎn)約占全美的三分之一。位于得克薩斯州西北部的拉伯克（LUBBOCK）地區(qū)，地勢平坦，氣候適宜，棉花連片種植面積達(dá)350多萬英畝（2124萬畝），號稱是世界上最大的陸地棉區(qū)；加利福尼亞州種植面積排名第二，年植棉面積達(dá)130萬英畝，產(chǎn)值達(dá)9億美元。美國棉花品種以陸地棉為主，美洲比馬棉（長絨棉）為輔。例如，1995年全國棉花種植總面積達(dá)1600.6萬英畝，其中陸地棉面積為1579.5萬英畝，美洲比馬棉為21.1萬英畝，1995年棉花總產(chǎn)量為86.51億磅，其中陸地棉為84.78億磅，美洲比馬棉為1.73億磅，1995年棉花總產(chǎn)值達(dá)65.51億美元，其中陸地棉63.30億美元，美洲比馬棉為2.21億美元，棉花出口占世界的21%。

3.棉花種植面積和產(chǎn)量：美國棉花種植面積，從1945-1953年一直穩(wěn)定在13000萬畝左右，50年代后逐步減少；1967年減少到4854萬畝；1969年開始回升達(dá)6711萬畝；1981年棉田收獲面積達(dá)8401萬畝； 1982年棉田又減少到5908萬畝； 1983年棉田繼續(xù)下降到4460萬畝； 1987年開始回升；1991年棉田收獲面積達(dá)到7867萬畝，皮棉單產(chǎn)48.73公斤，總產(chǎn)達(dá)7670萬擔(dān)，年末庫存1612萬擔(dān)。到1998年，美國棉花的收獲面積達(dá)到6677萬畝，總產(chǎn)約300萬噸，平均畝產(chǎn)為45公斤左右。目前，有35000個農(nóng)戶從事棉花生產(chǎn)。

4.棉花生產(chǎn)的特點：美國棉花生產(chǎn)的主要特點是：(1)機(jī)械化程度高。美國人少地多，農(nóng)業(yè)人口占2%，為了節(jié)省勞力，只有實行機(jī)械化。從整地、播種、灌溉、施肥、植保到收獲，全部采用大型植棉機(jī)具作業(yè)，質(zhì)量好，效率高，成本低。種一畝棉花投工約為3個工時(約合0.4個工作日)，用工量是全世界最少的。(2)全面推廣棉花優(yōu)良品種。每個地區(qū)推廣的棉花優(yōu)良品種應(yīng)由區(qū)試委員會和美國農(nóng)業(yè)部共同討論確定，種子生產(chǎn)商品化，并由種子公司統(tǒng)一供應(yīng)。目前，有60%的品種為轉(zhuǎn)基因抗蟲棉；(3)棉花生產(chǎn)規(guī)模大規(guī)范化程度高。一個植棉方或圓型灌區(qū)就有幾百英畝，一個農(nóng)場主就經(jīng)營2000英畝左右的棉田。棉田平整，起垅種植，采用大型噴灌，虹吸灌溉和中心灌溉系統(tǒng)，科學(xué)施肥，棉桿還田，病蟲害綜合防治，棉田化除無雜草，棉株長勢均衡，化學(xué)脫葉，一次性機(jī)械收獲；(4)綜合技術(shù)服務(wù)全面、系統(tǒng)。出租農(nóng)業(yè)機(jī)械，出售棉花良種、化肥、農(nóng)藥，運(yùn)輸、建筑、修理、水利、農(nóng)業(yè)工程以及棉花加工等都有專業(yè)公司、工廠為植棉農(nóng)場服務(wù)。在植棉技術(shù)上也有技術(shù)研究與推廣中心給予科學(xué)指導(dǎo)和服務(wù)；(5)國家對棉花生產(chǎn)實行扶持和保護(hù)政策，并制定每磅皮棉50美分的最低保護(hù)價，棉農(nóng)每年的植棉收入低于一定數(shù)額時，國家也要給予一定的補(bǔ)貼，以鼓勵棉農(nóng)種植棉花。

5.皮棉價格和原棉外銷

美棉出口市場主要面向亞洲、大洋洲、歐洲、非洲與中東地區(qū)。其中亞洲和歐洲是美棉出口的最大市場。70-80年代進(jìn)口量較大的買方國家為日本、朝鮮、中國(包括臺灣、香港)、印度尼西亞、泰國、德國、意大利、加拿大。90年代以來，進(jìn)口量較大的買方國家仍為亞洲幾國：中國(包括臺灣、香港)、日本、朝鮮、印度尼西亞、泰國，其次為埃及、墨西哥、意大利、加拿大、德國等。

第二篇：美國概況習(xí)題

美國概況

Part One Geography

Chapter IIPopulation

Exercises

? New York is the largest state in the US.(T/F)

? Why is the U.S.A.called “Melting Pot”?

Answers

? F(Alaska)

? Because the U.S.A.is country where there are many different races, and these races mixed and assimilated after they

immigrated into this country “Melting Pot” just signifies this mixture and assimilation.Chapter VReligion in the U.S.A.Exercises

? The popular American belief is___

A.part-time working

B.self-made man

C.manual labor

D.being extravagant

? The largest religious group in America is___

A.Roman CatholicsB.Protestants

C.OrthodistsD.Presbyterians

?the American spirit of “do-it-yourself”:

Answers

? BB

?the American spirit of “do-it-yourself”:

People are proud of doing everything by themselves.Most of the American families seldom hire people to do housework though they are rich.They try to do what they can do, such as housework, gardening and they enjoy doing them.Part twoHistory

Chapter IColonization of North America

Exercises

? The history of the U.S.is generally agreed to have begun in the year of ____

A.1620B.1607C.1776D.1492

? The turning point of the War of Independence was the Battle of ___in 1777.A.YorktownB.Saratoga

C.Bunker HillD.Lexington

? Lexington Fire was the ___of American War of Independence

A.turning pointB.endingC.causeD.prelude

Answers

BBD

Chapter IVThe American Civil War(1861-1865)

Exercises

? Abraham Lincoln

? In 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected president, an anti-slavery president.He played a very important measures.One

was the Homestead Bill, the other was Emancipation Proclamation in every field.In 1864, he was reelected president.He was assassinated in April 13,1865.He saved the Union and most Americans considered him a great national hero.Homework

? Why was there the New Deal program? What was it? And how did it aid the recovery of the American economy? ? What important measures did Abraham Lincoln take during the Civil War? How do you evaluate them?

Chapter VThe U.S.Imperialism and the First World War

Exercises

? The first imperialist war took place between theU.S.and ___in 1898.A.BritainB.FranceC.SpainD.Mexico

? The “Big Stick” Policy was advanced by President___.A.Theodore RooseveltB.Franklin Roosevelt

C.William MckinleyD.Thomas Woodrow Wilson

? President Franklin D.Roosevelt proposed a well-knownpolicy called___ to save the economic situation.A.the Open Door PolicyB.the New Deal

C.Good Neighbor PolicyD.the “Big Stick”

AnswersCAB

PartTheresociallife

Chapter IIICustoms and Traditions

Exercises

? Easter:

Easter falls on the first Sunday after the full moon, in March or in April.It commemorates the Resurrection of Jesus.The custom of dying eggs is very popular among children.The main meat on Easter Sunday are lamb and ham.? Thanksgiving Day:

It falls on the fourth Thursday of November.It is a holiday on which God is thanked for the crops which have been safely gathered.? Abraham Lincoln

? In 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected president, an anti-slavery president.He played a very important

measures.One was the Homestead Bill, the other was Emancipation Proclamation in every field.In 1864, he was reelected president.He was assassinated in April 13,1865.He saved the Union and most Americans considered him a great national hero.

第三篇：美國政治制度概況

美國政治制度概況

Political institution（政治制度）

1．The American Constitution is the oldest written constitution in the world.It was draw up in 1787 and went into effect in 1789.美國憲法是世界上最早的成文憲法，它起草于1787年，生效于1789年。

2．In 1787,Congress called for a meeting of delegate from all the states to revise the Articles of Confederation.1787年，國會召開各州代表參加的大會，主要目的是修

改有明顯缺點的《聯(lián)邦條款》。

3．The government is divided into three branched: the legislative ,the executive ,and the judicial.Each branch has part of the powers but not all the power.美國政府

被分為3部分：立法機(jī)構(gòu)，行政機(jī)構(gòu)和司法機(jī)構(gòu)。

4．In either case, amendments must have the approval of three-fourths of the states before they enter into force.有兩種情可以提出修改憲法條款，但不管是哪種，修正案

必須經(jīng)過3/4的批準(zhǔn)才能生效。

5．The President of the U.S is the head of the executive branch and the head of the state elected by the whole nation.The Constitution requires the President to be a natural-born American citizen at least 35 years of age.The president election was held every 4 years.憲法規(guī)定總統(tǒng)必須是美國本土出生的美國公民，至少年滿35歲，總統(tǒng)選舉每四年舉行一次。

6． In American ,the “winner-take-all” system applies in all states expect Maine.在美國，嬴者全贏的制度適用于除緬因州外的各州。

7．The electors of all fifty states and the District of Columbia-a total of 538 persons-comprise what is known as the Electoral College.To be successful, a candidate for the Presidency must receive 270 votes.50個州加上哥倫比亞特區(qū)共有

538位總統(tǒng)候選人，他們組成選舉團(tuán)，要成為美國總統(tǒng)，候選人則要獲得270票。

8．The presidential term of 4 years begin on Jan 20 following the November election, The president publicly takes an oath of office, whichis administered by the Chief Justice of the U.S.A president can be elected to office only twice.美國總統(tǒng)任期為4年，每位總統(tǒng)任期最多只能兩屆，總統(tǒng)宣誓就職儀式是由美國首席大法官主持的。

9． Article I of the Constitution grants all legislative power of the federal government to a Congress composed of two chambers, a Senate and a House of

Representatives.The Senate is composed of 2 members from each state, Membership in the House is based on population and its size is therefore not specified in the Constitution.國會由參議院和眾議院組成，參議院由各州派出兩名議員共同組成，眾議院

成員數(shù)則按各州人口及大小而定，因此眾義員數(shù)憲法沒有具體規(guī)定。

10． The Constitution requires that U.S.Senators must be at least 30 years of age, citizens of the U.S for at least 9 years, and residents of the states from which they are elected.The senatorial term is 6 years, and every 2 years one-third of the Senate stands for re-election.憲法規(guī)定美國參議員必須是年滿30歲有美國公民資格9年以上的公民，并且是選其為議員的州的居民，參議員任期為6年，且每月年改選1/3的議員。

11． Menber of the House of Representative must be at least 25, citizens for 7 years, and residents of the states which send them to Congress.Today, the House is composed of 435 members.Since members of the House serve two-year terms, the life of a Congress is considered to be 2 years.憲法規(guī)定美國眾議員必須是年滿25歲有美國公民資格7年以上的公民，并且是選其為議員的州的居民，現(xiàn)在，眾議院由來35名議員組成，由于眾議員任期為2年，所以國會任期往往被認(rèn)為是2年。

12． Each hours of the Congress has the power to introduce legislation on any subject, except revenue bills which must first come from the House of Representatives.除

了稅收法案必須首先由眾議院提出，國會的兩院各自有權(quán)就任何提議立法。

13． The Constitution provides that the Vice president shall be president of the Senate.He has no vote, except in a case of a tie.The House of Representatives choose its own presiding officer-the Speaker of the House.憲法規(guī)定由美國副總統(tǒng)擔(dān)任參議院議長，議長不參加投票，除非出現(xiàn)兩派票數(shù)相等的情況，眾議院則選出他自己的主持官員，-眾議院議長。

14． According to the Constitution, the judicial power of the U.S shall be vested in one Supreme Court.The judicial system has evolved into the present structure: the Supreme Court, 11 court of appeals, 91 district courts, and 3 courts of special jurisdiction.U.S.judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.根據(jù)憲法規(guī)定，美國的司法權(quán)屬于最高法院，司法體系結(jié)構(gòu)為：最高法院，11個上訴法院，91個地方法院，3個有特殊司法權(quán)的法院，美國的法官是由總統(tǒng)任命并由參議院批準(zhǔn)的。

15． The Supreme Court is the highest court of the U.S and is the only organ which has the power to interpret the Constitution The Supreme Court at present consists

of a Chief Justice and 8 Associate Justices.最高法院是美國最高等的法院，也是惟

一有權(quán)解釋的機(jī)構(gòu)，目前法院由一名首席大法官和顏悅色名助理法官組成。

16． The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases: thoseinvolvingforeign dignitaries, and those to which a state in a party.高

等法院最初只對兩種案件擁有司法權(quán)：涉及國外達(dá)官貴人，一個州為一方當(dāng)事人。

17． In general, American has a two-party system.There are two major political parties in America: the Democrats and the Republicans.There have been four periods in the history of political parties in American.一般說來，美國實行的是兩黨制，兩大主要政黨為：民主黨和共和黨，美國政黨的歷史可分為四個時期。

18． The first period of the party system in American refer to the appearance of the Federalists and the Anti-federalists.The third phase of the two-party system ran from the 1860s to the 1920s with the Republican Party dominating the political scene for most of the time.美國政黨制的第一階段出現(xiàn)了兩個主要黨派，聯(lián)邦派各反聯(lián)邦派，第三階段從容不迫9世紀(jì)60年代到達(dá)9世紀(jì)20年代，絕大部分時間是共和黨執(zhí)政。

（2002，21題）

19．In the 28 terms of the House of Representativesfrom 1933 to 1989,the Democrats enjoyed a majority of 26 terms, in the Senate, the Democrats had a majority for 23 terms.從1933年到1989年的確屆眾議院中，民主黨在于6屆中擁有多數(shù)席位，在參議院中民主黨在于23屆中擁有多數(shù)席位。

20． After the 1828 election of Andrew Jackson, the Democratic-Republican party split.The main faction, led by Andrew Jackson, called themselves the Democratic Party, while the faction opposed to Jackson formed the Whig party in 1834.1828年安德魯。杰克遜當(dāng)選總統(tǒng)后，民主共和黨分裂，由安德魯。杰克遜領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的主派自稱為民

主黨，反對杰克遜的一派于1834年另立輝格黨 待續(xù)。。。

英國國體：以生產(chǎn)資料私有制為主，資產(chǎn)階級掌權(quán)的資本主義國家政體：君主立憲制國家結(jié)構(gòu)形式：單一制

4國家機(jī)構(gòu)的組成及相互關(guān)系

①國家元首 虛偽元首 僅扮演儀式性角色

②立法機(jī)構(gòu) 議會

③行政機(jī)構(gòu) 內(nèi)閣

④司法機(jī)構(gòu) 法院

關(guān)系：

英國君主立憲制的主要機(jī)構(gòu)有國王、議會和內(nèi)閣。其中議會是國家最高立法機(jī)關(guān)，主要扮演立法者和監(jiān)督者的角色。內(nèi)閣是國家最高行政機(jī)關(guān)，從議會產(chǎn)生，由占議會多數(shù)席位的政黨組成，并對議會負(fù)責(zé)。國王按內(nèi)閣的意志行使形式上的權(quán)利，承擔(dān)國家元首等禮儀性職責(zé)。國王議會和內(nèi)閣三者之間，既有分權(quán)也有制約，體現(xiàn)了英國政體運(yùn)行的特點。

5政黨制度

①主要黨派：主要黨派有自由黨, 工黨, 國家黨, 民主黨等.其中自由黨和工黨為朝野的兩大黨派。

②政黨制度類型：兩黨制

近代資產(chǎn)階級革命后，英國逐步成為君主立憲制國家，其政治制度以議會內(nèi)閣制為核心，以兩黨制、常任文官制以及地方自治為主要特點。它對其他資本主義國家政治制度的建立產(chǎn)生了很大影響。

同其他國家的憲法相比，英國的憲法有以下幾個特點：

1、英國的憲法是不成文的憲法。英國憲法的最大不同之處是它從未以一部單一法典的形式出現(xiàn)，而是由13、14世紀(jì)以來，在各個不同時期通過的各種成文或不成文的、形式上多種多樣的具有憲法性的法律構(gòu)成。主要有《大憲章》、《人民公約》、《權(quán)利請愿書》、《權(quán)利法案.》等。

2、英國憲法是柔性憲法。英國的憲法性文件的制定和修改程序同普通法律一樣，其法律地位也是同議會制定的其他法律一樣。這一現(xiàn)象產(chǎn)生的原因是由于英國憲法的非法典化，但最主要的原因是沒有任何一屆議會能夠約束它的繼任議會，也沒有任何議會不能改變它的前任議會的立法，這樣，在英國的政治實踐中，很難形成關(guān)于憲法限制或權(quán)限的統(tǒng)一模式。

3、政治習(xí)慣的作用。政治習(xí)慣是在長期的政治實踐中形成的，為人們認(rèn)可和接受的行為規(guī)范。在英國，政治習(xí)慣是幾個世紀(jì)的有意識的努力的結(jié)果。這樣的政治習(xí)慣有：國王必須委任下議院的多數(shù)黨領(lǐng)袖組建政府，內(nèi)閣必須向議會負(fù)責(zé)并向議會報告工作等等。這些習(xí)慣被政治實踐者認(rèn)真遵守，以至于它們成了英國憲法的重要組成部分。

英國并不是嚴(yán)格意義上的三權(quán)分立國家。首相可以被看作當(dāng)代英國政治中最有權(quán)勢的人，首相是政府的首腦，是內(nèi)閣的主持人，是議會的議員，同時也是女王的最高政治顧問。首相、內(nèi)閣、議會三者之間的關(guān)系是：

議會（多數(shù)黨）←←←←←←←負(fù)責(zé)←←←←↑

↓領(lǐng)↑

↓袖↑

首相 —領(lǐng)導(dǎo)— 內(nèi)閣 —領(lǐng)導(dǎo)— 政府

與其他國家相比,英國的政治制度既古老而又有鮮明的特色,這主要體現(xiàn)在它的君主制與民主制的結(jié)合、“議會至上”的議會內(nèi)閣制。

英國選舉制度是單選區(qū)相對多數(shù)票取勝，這對兩大黨有利。一般而言，在大選中獲勝的大黨，都沒有得到總票數(shù)的50％，但當(dāng)選的議席超過一半以上而單獨執(zhí)政。不論工黨或保守黨獲勝都是如此。而自由黨最吃虧，它取得不低的得票率，但所獲得的國會議席很少，與得票率完全不成比例。（自由黨在1988年與從工黨分裂出去的社會民主黨合并，改稱為自由民主黨）。

英國的兩黨制并不是鐵板一塊、完美無缺的，它也存在著很多弊端。首先，從兩黨制中產(chǎn)生出來的執(zhí)政黨不能充分代表民意。英國兩黨制是由英國的選舉制度作保障的。英國現(xiàn)行選舉制度是單選區(qū)出線制，以大選中獲議席多少定勝負(fù)，而不是依選票情況。這就造成這樣一種矛盾現(xiàn)象：有時反對黨所得選票反而會超過執(zhí)政黨，其次，兩黨制對小黨的成長、發(fā)展極為不利。小黨在選舉中的得票率同其在下院所得席位不成比例。第三，兩黨制造成英國政治上的保守。最后，兩黨制促進(jìn)了英國公眾中的政治冷淡主義傾向。兩大壟斷政權(quán)，使得許多對兩黨都不喜歡的人無從選擇。在大選中，一部分這種人把選票投給了他較不討厭的那個大黨，而相當(dāng)一部分選民根本就不參加投票。投票率低是英國的一個突出現(xiàn)象。盡管投票率在整個西方國家都有下降趨勢，但英國屬于最低的國家之一。

今年的英國大選，打破了兩黨制傳統(tǒng)。

第四篇：概況試題-美國

1、Puritanism

Puritans were those who followed the doctrine of John Calvin and wanted to purify the Church of England.They believe that human beings were predestined by God before they were born.Some were God's chosen people while others were damned to hell.No church nor good works could save people.The sign of being God's elect was the success in his work or the prosperity in his calling.They also argued that everyone must read the Bible in order to find God's will and establish a direct contact with God.These beliefs had great impact on American culture.2.the American Revolution

Between 1689 and 1815, france and Britain fought Seven Years’ war, and North American was drawn into everyone of them.Britain’s victory led directly to a conflict with its American colonies.The British government argued that Britain had spent large sums of money to defend their American colonies in those wars, and that the colonists therefore should pay a part of those expenses.So the british government began to charge new taxes.But the colonists refused to obey the british laws and cry” no taxation without representation”.On April 19,1775,the first shot was fired when 700 British soldiers went to capture a colonial arms depot in a small town of Concord near Boston.The American War of Independence began.And the war came to an end in 1781 with the victory of north american.The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783 and Britian had to recognize the independence of the United States.A new nation was thus born.3.the Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence was mainly drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Congress on July 4,1776,when the people of 13 English colonials in North America were fighting for their freedom and independence from the British colonial rule.The document declared that all men were equal and that they were entitled to have some unalienable rights such as life,liberty and the pursuit of happiness.It also explained the philosophy of government:the powers of governments came from the consent of the governed and the purpose of governments were to secure the rights mentioned above.The theory of politics and the guiding principles of the American Revolution mainly came from John Locke.4.American Constitution

The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America.The Constitution is the framework for the organization of the United States government and for the relationship of the federal government with the states, citizens, and all people within the United States.The Constitution creates the three branches of the national government: a legislature, the bicameral Congress;an executive branch led by the President;and a judicial branch headed by the Supreme Court.The Constitution specifies the powers and duties of each branch.The Constitution reserves all unenumerated powers to the respective states and the people, thereby establishing the federal system of government.5.checks and balances

When Americans talk about their three-part national government, they often refer to what they call its system of “checks and balances”.This system works in many ways to keep serious mistakes from being made by legislative branch or executive branch or judicial branch.6.Federalism

Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States.American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism.In “Federalist No.46,” James Madison asserted that the states and national government “are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, constituted with different powers.” Alexander Hamilton, writing in “Federalist No.28,” suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit: “If their [the peoples'] rights are invaded by either, they can make use of the other as the instrument of redress.”

7.the Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights consists of the first 10 amendments which were added to the Constitution in 1791.The Bill of Rights was passed to guarantee freedom and individual rights such as freedom of speech,the right to assemble in public places,the right to own weapons and so on.8.Political parties in the US

Political parties are organized groups of people who share a set of ideas about how the US should be governed and who work together to have members of their group elected in order to influence the governing of the country.today ,the US has two major political parties.one in the Democratic Party,which evolved out of Thomas Jefferson's party,formed before 1800.the symbol of the party is the donkey.the other is the Republican Party,which was formed in the 1850s,and its symbol is the elephant.9、the roots of affluence in America

No single factor is responsible for the success of American business and industry.Bountiful resources,the geographical size of the country and population trends have all contributed to these success.Religious,social and political traditions;the institutional structures of government and business;and the courage,hard work and determination of countless entrepreners and workers have also played a part.10.American industrial revolution

After independence, America was principally an agricultural country.The industrial revolution in England brought many changes to American industry between 1776 and 1860.One key development was the introduction of the factory system.A second development was the “American system” of mass production.A third development was the application of new technologies to industrial task.A fourth development was the emergence of new forms of business organization—the bank and the corporation.11.Civil Rights Movement

The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980.In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance.In some situations it was accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and armed rebellion.The process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not fully achieve their goals although, the efforts of these movements did lead to improvements in the legal rights of previously oppressed groups of people.12.Martin luther King

Martin Luther King, Jr.(January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968)was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement.He is best known for being an iconic figure in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.King is often presented as a heroic leader in the history of modern American liberalism.A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career.He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, serving as its first president.King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech.There, he expanded American values to include the vision of a color blind society, and established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.13.Counterculture

In the wake of the Free Speech Movement and the New Left,there appeared a phenomenon that historians called the “counterculture.”the counterculture rejected capitalism and other American principles.they had morals different from those taught by their parents.some groups of youth tried to construct different ways of life.among the most famous were the hippies.they sought new experience through dropping out,and drug taking.but it was music,rock music in particular,that became the chief vehicle for the counter cultural assault on the traditional American society.the counterculture exerted a great influence upon people's attitudes toward social morals,marriage,career and success.14、Hippies

The hippies called themselves “the love generation.” Hippiness became their only goal in life.Their music was different from any other music, and the words they sang sounded rebellious to older people.Small groups of youth lived together in cities like San Francisco,turning their lives into one big party.They wore long hair,strange and colorful clothes and many of them used drugs.They went in huge numbers to rock music concerts, and tyey made very interesting news on TV.15.Multiculturalism in Canada

Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government during the prime ministership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s.The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration.Multiculturalism is reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

第五篇：生產(chǎn)概況

生產(chǎn)概況

（一）、綜合能耗分析

啤酒生產(chǎn)中能源的消耗占生產(chǎn)成本比重的10%左右，因此抓好節(jié)能工作，對進(jìn)一步降低生產(chǎn)成本、提高經(jīng)濟(jì)效益將提供有力保障。公司噸酒綜合能耗為147公斤噸、噸啤酒用水量為12噸

噸，指標(biāo)遠(yuǎn)高于國際上同行的先進(jìn)水平。特別是啤酒用水方面，水是啤酒生產(chǎn)主要的原材料，而啤酒生產(chǎn)企業(yè)又是一個耗水大戶，近年來，我公司的啤酒產(chǎn)量每年都以較大幅度增長，如果不采取 有效的節(jié)水措施，用水量將連年上升，勢必造成水費(fèi)支出不斷增加，更嚴(yán)重的是，如果用水量超過公司的綜合供水能力，將嚴(yán)重影響生產(chǎn)的進(jìn)一步發(fā)展，如對部分或整個供水系統(tǒng)重新改造增容，將花費(fèi)大量的時間和財力。

（二）物耗分析

在啤酒生產(chǎn)成本構(gòu)成中，酒液成本約占60%。而我公司97年酒液總損失率（以下簡稱酒損）為13.28%，而國際上同行業(yè)先進(jìn)水平為5%--6%，差距較大。別小看這百分之幾，按年產(chǎn)啤酒110萬噸計算，每增加1%的酒損，就相當(dāng)于損失酒液11000噸。因此要降低啤酒生產(chǎn)成本，就要抓住酒液的損耗量這個關(guān)鍵因素。對于年產(chǎn)啤酒近百萬噸、年需玻璃瓶、瓶蓋各十幾億個的大企業(yè)來說，小小的玻璃瓶、瓶蓋、商標(biāo)紙?zhí)N含著巨大的降耗潛力。98年以前，我公司的包裝物、包裝材料消耗較大，生產(chǎn)成本居高不下。包裝材料的使用受材料質(zhì)量影響較大，同時也與工藝控

制水平息息相關(guān)。如果瓶的質(zhì)量差，就需要加大清洗力度，無疑會增加損耗。而商標(biāo)損耗則會受標(biāo)紙質(zhì)量和膠水質(zhì)量影響，導(dǎo)致貼標(biāo)效果不佳，飛標(biāo)嚴(yán)重，損耗增大

3.1釀造清酒耗糧降低啤酒生產(chǎn)成本 3.1.1糖化工序降低耗糧措施1.控制好麥芽、大米質(zhì)量，浄出率低的麥芽不用（水分高的原料折算使用）。2.帶班檢查倒料是否干凈，袋內(nèi)不得殘留麥芽、大米。3.1釀造清酒耗糧降低啤酒生產(chǎn)成本 3.1.1糖化工序降低耗糧措施1.控制好麥芽、大米質(zhì)量，浄出率低的麥芽不用（水分高的原料折算使用）。2.帶班檢查倒料是否干凈，袋內(nèi)不得殘留麥芽、大米。

1、裝箱過程檢查出的不合格瓶子，需及時報品控部、采購部到達(dá)現(xiàn)場確認(rèn)。損失由采購部聯(lián)系生產(chǎn)廠家，按合同規(guī)定處理，以降低瓶損。、裝箱過程應(yīng)給制定裝箱規(guī)定，盡量減少因操作不規(guī)范造成的損失，損失計入裝箱瓶損。、場地調(diào)運(yùn)損，箱瓶在進(jìn)行場地調(diào)運(yùn)過程中發(fā)生的損失為倉儲損失，控制進(jìn)入公司的箱瓶，實施“合理物流、減少搬運(yùn)”可減少損失。

面對行業(yè)競爭的日趨激烈,各廠家只有通過低價和各種空間的服務(wù)承諾等來引導(dǎo)消費(fèi)趨勢,超低的產(chǎn)品售價和超高的市場投人,換取了企業(yè)超薄的邊際利潤。然而,商品經(jīng)濟(jì)條件下,企業(yè)根本目的是為了賺取利潤,目前,在人力難以控制產(chǎn)品同質(zhì)化和市場競爭手段相似化的前提下,加強(qiáng)成本管理幾乎成了使企業(yè)利潤最大化的唯一途徑。1成本概述1.1成本是資源的一種損失,包括制造成本和非制造成本 1)制造成本有三個主要項目: ①直接材料是指直接構(gòu)成產(chǎn)品實體的材料。如:麥芽、大米、酒花、水、啤酒箱、啤酒瓶、瓶蓋、商標(biāo)等。②直接人工是指將原材料轉(zhuǎn)化為制成品的生產(chǎn)工人的工資。③將材料轉(zhuǎn)化為制成品的所有其他成本,一般統(tǒng)稱為制造間接費(fèi)用。如:a、間接人工,不直接參與制造產(chǎn)品而又是工廠營運(yùn)所需要的工人的成本,主要指生產(chǎn)管理人員、維修人員以及存貨保管人員。b、間接材料,不構(gòu)成制成品的實體但對于制造產(chǎn)品來說是必需的,主要指機(jī)器潤滑油、修理用件、洗滌劑、粘合劑等。、其他制造成本,廠房和設(shè)備的折舊、資產(chǎn)稅、廠房和設(shè)備的保險費(fèi)、供氣、照明、動力以及為維持工廠經(jīng)營所發(fā)生的類似費(fèi)用。