第一篇：美國(guó)概況(unit 3_4_6_7_8)

UNIT 3

1.What is an American? Comment on the answer to the question by Crevecoeur?

(1)American is either a European or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country.He is an American, who leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds

The American is a new man, who acts upon new principles.He must therefore entertain new ideas and form new opinions...this is an American.(2)According to Crevecoeur, The American in those days had the mixed blood of Europeans or their descendants without taking into consideration other nationalities such as American Indians and blacks.But today, the picture of an American is more complex.1.What is an American?

He is either a European, or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country.He is an American, who leaving behind him his entire ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds....Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world....The American is a new man, who acts new principles;he must therefore entertain new ideas, and form new opinions.2.How did modern development in Europe influence the settlement of North American colonies?

Some new and powerful social forces began to emerge which led to the awakening of Europe and the discovery of America.The first new force was the development of capitalism, and it produced the bourgeois class and the working class.The second major force was Renaissance, which was marked by a changing outlook on life.The third influential force was Religious Reformation, a religious reform movement that started form Germany.3.What was the unique American phenomenon? How did it come into being? Do you think it still exists in today's American society?

on the one hand, the English and other Europeans went to North American for seeking freedom.But on the other hand, these very white people who were seeking and fighting for their own freedom deprived black Africans of their freedom

The two events combined constituted a unique American.First one is that on July, 30, 1619, the first meeting of an elected legislature took place in North American.The second one is a Dutch ship brought in over 20 Negroes, who were acted as servants for years.Yes, I do.4.In what way did Puritanism influence American culture?

The Puritans believed that governments should enforce God's morality.They strictly punished drunks, adulterers, violators of the Sabbath and other religious believers different from themselves.Roger Williams, one of the Puritans who protested that the state should not interfere with religion, was driven out of Massachusetts.In 1635, he set up Rhode Island colony, which guaranteed religious freedom and the separation of church and state.The Puritans also have left rich cultural heritage to future Americans.The American values such as individualism, hard work, and respect of education owe very much to the Puritan beliefs.4.In what way did Puritanism influence American culture?

(1).Today, Puritans are no longer in existence.But their legacies are still felt in American society and culture.For example, the Puritans hoped to build “a city upon hill” an ideal community.Since that time, Americans have viewed their country as a great experiment, a worthy model for other nations.This sense of mission has been very strong in the minds of many Americans.(2).The Puritans also have left rich cultural heritage to future Americans.The American values such as individualism, hard work, and respect of education owe very much to the Puritan beliefs.Unit 4

2.What is a federal system? What are some of the major differences between a federal system and a confederation?

The Constitution set up a federal system with a strong central government.A federal system is one in which power is shared between a central authority and its constituent parts, with some rights reserved to each.The Constitution also called for the election of a national leader, or president.It provided that federal laws would be made only by a Congress made up of

representatives elected by the people.It also provided for a national court system headed by a Supreme Court.3.What are some of the major powers of each of the three branches of the U.S.government? How are the three branches supposed to check and balance each other?

If Congress proposes a law that the president thinks is unwise, the president can veto it.That means the proposal does not become law.Congress can enact the law despite the president's views only if two-thirds of the members of both houses vote in favor of it.If Congress passes a law which is then challenged in the courts as unconstitutional, the Supreme Court has the power to declare the law unconstitutional and therefore no longer in effect.The president has the power to make treaties with other nations and to make all appointments to federal positions, including the position of Supreme Court justice.The Senate, however, must approve all treaties and confirm all appointments before they become official.In this way the Congress can prevent the president from making unwise appointments.3.What are some of the major powers of each of the three branches of the U.S.government? How are the three branches supposed to check and balance each other?

(A)1.--the legislative branch is made up of elected representatives from all of the states and is the only branch that can make federal laws, levy federal taxes and declare war or put foreign treaties into effect.It consists of a Congress that is divided into the House of Representative and the Senate.The House of Representatives has 435 members who serve two-year terms.The Senate comprises 100 lawmakers who serve six-year terms.Each state, regardless of population, has two senators.2.--the executive branch is the president, who is elected to a four-year term.A president can be elected to only two terms according to an amendment passed in 1951.The president can appoint federal judges as vacancies occur.He is the commander in chief of the armed forces.The president has other broad authorities in running the government departments and handling foreign relations.3.--the judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court with a chief justice and 8 associate justices.The Federal courts have jurisdiction over cases arising out of the Constitution and other cases which do not arise out of individual states.The Supreme Court has the judicial review power, the power determining whether congressional legislation or executive action violates the Constitution.(B)1.If Congress proposes a law that the president thinks is unwise, the president can veto it.2.If Congress passes a law which is then challenged in the courts as unconstitutional, the Supreme Court has the power to declare the law unconstitutional and therefore no longer in effect.3.The president has the power to make treaties with other nations and to make all appointments to federal positions, including the position of Supreme Court justice.The Senate, however, must approve all treaties and confirm all appointments before they become official.In this way the Congress can prevent the president from making unwise appointments.4．What is the Bill of Rights? Do you think that it was necessary to write the Bill of Rights explicitly into the U.S.Constitution?

The Bill of Rights: the first 10 amendments, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, were added within two years of the adoption of the U.S.Constitution.These amendments remain intact today, as they were written two centuries ago.The first guarantees freedom of worship, speech and press, the right of peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrongs.The Bill of Rights and subsequent constitutional amendments guarantee the American people the fullest possible opportunity to enjoy fundamental human rights.UNIT 6

2.What is the relationship between government and religion in America?

In some ways, the government supports all religions.Religious groups do not pay taxes in the United States.But government does not pay ministers' salaries or require any belief—not even a belief in God—as a condition of holding public office.Oaths are administered, but those who, like Quakers, object to them, can make a solemn affirmation, or declaration, instead

4.What are some of the features in religion that are particularly American? What are some of the major differences between American religion and religion in Europe?

First of all, Americans with different religions live together under the same law.Secondly, the religious beliefs of Americans continue to be strong with social progress.In Europe, scientific and economic advance and rising material prosperity have accompanied by a decline in religious observance in the US, this has not happened.Thirdly, in the United States every church is a completely independent organization, and

concerned with its own finance and its own building.There has been little concentration on doctrine or religious argument such as in European history,Unit 7

5.Why did Mark Twain win so many readers both at home and abroad?

Mark Twain was the first major American writer to be born away from the East Coast.He grew up in a small town on the banks of the Mississippi River and received only a basic public school education.He began working in a printer’s jobs in the Midwest and the West.Twin was a new voice, an original genius, a man of the people.And he quickly won readers.UNIT 8

1.What is the goal of education in the United States? Discuss the similarities and differences in Great Britain, the United States and China concerning the goals of education.The goal is—and has been since the early decades of the republic—to achieve universal literacy and to provide individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to promote both their own individual welfare as well as that of the general public.Though this goal has not yet been fully achieved, it remains an ideal toward which the American educational system is directed.The progress which has been made is notable both for its scope and for the educational methods which have been developed in the process of achieving it.3.What are the major characteristics of education in America?

(1)Different education laws for different states.(2)Several levels of schooling：Elementary Schooling，Secondary Schooling and High Schooling.(3)Curricula for students: there is no national curriculum in the United States.(3)Compulsory education for all students.(4)Equal education opportunities for minority groups.(5)Strong demand for higher education.(6)The complex system of higher education.Some states play a strong role in the selection of learning material for their students.Schools were asked not only to teach this new information, but to help students ask their own questions about it.The “inquiry” method of learning, focusing on solving problems rather than memorizing facts, became popular.3.What are the major characteristics of education in America?

1.About 85% of American students attend public schools(schools supported by American taxpayers).The other 15% attend private schools, for which their families choose to pay special attendance fees.Four out of five private schools in the United States are run by churches, synagogues or other religious groups.In such schools, religious teachings are a part of the curriculum.2.Each of the 50 states in the United States has its own laws regulating education.From state to state, some laws are similar;others are not.Education in the United States was to remain in the hands of state and local governments.3.Americans have a strong tendency to educate their children about major public concerns—problems such as environmental pollution, nuclear issues, neighborhood crime and drugs.

第二篇：概況試題-美國(guó)

1、Puritanism

Puritans were those who followed the doctrine of John Calvin and wanted to purify the Church of England.They believe that human beings were predestined by God before they were born.Some were God's chosen people while others were damned to hell.No church nor good works could save people.The sign of being God's elect was the success in his work or the prosperity in his calling.They also argued that everyone must read the Bible in order to find God's will and establish a direct contact with God.These beliefs had great impact on American culture.2.the American Revolution

Between 1689 and 1815, france and Britain fought Seven Years’ war, and North American was drawn into everyone of them.Britain’s victory led directly to a conflict with its American colonies.The British government argued that Britain had spent large sums of money to defend their American colonies in those wars, and that the colonists therefore should pay a part of those expenses.So the british government began to charge new taxes.But the colonists refused to obey the british laws and cry” no taxation without representation”.On April 19,1775,the first shot was fired when 700 British soldiers went to capture a colonial arms depot in a small town of Concord near Boston.The American War of Independence began.And the war came to an end in 1781 with the victory of north american.The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783 and Britian had to recognize the independence of the United States.A new nation was thus born.3.the Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence was mainly drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Congress on July 4,1776,when the people of 13 English colonials in North America were fighting for their freedom and independence from the British colonial rule.The document declared that all men were equal and that they were entitled to have some unalienable rights such as life,liberty and the pursuit of happiness.It also explained the philosophy of government:the powers of governments came from the consent of the governed and the purpose of governments were to secure the rights mentioned above.The theory of politics and the guiding principles of the American Revolution mainly came from John Locke.4.American Constitution

The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America.The Constitution is the framework for the organization of the United States government and for the relationship of the federal government with the states, citizens, and all people within the United States.The Constitution creates the three branches of the national government: a legislature, the bicameral Congress;an executive branch led by the President;and a judicial branch headed by the Supreme Court.The Constitution specifies the powers and duties of each branch.The Constitution reserves all unenumerated powers to the respective states and the people, thereby establishing the federal system of government.5.checks and balances

When Americans talk about their three-part national government, they often refer to what they call its system of “checks and balances”.This system works in many ways to keep serious mistakes from being made by legislative branch or executive branch or judicial branch.6.Federalism

Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States.American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism.In “Federalist No.46,” James Madison asserted that the states and national government “are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, constituted with different powers.” Alexander Hamilton, writing in “Federalist No.28,” suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit: “If their [the peoples'] rights are invaded by either, they can make use of the other as the instrument of redress.”

7.the Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights consists of the first 10 amendments which were added to the Constitution in 1791.The Bill of Rights was passed to guarantee freedom and individual rights such as freedom of speech,the right to assemble in public places,the right to own weapons and so on.8.Political parties in the US

Political parties are organized groups of people who share a set of ideas about how the US should be governed and who work together to have members of their group elected in order to influence the governing of the country.today ,the US has two major political parties.one in the Democratic Party,which evolved out of Thomas Jefferson's party,formed before 1800.the symbol of the party is the donkey.the other is the Republican Party,which was formed in the 1850s,and its symbol is the elephant.9、the roots of affluence in America

No single factor is responsible for the success of American business and industry.Bountiful resources,the geographical size of the country and population trends have all contributed to these success.Religious,social and political traditions;the institutional structures of government and business;and the courage,hard work and determination of countless entrepreners and workers have also played a part.10.American industrial revolution

After independence, America was principally an agricultural country.The industrial revolution in England brought many changes to American industry between 1776 and 1860.One key development was the introduction of the factory system.A second development was the “American system” of mass production.A third development was the application of new technologies to industrial task.A fourth development was the emergence of new forms of business organization—the bank and the corporation.11.Civil Rights Movement

The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980.In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance.In some situations it was accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and armed rebellion.The process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not fully achieve their goals although, the efforts of these movements did lead to improvements in the legal rights of previously oppressed groups of people.12.Martin luther King

Martin Luther King, Jr.(January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968)was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement.He is best known for being an iconic figure in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.King is often presented as a heroic leader in the history of modern American liberalism.A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career.He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, serving as its first president.King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech.There, he expanded American values to include the vision of a color blind society, and established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.13.Counterculture

In the wake of the Free Speech Movement and the New Left,there appeared a phenomenon that historians called the “counterculture.”the counterculture rejected capitalism and other American principles.they had morals different from those taught by their parents.some groups of youth tried to construct different ways of life.among the most famous were the hippies.they sought new experience through dropping out,and drug taking.but it was music,rock music in particular,that became the chief vehicle for the counter cultural assault on the traditional American society.the counterculture exerted a great influence upon people's attitudes toward social morals,marriage,career and success.14、Hippies

The hippies called themselves “the love generation.” Hippiness became their only goal in life.Their music was different from any other music, and the words they sang sounded rebellious to older people.Small groups of youth lived together in cities like San Francisco,turning their lives into one big party.They wore long hair,strange and colorful clothes and many of them used drugs.They went in huge numbers to rock music concerts, and tyey made very interesting news on TV.15.Multiculturalism in Canada

Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government during the prime ministership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s.The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration.Multiculturalism is reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

第三篇：美國(guó)概況習(xí)題

美國(guó)概況

Part One Geography

Chapter IIPopulation

Exercises

? New York is the largest state in the US.(T/F)

? Why is the U.S.A.called “Melting Pot”?

Answers

? F(Alaska)

? Because the U.S.A.is country where there are many different races, and these races mixed and assimilated after they

immigrated into this country “Melting Pot” just signifies this mixture and assimilation.Chapter VReligion in the U.S.A.Exercises

? The popular American belief is___

A.part-time working

B.self-made man

C.manual labor

D.being extravagant

? The largest religious group in America is___

A.Roman CatholicsB.Protestants

C.OrthodistsD.Presbyterians

?the American spirit of “do-it-yourself”:

Answers

? BB

?the American spirit of “do-it-yourself”:

People are proud of doing everything by themselves.Most of the American families seldom hire people to do housework though they are rich.They try to do what they can do, such as housework, gardening and they enjoy doing them.Part twoHistory

Chapter IColonization of North America

Exercises

? The history of the U.S.is generally agreed to have begun in the year of ____

A.1620B.1607C.1776D.1492

? The turning point of the War of Independence was the Battle of ___in 1777.A.YorktownB.Saratoga

C.Bunker HillD.Lexington

? Lexington Fire was the ___of American War of Independence

A.turning pointB.endingC.causeD.prelude

Answers

BBD

Chapter IVThe American Civil War(1861-1865)

Exercises

? Abraham Lincoln

? In 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected president, an anti-slavery president.He played a very important measures.One

was the Homestead Bill, the other was Emancipation Proclamation in every field.In 1864, he was reelected president.He was assassinated in April 13,1865.He saved the Union and most Americans considered him a great national hero.Homework

? Why was there the New Deal program? What was it? And how did it aid the recovery of the American economy? ? What important measures did Abraham Lincoln take during the Civil War? How do you evaluate them?

Chapter VThe U.S.Imperialism and the First World War

Exercises

? The first imperialist war took place between theU.S.and ___in 1898.A.BritainB.FranceC.SpainD.Mexico

? The “Big Stick” Policy was advanced by President___.A.Theodore RooseveltB.Franklin Roosevelt

C.William MckinleyD.Thomas Woodrow Wilson

? President Franklin D.Roosevelt proposed a well-knownpolicy called___ to save the economic situation.A.the Open Door PolicyB.the New Deal

C.Good Neighbor PolicyD.the “Big Stick”

AnswersCAB

PartTheresociallife

Chapter IIICustoms and Traditions

Exercises

? Easter:

Easter falls on the first Sunday after the full moon, in March or in April.It commemorates the Resurrection of Jesus.The custom of dying eggs is very popular among children.The main meat on Easter Sunday are lamb and ham.? Thanksgiving Day:

It falls on the fourth Thursday of November.It is a holiday on which God is thanked for the crops which have been safely gathered.? Abraham Lincoln

? In 1860 Abraham Lincoln was elected president, an anti-slavery president.He played a very important

measures.One was the Homestead Bill, the other was Emancipation Proclamation in every field.In 1864, he was reelected president.He was assassinated in April 13,1865.He saved the Union and most Americans considered him a great national hero.

第四篇：美國(guó)棉花生產(chǎn)概況

美國(guó)棉花生產(chǎn)概況

1.植棉簡(jiǎn)史：目前世界上栽培面積最大的陸地棉品種就發(fā)源在美國(guó)邊界附近。公元前500年，美國(guó)西南部的祖尼(Zuni)和霍皮(Hopi)地區(qū)的印第安人在舉行宗教儀式時(shí)就開(kāi)始使用棉花。1536年得克薩斯和路易斯安那州就種植了棉花；1607年開(kāi)始引種陸地棉，在當(dāng)時(shí)的作品中發(fā)現(xiàn)了弗吉尼亞移民最早栽培棉花的痕跡，隨后棉花栽培逐漸發(fā)展；1784年美國(guó)的原棉從查爾斯頓(南卡羅來(lái)納州)出發(fā)海運(yùn)到英國(guó)的利物浦；1785年后引種海島棉。1793年美國(guó)惠特尼(Whitney)發(fā)明了鋸齒軋花機(jī)后，美國(guó)的棉花生產(chǎn)得以迅速擴(kuò)大，并開(kāi)始更認(rèn)真地從墨西哥引種進(jìn)行培育。從19世紀(jì)初到1925年左右，美國(guó)的許多州擴(kuò)種了棉花，形成了“棉花帶”，棉花面積達(dá)1600萬(wàn)公頃，總產(chǎn)皮棉1700萬(wàn)包，占世界棉花產(chǎn)量的60％，達(dá)到高峰。同時(shí)，各地建立了許多棉花紡織廠；1801年建立了第一座棉籽榨油廠；1879年因新法煉油技術(shù)的成功使棉籽油更受消費(fèi)者歡迎，也促進(jìn)了此業(yè)的飛速發(fā)展，當(dāng)時(shí)，美國(guó)棉籽油產(chǎn)量25000噸,到1963年達(dá)到創(chuàng)歷史的906000噸，棉籽餅產(chǎn)量達(dá)到2500萬(wàn)噸。

2.棉區(qū)分布：美國(guó)是世界產(chǎn)棉大國(guó)，也是棉花的主要出口國(guó)。目前，東起大西洋西岸，西到太平洋東岸，橫貫美國(guó)南部的17個(gè)州均可植棉，統(tǒng)稱“棉花帶”，此帶北界與緯度37°線、無(wú)霜期200天線基本相符。只在密西西比河流域和土質(zhì)肥沃，植棉收益較高的弗吉尼亞州南部，以及加利福尼亞州的圣華金河谷地棉區(qū)稍北越過(guò)此界，達(dá)北緯38.2°。棉區(qū)多屬河流沖積平原，土壤多為砂壤土或黑鈣土，土質(zhì)肥沃，氣候溫暖，自然條件比較適宜于棉花生產(chǎn)。美國(guó)棉花帶劃分為四個(gè)棉區(qū)：(1)西部棉區(qū)：包括加利福尼亞、亞利桑那和新墨西哥三個(gè)州。干旱少雨，棉田全部實(shí)行灌溉。棉花收獲面積約占全國(guó)的18％，總產(chǎn)占全國(guó)棉花產(chǎn)量30％。皮棉單產(chǎn)50-99公斤。(2)西南棉區(qū)：又稱高原棉區(qū)，包括得克薩斯、俄克拉何馬和堪薩斯州三個(gè)州。海拔1500－3500米，屬半干旱地區(qū)。棉花收獲面積約占全國(guó)棉田44％，總產(chǎn)占全國(guó)棉花產(chǎn)量29％。(3)中南棉區(qū)：又稱密西西比三角洲棉區(qū)，包括密西西比、路易斯安那、阿肯色、田納西、密蘇里五個(gè)州、靠自然降雨植棉。年降雨量800-1000毫米。棉花收獲面積約占全國(guó)的30%，總產(chǎn)占32％，皮棉折合畝產(chǎn)為48公斤左右。(4)東部地區(qū)：包括南卡羅來(lái)納、北卡羅來(lái)納、佐治亞、亞拉巴馬、佛羅里達(dá)、弗吉尼亞六個(gè)州。年降雨量1000-1500毫米，靠自然降雨植棉。棉田收獲面積約占全國(guó)的8％，皮棉單產(chǎn)45公斤左右，總產(chǎn)占全國(guó)的9％。我們所考察的得克薩斯州是全美國(guó)棉花產(chǎn)量最大的州，年種植面積達(dá)550萬(wàn)英畝，產(chǎn)值達(dá)15.6億美元，總產(chǎn)約占全美的三分之一。位于得克薩斯州西北部的拉伯克（LUBBOCK）地區(qū)，地勢(shì)平坦，氣候適宜，棉花連片種植面積達(dá)350多萬(wàn)英畝（2124萬(wàn)畝），號(hào)稱是世界上最大的陸地棉區(qū)；加利福尼亞州種植面積排名第二，年植棉面積達(dá)130萬(wàn)英畝，產(chǎn)值達(dá)9億美元。美國(guó)棉花品種以陸地棉為主，美洲比馬棉（長(zhǎng)絨棉）為輔。例如，1995年全國(guó)棉花種植總面積達(dá)1600.6萬(wàn)英畝，其中陸地棉面積為1579.5萬(wàn)英畝，美洲比馬棉為21.1萬(wàn)英畝，1995年棉花總產(chǎn)量為86.51億磅，其中陸地棉為84.78億磅，美洲比馬棉為1.73億磅，1995年棉花總產(chǎn)值達(dá)65.51億美元，其中陸地棉63.30億美元，美洲比馬棉為2.21億美元，棉花出口占世界的21%。

3.棉花種植面積和產(chǎn)量：美國(guó)棉花種植面積，從1945-1953年一直穩(wěn)定在13000萬(wàn)畝左右，50年代后逐步減少；1967年減少到4854萬(wàn)畝；1969年開(kāi)始回升達(dá)6711萬(wàn)畝；1981年棉田收獲面積達(dá)8401萬(wàn)畝； 1982年棉田又減少到5908萬(wàn)畝； 1983年棉田繼續(xù)下降到4460萬(wàn)畝； 1987年開(kāi)始回升；1991年棉田收獲面積達(dá)到7867萬(wàn)畝，皮棉單產(chǎn)48.73公斤，總產(chǎn)達(dá)7670萬(wàn)擔(dān)，年末庫(kù)存1612萬(wàn)擔(dān)。到1998年，美國(guó)棉花的收獲面積達(dá)到6677萬(wàn)畝，總產(chǎn)約300萬(wàn)噸，平均畝產(chǎn)為45公斤左右。目前，有35000個(gè)農(nóng)戶從事棉花生產(chǎn)。

4.棉花生產(chǎn)的特點(diǎn)：美國(guó)棉花生產(chǎn)的主要特點(diǎn)是：(1)機(jī)械化程度高。美國(guó)人少地多，農(nóng)業(yè)人口占2%，為了節(jié)省勞力，只有實(shí)行機(jī)械化。從整地、播種、灌溉、施肥、植保到收獲，全部采用大型植棉機(jī)具作業(yè)，質(zhì)量好，效率高，成本低。種一畝棉花投工約為3個(gè)工時(shí)(約合0.4個(gè)工作日)，用工量是全世界最少的。(2)全面推廣棉花優(yōu)良品種。每個(gè)地區(qū)推廣的棉花優(yōu)良品種應(yīng)由區(qū)試委員會(huì)和美國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)部共同討論確定，種子生產(chǎn)商品化，并由種子公司統(tǒng)一供應(yīng)。目前，有60%的品種為轉(zhuǎn)基因抗蟲(chóng)棉；(3)棉花生產(chǎn)規(guī)模大規(guī)范化程度高。一個(gè)植棉方或圓型灌區(qū)就有幾百英畝，一個(gè)農(nóng)場(chǎng)主就經(jīng)營(yíng)2000英畝左右的棉田。棉田平整，起垅種植，采用大型噴灌，虹吸灌溉和中心灌溉系統(tǒng)，科學(xué)施肥，棉桿還田，病蟲(chóng)害綜合防治，棉田化除無(wú)雜草，棉株長(zhǎng)勢(shì)均衡，化學(xué)脫葉，一次性機(jī)械收獲；(4)綜合技術(shù)服務(wù)全面、系統(tǒng)。出租農(nóng)業(yè)機(jī)械，出售棉花良種、化肥、農(nóng)藥，運(yùn)輸、建筑、修理、水利、農(nóng)業(yè)工程以及棉花加工等都有專業(yè)公司、工廠為植棉農(nóng)場(chǎng)服務(wù)。在植棉技術(shù)上也有技術(shù)研究與推廣中心給予科學(xué)指導(dǎo)和服務(wù)；(5)國(guó)家對(duì)棉花生產(chǎn)實(shí)行扶持和保護(hù)政策，并制定每磅皮棉50美分的最低保護(hù)價(jià)，棉農(nóng)每年的植棉收入低于一定數(shù)額時(shí)，國(guó)家也要給予一定的補(bǔ)貼，以鼓勵(lì)棉農(nóng)種植棉花。

5.皮棉價(jià)格和原棉外銷

美棉出口市場(chǎng)主要面向亞洲、大洋洲、歐洲、非洲與中東地區(qū)。其中亞洲和歐洲是美棉出口的最大市場(chǎng)。70-80年代進(jìn)口量較大的買方國(guó)家為日本、朝鮮、中國(guó)(包括臺(tái)灣、香港)、印度尼西亞、泰國(guó)、德國(guó)、意大利、加拿大。90年代以來(lái)，進(jìn)口量較大的買方國(guó)家仍為亞洲幾國(guó)：中國(guó)(包括臺(tái)灣、香港)、日本、朝鮮、印度尼西亞、泰國(guó)，其次為埃及、墨西哥、意大利、加拿大、德國(guó)等。

第五篇：美國(guó)工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)展概況

美國(guó)工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)展的背景和概況

正當(dāng)歐洲各國(guó)進(jìn)行現(xiàn)代主義設(shè)計(jì)的探索與試驗(yàn)的時(shí)候，美國(guó)人則基于商業(yè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)要求，全力以赴地開(kāi)始了為企業(yè)服務(wù)的工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)運(yùn)動(dòng)，在美國(guó)，這場(chǎng)運(yùn)動(dòng)并沒(méi)有多少學(xué)究味道，也沒(méi)有什么知識(shí)分子的理想主義成份，可以說(shuō)，從一開(kāi)始起，美國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)運(yùn)動(dòng)就沾滿了實(shí)用主義的商業(yè)氣息。美國(guó)芝加哥建筑派的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人物之一一路易斯（Louis Suliivan）曾經(jīng)在1907 年總結(jié)設(shè)計(jì)的原則時(shí)說(shuō)：設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)該遵循“形式追隨功能”的宗旨。美國(guó)人雖然提出這條原則，但是在美國(guó)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)激烈的商業(yè)市場(chǎng)上，設(shè)計(jì)所遵循的其實(shí)是“形式追隨市場(chǎng)”，對(duì)于企業(yè)來(lái)說(shuō)，最重要的并不是設(shè)計(jì)能否給社會(huì)帶來(lái)益處，或者對(duì)于整個(gè)人民的生活有所改善，設(shè)計(jì)唯一的要點(diǎn)是能夠促進(jìn)銷售。因此，約束美國(guó)早期工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)展的力量不是知識(shí)分子的理想主義，也不是社會(huì)民主主義，而是十足的商業(yè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)機(jī)制在發(fā)展美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)中起到了決定性的作用。這正是為什么歐洲各國(guó)對(duì)美國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)以為不足掛齒的地方。

雖然市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)充滿了金錢的味道，缺乏歐洲現(xiàn)代主義設(shè)計(jì)的那種學(xué)究味，也缺乏充滿了理想、充滿了試驗(yàn)的設(shè)計(jì)運(yùn)動(dòng)和設(shè)計(jì)集團(tuán)，但是，市場(chǎng)機(jī)制本身卻不可否定地具有非常驚人的供求關(guān)系調(diào)節(jié)功能。也就是經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家亞當(dāng)·史密斯（Adam Smith）所說(shuō)的看不見(jiàn)的手的市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)神奇功能。市場(chǎng)機(jī)制決定了需要什么，不需要什么，為了符合市場(chǎng)需求，企業(yè)不得不提供不同的產(chǎn)品、包裝，利用各種各樣的廣告來(lái)促進(jìn)銷售，這種背景使美國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)得到比歐洲更加具體、范圍更加廣泛的發(fā)展。而這種發(fā)展與市場(chǎng)是密切相連的，與大批量生產(chǎn)是密切相聯(lián)的。美國(guó)早在20 世紀(jì)20 年代已經(jīng)是世界上工業(yè)化程度最高的國(guó)家之一了。1933 年，在經(jīng)濟(jì)大危機(jī)過(guò)去后，羅斯福實(shí)行經(jīng)濟(jì)宏觀改革的新政（New Deal）之后，美國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)進(jìn)入高速發(fā)展階段，特別是歷經(jīng)第二次世界大戰(zhàn)的發(fā)展，美國(guó)成為世界最強(qiáng)大的經(jīng)濟(jì)大國(guó)，具有強(qiáng)大的生產(chǎn)力和龐大的國(guó)內(nèi)市場(chǎng)，在開(kāi)始成熟的國(guó)際市場(chǎng)上擁有很大的占有率，憑借著這種經(jīng)濟(jì)力量，美國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)也得到高速的發(fā)展，美國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)教育也因而得到發(fā)展。憑籍著這種強(qiáng)大的國(guó)家經(jīng)濟(jì)實(shí)力，美國(guó)人雖然沒(méi)有多少類似包豪斯式的學(xué)院探索，但是，美國(guó)卻幾乎是輕而易舉地把歐洲人奮斗了20 年的這個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)理想在企業(yè)中、在市場(chǎng)上變成了現(xiàn)實(shí)，到包豪斯1933 年被希特勒封閉，大部分包豪斯原來(lái)的教員和學(xué)生移民到美國(guó)，他們發(fā)現(xiàn)了設(shè)計(jì)和設(shè)計(jì)教育試驗(yàn)的最佳土壤原來(lái)不是歐洲，而是美國(guó)。歐洲的觀念和美國(guó)的市場(chǎng)結(jié)合，終于在戰(zhàn)后造成轟轟烈烈的國(guó)際主義設(shè)計(jì)運(yùn)動(dòng)。

美國(guó)現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)的發(fā)展是非常不平衡的：雖然美國(guó)現(xiàn)代建筑市場(chǎng)需求量極大，高層建筑在19 世紀(jì)末和20 世紀(jì)初成為各個(gè)主要城市的建筑中心，也出現(xiàn)過(guò)像弗蘭克這樣的建筑大師，但是，一直到30 年代末期，美國(guó)也還沒(méi)有形成一個(gè)能夠與德國(guó)、俄國(guó)相比的現(xiàn)代建筑設(shè)計(jì)運(yùn)動(dòng)。這種情況一直到30 年代末，當(dāng)包豪斯的主要領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人物都移民來(lái)到美國(guó)以后，才出現(xiàn)了巨大的變化，因此，戰(zhàn)后美國(guó)發(fā)起的國(guó)際主義建筑運(yùn)動(dòng)，其實(shí)與德國(guó)現(xiàn)代主義有不可分割的千絲萬(wàn)縷的聯(lián)系。美國(guó)的工業(yè)產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)比世界上任何一個(gè)國(guó)家都發(fā)展得迅速和成熟。雖然德國(guó)的彼得·貝倫斯早在1907 年就開(kāi)始為德國(guó)電器公司設(shè)計(jì)家用電器，但是，德國(guó)的工業(yè)產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)直到第二次世界大戰(zhàn)爆發(fā)前夕，依然是遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)落后于美國(guó)，這個(gè)現(xiàn)象的原因可能與國(guó)家的經(jīng)濟(jì)情況、經(jīng)濟(jì)政策的重點(diǎn)、設(shè)計(jì)界和企業(yè)界對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)的基本立場(chǎng)和原則分不開(kāi)。美國(guó)的平面設(shè)計(jì)則從開(kāi)始就具有自己的特點(diǎn)，它的發(fā)展與廣告等促銷活動(dòng)密切關(guān)聯(lián)，因而，發(fā)展得非常迅速，戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間雖然也如同歐洲一樣，出現(xiàn)了為政治服務(wù)的平面設(shè)計(jì)運(yùn)動(dòng)―政治宣傳畫(huà)，但是，主流一直是商業(yè)的。在各種設(shè)計(jì)范疇中，美國(guó)顯得最為突出的是工業(yè)產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)，或者說(shuō)是工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)。

如果說(shuō)德國(guó)人對(duì)于設(shè)計(jì)的最大貢獻(xiàn)是建立了現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)的理論和教育體系，進(jìn)行了大量的試驗(yàn)，把社會(huì)利益當(dāng)作設(shè)計(jì)教育和設(shè)計(jì)本身目的，那么，美國(guó)對(duì)于世界設(shè)計(jì)的最重要的貢獻(xiàn)就是發(fā)展了工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)，并且把工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)職業(yè)化。由于美國(guó)的工業(yè)發(fā)達(dá)、經(jīng)濟(jì)成熟，美國(guó)是世界上第一個(gè)把工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)變成一門獨(dú)立職業(yè)的國(guó)家。而這個(gè)職業(yè)化的過(guò)程早在20 世紀(jì)20 年代末期已經(jīng)開(kāi)始在美國(guó)的紐 1 約、芝加哥等地開(kāi)始出現(xiàn)了

美國(guó)工業(yè)的一個(gè)重要的發(fā)展刺激因素是第一次世界大戰(zhàn)。戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)對(duì)于軍需用品和武器的需求大幅度增加，因而刺激了美國(guó)的工業(yè)發(fā)展。戰(zhàn)后，美國(guó)的工業(yè)進(jìn)入一個(gè)高速的發(fā)展階段。1918 年戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)結(jié)束后，美國(guó)戰(zhàn)時(shí)工業(yè)立即迅速轉(zhuǎn)向消費(fèi)品工業(yè)的生產(chǎn)，消費(fèi)品的生產(chǎn)無(wú)論從產(chǎn)量或者質(zhì)量來(lái)說(shuō)，都是當(dāng)時(shí)世界空前的。美國(guó)工業(yè)開(kāi)始進(jìn)人大批量生產(chǎn)階段，科學(xué)管理、流水生產(chǎn)線等等新的管理和生產(chǎn)方法都開(kāi)始被引人和采用。標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化和理性式的制度規(guī)范化是這次工業(yè)生產(chǎn)改革的中心。企業(yè)家盡量設(shè)法降低生產(chǎn)成本，提高產(chǎn)量，以達(dá)到創(chuàng)造更高利潤(rùn)的目的。另一方面，為了促進(jìn)市場(chǎng)的銷售，廣告、企業(yè)形象、商標(biāo)等種種促銷手段也開(kāi)始被廣泛采用，市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)日益激烈。

1927 年前后，美國(guó)的經(jīng)濟(jì)出現(xiàn)衰退的跡象。越來(lái)越多的小企業(yè)由于市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)失敗而破產(chǎn)，而這種經(jīng)濟(jì)衰退的惡劣發(fā)展情況，在1929 年的華爾街股票市場(chǎng)崩潰時(shí)達(dá)到頂點(diǎn)，美國(guó)全國(guó)進(jìn)入一次空前的經(jīng)濟(jì)大危機(jī)。危機(jī)延續(xù)了3 年之久，一直到1933 年羅斯?？偨y(tǒng)上臺(tái)，大規(guī)模采用“新政”的經(jīng)濟(jì)改革政策，改變美國(guó)以往政府對(duì)于宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)放任自流的基本立場(chǎng)，轉(zhuǎn)為大規(guī)模的從金融、投資、稅收、社會(huì)福利等等方面進(jìn)行干預(yù)，由國(guó)家投資進(jìn)行各種大規(guī)模的基本經(jīng)濟(jì)建設(shè)項(xiàng)目，用以工代販的基本原則來(lái)促進(jìn)就業(yè)，通過(guò)聯(lián)邦儲(chǔ)備系統(tǒng)對(duì)市場(chǎng)貨幣供應(yīng)量的宏觀調(diào)節(jié)來(lái)控制經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展。這樣，美國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)才重新出現(xiàn)復(fù)興的跡象。危機(jī)期間，企業(yè)為了生存，采用的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)手段更加激烈和強(qiáng)化，這是美國(guó)市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)技巧發(fā)展的一個(gè)重要的刺激因素，換言之，是美國(guó)現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)的發(fā)韌點(diǎn)。為了適應(yīng)市場(chǎng)需求，美國(guó)大企業(yè)，特別是汽車制造業(yè)在此時(shí)成立了汽車外型設(shè)計(jì)部門，雇用了專業(yè)的造型設(shè)計(jì)師，形成了最早的企業(yè)內(nèi)部工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)部門。另外一方面，由于市場(chǎng)需求日益增加，出現(xiàn)了一些獨(dú)立的設(shè)計(jì)事務(wù)所，根據(jù)客戶的要求從事工業(yè)產(chǎn)品、包裝、企業(yè)標(biāo)志和企業(yè)形象等方面的設(shè)計(jì)，這些設(shè)計(jì)事務(wù)所往往與大企業(yè)有長(zhǎng)期的合作關(guān)系，形成了活躍的設(shè)計(jì)市場(chǎng)活動(dòng)，也出現(xiàn)了美國(guó)第一代的工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師。

美國(guó)新一代的設(shè)計(jì)師，也就是我們稱為第一代的工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師就是在危機(jī)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)當(dāng)中產(chǎn)生的。他們與歐洲第一代現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)師不同，歐洲第一代設(shè)計(jì)師的背景基本上都是建筑師，同時(shí)他們都有堅(jiān)實(shí)的高等專業(yè)教育基礎(chǔ)，大部分是建筑專業(yè)畢業(yè)的，并且有長(zhǎng)期的建筑設(shè)計(jì)經(jīng)驗(yàn)。比如德國(guó)的彼得·貝倫斯、沃爾特·格羅佩斯、米斯·凡德洛、芬蘭的阿爾瓦·阿圖、荷蘭的烏德、比利時(shí)的亨利·凡德·威爾德、奧地利的約瑟夫·霍夫曼等等。美國(guó)的第一代工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師的專業(yè)背景也參差不齊，不少人甚至沒(méi)有正式的高等教育背景。他們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)的對(duì)象也比較繁雜，自從他們?cè)O(shè)立工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)事務(wù)所以來(lái)，他們可以說(shuō)從汽水瓶到火車頭都設(shè)計(jì)，對(duì)干歐洲人來(lái)說(shuō)，這樣龐雜的設(shè)計(jì)方向簡(jiǎn)直是不可思議的。而他們的設(shè)計(jì)方法也非常不一樣，往往比歐洲設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)間短、效率高、缺乏認(rèn)真的社會(huì)因素思考，而長(zhǎng)于市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。這些設(shè)計(jì)師都有非常特殊的設(shè)計(jì)表現(xiàn)能力，他們的設(shè)計(jì)預(yù)想圖都畫(huà)得比歐洲的同行漂亮，也講究商業(yè)談判的技術(shù)，因?yàn)樗麄兊哪康氖亲鲈O(shè)計(jì)生意，而不是研究設(shè)計(jì)的社會(huì)功能。他們都沒(méi)有什么理論和設(shè)計(jì)哲學(xué)，也不象他們的歐洲同行有那么多的著作，但是他們都設(shè)計(jì)了數(shù)量驚人的產(chǎn)品、包裝、企業(yè)形象，從設(shè)計(jì)的實(shí)用性來(lái)說(shuō)，他們比他們的歐洲同行發(fā)達(dá)得多，靈活得多，而從設(shè)計(jì)觀念來(lái)說(shuō)，他們又顯得淺薄。無(wú)論他們與歐洲設(shè)計(jì)的差別有多么大，但是，通過(guò)他們的努力，工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)卻終于成為市場(chǎng)促銷、市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的一個(gè)重要組成部分從而被美國(guó)市場(chǎng)、美國(guó)企業(yè)界接受，這是一個(gè)非常重要的成就。從此以后，工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)就在美國(guó)生根了。因此，可以說(shuō)，真正把工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)扎扎實(shí)實(shí)地扎人工業(yè)企業(yè)界的，是美國(guó)的第一代工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師們。

專業(yè)背景和教育背景的不同造成設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)展趨向不同，這是美國(guó)與歐洲設(shè)計(jì)的一個(gè)非常大的區(qū)別。與歐洲第一代工業(yè)產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)師的建筑設(shè)計(jì)背景完全不同，美國(guó)第一代的工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師不少人的專業(yè)背景是廣告業(yè)、商業(yè)藝術(shù)、櫥窗設(shè)計(jì)和其它展示設(shè)計(jì)行業(yè)，甚至是舞臺(tái)設(shè)計(jì)。這種背景使他們?cè)谠O(shè)計(jì)上與他們的歐洲同事有很大區(qū)別：建筑師比較強(qiáng)調(diào)設(shè)計(jì)的社會(huì)效應(yīng)、設(shè)計(jì)對(duì)于大環(huán)境可能造成的影響、現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)對(duì)于民族傳統(tǒng)的繼承性和發(fā)展性，以及設(shè)計(jì)本身的社會(huì)含義。他們對(duì)于設(shè)計(jì)師本身的文化和教育素質(zhì)的要求，對(duì)于嚴(yán)格的設(shè)計(jì)教學(xué)體系的建立非常重視，因?yàn)椋瑳](méi)有這樣的素質(zhì)和這樣的教育體系，是不可能培養(yǎng)出真正有責(zé)任感、有高度文化品味的建筑家的。而主要從事展示、2 促銷工作的設(shè)計(jì)師則比較講究短期的市場(chǎng)促銷效果，對(duì)干建筑設(shè)計(jì)師一向強(qiáng)調(diào)的那些社會(huì)因素比較淡漠。因?yàn)檎故驹O(shè)計(jì)的目的是促進(jìn)銷售，設(shè)計(jì)的產(chǎn)品具有積極的市場(chǎng)沖擊性，但是同時(shí)也具有短暫的、用畢即拋的特點(diǎn)，而并非制造出比較永恒的產(chǎn)品，建設(shè)起一個(gè)起碼可以屹立百年的建筑物，因此，美國(guó)的工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)師們對(duì)于設(shè)計(jì)形式造成的商業(yè)效果有明確的迫求，對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)的觀念，它會(huì)造成的社會(huì)影響作用則考慮不多。這種特征是由他們的職業(yè)背景造成的，原因是這些行業(yè)使他們對(duì)于商業(yè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)有比較切身的體會(huì)和認(rèn)識(shí)。這些行業(yè)還有另外一個(gè)日后成為工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的重要特點(diǎn)：集團(tuán)式的工作和嫻熟的商業(yè)談判習(xí)慣。商業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)需要一組人的同心協(xié)力，因而，他們都習(xí)慣于集體工作，習(xí)慣于與客戶打交道，習(xí)慣于與市場(chǎng)專家、市場(chǎng)調(diào)查人員聯(lián)系，對(duì)于形成工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)來(lái)說(shuō)，這是非常重要的一個(gè)特征。而這種特征在設(shè)計(jì)教育上的反映，就是對(duì)于表達(dá)技法的重視和對(duì)于設(shè)計(jì)觀念的淡漠，美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)教育目前依然具有非常鮮明的重技法、重表現(xiàn)技術(shù)和輕視觀念的特征。

美國(guó)是世界最大的經(jīng)濟(jì)強(qiáng)國(guó)，設(shè)計(jì)高度發(fā)達(dá)。80年代，由于美國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)的改變，特別是制造業(yè)的衰退和服務(wù)行業(yè)的日益強(qiáng)大，使設(shè)計(jì)業(yè)也發(fā)生了很大的改變，工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)逐步變成綜合設(shè)計(jì)，而不僅僅是針對(duì)產(chǎn)品的設(shè)計(jì)，這在本書(shū)第一章中有詳細(xì)的論述。而平面設(shè)計(jì)則因?yàn)槊浇榈霓D(zhuǎn)變，日益發(fā)展為多元媒體設(shè)計(jì)，這種趨勢(shì)目前依然在進(jìn)一步發(fā)展。

美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)是世界設(shè)計(jì)當(dāng)中的一個(gè)非常具有影響力、但是又非常獨(dú)特的組成部分。美國(guó)是一個(gè)由移民組成的新國(guó)家，沒(méi)有長(zhǎng)期的發(fā)展歷史，同時(shí)又沒(méi)有所謂單一的民族傳統(tǒng)，但是具有資本主義世界各國(guó)當(dāng)中最快的經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展速度，是目前世界上獨(dú)一無(wú)二的超級(jí)經(jīng)濟(jì)強(qiáng)國(guó)，擁有巨大的國(guó)內(nèi)市場(chǎng)，它的經(jīng)濟(jì)實(shí)力又使它具有相當(dāng)巨大的國(guó)際市場(chǎng)占有率。因此，形成許多與歐洲其它國(guó)家設(shè)計(jì)發(fā)展所不同的特點(diǎn)。

特點(diǎn)之一是美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)一向主張多元風(fēng)格，反對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)上的單一風(fēng)格壟斷。美國(guó)人對(duì)于單一設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格的厭惡是非常強(qiáng)烈的。歐洲設(shè)計(jì)經(jīng)常是單一性的，比如德國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)、荷蘭設(shè)計(jì)等等，這種設(shè)計(jì)上的統(tǒng)一性特征，或者英文稱為的monotheism，是美國(guó)人最不能忍受的，因?yàn)槊绹?guó)是一個(gè)多民族組成的國(guó)家，從人口組成上已經(jīng)具有多元特征，用同樣的風(fēng)格去適應(yīng)多元的民族組成，可以說(shuō)根本沒(méi)有可能。美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)上的反單一主義，是一個(gè)舉世聞名的特征，美國(guó)的建筑設(shè)計(jì)、產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)、平面設(shè)計(jì)、服裝設(shè)計(jì)等等，總是雜七雜八，什么風(fēng)格都有，體現(xiàn)了這個(gè)國(guó)家多民族的特征。由于美國(guó)是由移民組成的國(guó)家，因此沒(méi)有一種特別的民族特征是可以成為國(guó)家的基本設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格依據(jù)的，折衷主義于是就成為十分普遍的設(shè)計(jì)動(dòng)機(jī)。

另外一個(gè)顯著的特征，是美國(guó)人的幽默性。對(duì)于一個(gè)拿傳統(tǒng)和嚴(yán)肅的規(guī)范開(kāi)玩笑的特點(diǎn)，這種特征特別容易從美國(guó)的平面設(shè)計(jì)上看出來(lái)。比如交通標(biāo)志設(shè)計(jì)，在歐洲與日本都嚴(yán)格到幾近冷酷的地步，不許停車的標(biāo)志，往往都是一個(gè)P 字（英語(yǔ)停的首寫(xiě)字母），加上一個(gè)紅色的橫叉，沒(méi)有任何討價(jià)還價(jià)的余地。而美國(guó)雖然也用同樣的標(biāo)志，但是，往往還會(huì)加上一些令人高興的官方椰榆，比如從新澤西州穿過(guò)哈德遜河的“荷蘭人隧道”，因?yàn)榻煌O其繁忙，全線不許停車，因而設(shè)有不許停車的標(biāo)志，第一個(gè)是標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的有紅叉的P 字標(biāo)記，第二個(gè)標(biāo)記則是一句話：“我們是講真的！”，很快就有第三個(gè)標(biāo)記，也是一句話：“想都不要想在這里停車！”(Don ' t Even Think or Parking Here!）。這種幽默的交通標(biāo)記，全世界大約只有美國(guó)人會(huì)用，看到這些標(biāo)記之后，大家都會(huì)會(huì)心一笑，而遵守規(guī)則。類似的平面設(shè)計(jì)例子，比比皆是，難以一一列舉，筆者在美國(guó)近10 年，經(jīng)?？催@些標(biāo)志或者設(shè)計(jì)而捧腹，實(shí)在是很開(kāi)心的。比如美國(guó)人的活潑、天真、好動(dòng)、非權(quán)威化，造成美國(guó)人對(duì)于平面標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和設(shè)計(jì)符號(hào)的高度輕視，美國(guó)的平面設(shè)計(jì)是世界上最為活潑和趣味的一種，這與嚴(yán)肅的歐洲風(fēng)格來(lái)比，和浪漫的法國(guó)風(fēng)格來(lái)比，都具有很大的差別。美國(guó)人喜歡用文字做游戲，紐約設(shè)計(jì)家米爾頓·格拉斯（Milton Glass）設(shè)計(jì)的“我愛(ài)紐約！”就是一個(gè)非常典型的例子，以一個(gè)心型圖案代表愛(ài)字，生動(dòng)又有特點(diǎn)，這個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)傳遍世界各地，被以各種方式轉(zhuǎn)用。美國(guó)廣告設(shè)計(jì)的幽默是世界著名的，他們天性樂(lè)觀，經(jīng)常開(kāi)玩笑，這種性格自然從設(shè)計(jì)上表現(xiàn)出來(lái)，成為他們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)的一個(gè)特征。美國(guó)人常常說(shuō)：如果都可以達(dá)到功能目的，為什么要那么嚴(yán)肅？這種民族 3 心態(tài)，是他們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格形成的一個(gè)重要基礎(chǔ)。

美國(guó)同時(shí)又是一個(gè)高度民主的國(guó)家，國(guó)家的中心組成是中產(chǎn)階級(jí)，因而，美國(guó)人對(duì)于法國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)上那種為權(quán)貴服務(wù)為中心的精英主義（elitism）也有非常強(qiáng)烈的反感，他們認(rèn)為設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)該是為大眾的，是人人可以共享的。反精英主義構(gòu)成美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)觀念的另外一個(gè)特點(diǎn)。

美國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)是外國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)的綜合體現(xiàn)，各國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)運(yùn)動(dòng)都在美國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)上有所體現(xiàn)。比如德國(guó)包豪斯設(shè)計(jì)影響美國(guó)整個(gè)建筑與設(shè)計(jì)教育體系、戰(zhàn)后的瑞士國(guó)際主義平面設(shè)計(jì)影響美國(guó)全國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格等等，都是很好的例子。但是，卻沒(méi)有任何一種風(fēng)格能夠完全征服美國(guó)，美國(guó)的借鑒是折衷的、調(diào)侃的、戲謔的、歡樂(lè)的、自我為中心的。

美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)的另外一個(gè)重要的特征是高度商業(yè)化。德國(guó)人的現(xiàn)代主義運(yùn)動(dòng)在很大程度上是一個(gè)社會(huì)運(yùn)動(dòng)，設(shè)計(jì)家們都具有強(qiáng)烈的社會(huì)責(zé)任感和使命感；美國(guó)的現(xiàn)代主義大師們則基本集中于市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，如何通過(guò)設(shè)計(jì)使企業(yè)取得市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的勝利是他們的主要關(guān)心，因而，在某種程度上，美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)沒(méi)有歐洲那么觀念化、哲學(xué)化、理論化，而趨于實(shí)用化、商業(yè)化。它也不象意大利設(shè)計(jì)那樣個(gè)人化，原因是美國(guó)的大批量工業(yè)生產(chǎn)不能承擔(dān)個(gè)人化設(shè)計(jì)帶來(lái)的小批量生產(chǎn)的萎縮結(jié)果。

美國(guó)人自己并不把自己的設(shè)計(jì)看得多么了不起，他們出版的書(shū)籍著作、雜志期刊上的論文，大篇幅的主要是介紹歐洲、日本的設(shè)計(jì)，而對(duì)于自己的設(shè)計(jì)，除了建筑之外，很少提及，這與歐洲各國(guó)、日本對(duì)于自己的設(shè)計(jì)的自豪態(tài)度形成非常強(qiáng)烈的對(duì)比。而歐洲人在討論現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí)也明顯地貶低美國(guó)人，英國(guó)出版的各種討論設(shè)計(jì)史的著作當(dāng)中，美國(guó)人的貢獻(xiàn)好像除了流線型風(fēng)格之外，一無(wú)所有。

如果我們要綜合美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)特征，我以為特征是如下幾個(gè)方面：

實(shí)用主義

折衷主義

商業(yè)主義

多元化

非精英主義

平面設(shè)計(jì)上的幽默性

對(duì)于世界流行風(fēng)格的隨波逐流特點(diǎn)

美國(guó)的現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)該說(shuō)是有幾個(gè)完全不同的發(fā)展線索。其一是美國(guó)的汽車設(shè)計(jì)，這是從通用汽車公司1923 年開(kāi)始擔(dān)任總裁的F ·斯隆開(kāi)始發(fā)展出來(lái)的一套體系，目的主要是通過(guò)汽車外型的改觀來(lái)達(dá)到市場(chǎng)促銷的目的，因此稱為式樣化（Styling), 這種設(shè)計(jì)的目的是所謂的“有計(jì)劃的廢止制度”(Planned obsolescence)，利用改變外型來(lái)達(dá)到產(chǎn)品老化目的，促進(jìn)銷售。美國(guó)的這個(gè)體系從汽車設(shè)計(jì)開(kāi)始，以后影響到其它的方面，形成現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)的一個(gè)重要的組成部分。

第二條線索是從德國(guó)包豪斯體系演變出來(lái)的現(xiàn)代建筑設(shè)計(jì)體系。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)期間，包豪斯的主要領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人物都紛紛移民美國(guó)，從而把歐洲的現(xiàn)代主義帶到美國(guó)，經(jīng)過(guò)美國(guó)的高等院校設(shè)計(jì)教育，特別是建筑設(shè)計(jì)教育，而形成戰(zhàn)后的國(guó)際主義風(fēng)格，影響世界。關(guān)于這點(diǎn)，我們?cè)谟懻搰?guó)際主義風(fēng)格時(shí)進(jìn)行詳細(xì)的探討。

第三條發(fā)展線索是工業(yè)產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)。雖然德國(guó)等國(guó)很早就開(kāi)始了現(xiàn)代工業(yè)產(chǎn)品的設(shè)計(jì)，但是，美國(guó)是真正把工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)變成一個(gè)職業(yè)的國(guó)家。

以上三條線索是平行發(fā)展的，互相之間雖然有所影響，但是各自具有本身的獨(dú)立性，這是美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)的非常重要的特色。只有象美國(guó)這樣的歷史短暫、移民組成的國(guó)家，才可能發(fā)展出設(shè)計(jì)上的這種多元并存的特征。

美國(guó)的平面設(shè)計(jì)具有上述的幽默、自由特色，而美國(guó)的工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)卻更多地受到工業(yè)生產(chǎn)的限制，因此沒(méi)有平面設(shè)計(jì)那么自由。受到市場(chǎng)因素過(guò)多的影響，美國(guó)工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)于重視以有計(jì)劃的廢止制度為中心的設(shè)計(jì)方式，講究流行風(fēng)格對(duì)于銷售的刺激，而美國(guó)國(guó)民對(duì)于設(shè)計(jì)的意識(shí)水平是西方國(guó)家中比較低的，這幾個(gè)方面的因素使美國(guó)的工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)在世界發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家中相對(duì)水平比較低下。

美國(guó)國(guó)民設(shè)計(jì)意識(shí)和設(shè)計(jì)品味的低下的主要原因，是沒(méi)有一個(gè)意識(shí)與品味的引導(dǎo)因素。歐洲各國(guó)具有悠久的歷史傳統(tǒng)，權(quán)貴階級(jí)、特別是皇室和貴族對(duì)于設(shè)計(jì)的追求，造成社會(huì)和國(guó)民設(shè)計(jì)的品味標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，雖然大眾不可能享有那些昂貴的產(chǎn)品，但是起碼他們知道什么是高品味的設(shè)計(jì)，有一個(gè)追求的目標(biāo)。而美國(guó)自從立國(guó)以來(lái)就沒(méi)有過(guò)一個(gè)社會(huì)的權(quán)貴階級(jí)存在，也沒(méi)有過(guò)貴族社會(huì)，因此，難以形成一個(gè)影響品味和設(shè)計(jì)意識(shí)的核心。美國(guó)人講究生活方便，不再乎產(chǎn)品式樣的品味，因而造成美國(guó)有大量高水平的發(fā)明創(chuàng)造，而缺乏高水平的工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)。美國(guó)的產(chǎn)品方便、安全、耐用、合理，但是難看，是很典型的。問(wèn)題不在于設(shè)計(jì)水平，首先是社會(huì)根本沒(méi)有強(qiáng)烈的對(duì)于設(shè)計(jì)的要求，所有的要求都集中在功能和價(jià)格上，美國(guó)消費(fèi)者對(duì)干除功能與價(jià)格之外的造型因素的要求是非常低的。這種背景，造成美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)上的高度發(fā)達(dá)的功能主義、實(shí)用主義和價(jià)格考慮，而唯獨(dú)缺乏高品味的、高水準(zhǔn)的外型設(shè)計(jì)，包括美國(guó)人最引以自豪的汽車設(shè)計(jì)，也是經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)嘩眾取寵、虛張聲勢(shì)的趨向，缺乏歐洲或者日本汽車那種三易其稿、九朽一罷的設(shè)計(jì)上的精心思考和推敲。

典型的例子之一是亨利·德萊弗斯設(shè)計(jì)事務(wù)所設(shè)計(jì)的“寶利來(lái)”即時(shí)照相機(jī)（Polaroid), 從這種只有美國(guó)生產(chǎn)的照相機(jī)的觀念上，就可以看出美國(guó)人追求方便的習(xí)慣。為了達(dá)到高度方便的功能、為了達(dá)到簡(jiǎn)單的性能要求，這種照相機(jī)在設(shè)計(jì)上不顧整體性外型，把各種各樣的功能構(gòu)件都附加上，外型缺乏統(tǒng)一、完整性，這在歐洲或者日本都是不能想象的設(shè)計(jì)上的缺點(diǎn)，而美國(guó)人卻行若無(wú)事，已經(jīng)使用這個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)好多年了。

從另外一個(gè)方面來(lái)看，美國(guó)是一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)高度發(fā)達(dá)的移民國(guó)家，社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜、種族結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜、經(jīng)濟(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜，造成美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)上極大的多元化狀況，可以說(shuō)世界上任何一種主要的設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格和設(shè)計(jì)方式在美國(guó)都存在，世界上大多數(shù)重要的設(shè)計(jì)家都在美國(guó)有自己的市場(chǎng)。美國(guó)人一方面不在乎設(shè)計(jì)精細(xì)，而對(duì)于各種各樣的設(shè)計(jì)也有最大的寬容度，設(shè)計(jì)的兼收并蓄式的多元化是美國(guó)工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的另外一個(gè)顯著特點(diǎn)。

美國(guó)的設(shè)計(jì)受到平面設(shè)計(jì)影響很大，因?yàn)槠矫嬖O(shè)計(jì)具有很高的娛樂(lè)性，非常符合美國(guó)人的性格，其中一個(gè)很大的特點(diǎn)，就是對(duì)于語(yǔ)言的興趣。美國(guó)人在平面設(shè)計(jì)上經(jīng)常以語(yǔ)言為中心發(fā)展，特別是幽默性的發(fā)展，看看美國(guó)重要的知識(shí)分子雜志《紐約客》（New Yorker）上的漫畫(huà)就可以了解美國(guó)人如何重視語(yǔ)言在設(shè)計(jì)上的作用。《紐約時(shí)報(bào)》（New York Times）藝術(shù)主編斯蒂芬·赫勒（steven Helier）曾經(jīng)說(shuō)：他們（指美國(guó)人）喜歡游戲語(yǔ)言文字，因?yàn)樗麄兊膫鹘y(tǒng)就是玩語(yǔ)言文字游戲的。美國(guó)的平面設(shè)計(jì)具有兩個(gè)最重要的中心：紐約和加利福尼亞。前者是美國(guó)現(xiàn)代平面設(shè)計(jì)的發(fā)源地，其積極的商業(yè)風(fēng)格和幽默特點(diǎn)，影響了美國(guó)平面設(shè)計(jì)的總體發(fā)展；后者則代表了美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)上最自由、最前衛(wèi)的特征，同時(shí)也是最早采用新手段、包括電腦設(shè)計(jì)在內(nèi)的地區(qū)，在80 年代末和90 年代以來(lái)對(duì)于美國(guó)的影響特別大。加利福尼亞不但是美國(guó)設(shè)計(jì)師的集中地區(qū)，同時(shí)也是世界最杰出的設(shè)計(jì)家集中的地區(qū)，許多世界著名的設(shè)計(jì)家都來(lái)加州設(shè)立自己的設(shè)計(jì)事務(wù)所或者從事自由撰稿設(shè)計(jì)業(yè)務(wù)，對(duì)于豐富此地的設(shè)計(jì)和增強(qiáng)設(shè)計(jì)理論起到很大作用。這不但體現(xiàn)在平面設(shè)計(jì)上，在工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)和建筑設(shè)計(jì)上也是如此，美國(guó)目前大部分重要的工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)事務(wù)所、建筑設(shè)計(jì)事務(wù)所都在加利福尼亞州有自己的設(shè)計(jì)部門，世界主要的汽車公司，包括歐洲的八大汽車廠、日本的八大汽車公司、美國(guó)的三大汽車公司的設(shè)計(jì)總部都設(shè)在洛杉磯附近，就是一個(gè)很好的例子。