第一篇:英語活動設計第三章講義
上饒幼兒師范高等專科學校教學講義
學前英語活動設計講義
一、教學內(nèi)容:學前英語教育活動設計
第三章學前英語知識教學活動設計與模擬教學
二、教學方法:講授法、情景教學法、口頭交際法、練習法、小組合作學習等。
三、作業(yè)內(nèi)容:掌握26個字母的正確書寫方法
學會教授字母,詞匯和對話,并組織英語活動
四、教材頁碼:P34-P66
五、考試考查方式:期末考試
六、講授提綱時間:周四上午三、四節(jié)
七、教學講義
第三章學前英語知識教學活動設計與模擬教學
第一節(jié) 字母與語音教學活動設計與模擬教學
一、學前英語字母與語音的基本內(nèi)容概述
英語字母教學作為英語教學的基礎,是小學英語教學中的重要一環(huán)。字母教學是幼兒英語學習的起始,由于幼兒所掌握的英語知識十分有限,字母教學容易陷入單一枯燥的學習氛圍中,我們的英語教學應該朝著省時高效、充滿趣味的方向發(fā)展。
(一)字母教學的基本內(nèi)容 1.內(nèi)容與目標:幼兒英語字母教學包括 26 個字母的讀音、字母的辨認和字母的書寫三項內(nèi)容。教學的目標是在教師的指導下,讓幼兒達到能辨認字母的音和形,讀準字母,按正確的筆順和規(guī)格 書寫以及按順序背誦和默寫字母,初步掌握字母在單詞中的基本讀音,為進一步學習單詞的讀音和拼法 打下基礎。2.字母教學的順序:按英語字母表的自然順序教學。優(yōu)點:便于幼兒課后復習,使幼兒熟悉字母的順序,也方便幼兒通過唱字母歌迅速記憶字母。缺點:無規(guī)律可循,學習過程枯燥。
先教 5 個元音字母,按照字母的讀音分類教學。A /ei/: h, k, j E /i:/: b, c, d, g, t, p, v, z I /ai/: y 036 第三章學前英語知識教學活動設計與模擬教學 O /?u /:o U / ju: /:q, w /e/: f, l, m, n, s, x, z
3.字母的讀音教學:(1)簡化字母的讀音教學;(2)強化個別字母教學;(3)注重讀音歸類教學;(4)豐富字母讀音操練;
4.字母的書寫教學:(1)字母形的教學;(2)字母書寫教學;(3)書寫姿勢;(4)字母筆順教學;(5)字母格式教學;(6)豐富字母的讀音操練。
字母書寫的規(guī)格如下。② 字母的斜度約 5°,單詞與單詞之間間隔一個小寫字母 a 的距離; ③ 小寫字母只占中間一格的必須頂天立地,含有字母i, t 的點和橫線最后寫,橫線可以連寫。④ 類似于 d, o, g 等圓形字母的要封口。書寫姿勢書寫要做到“一拳,一寸,一尺”。也就是說,坐時胸部和桌邊相距一拳,身體自然放松;握筆時大拇指與食指離筆尖一寸距離,筆桿向身體方向稍有傾斜;眼睛與練習本之間的距離為一尺。
(字母筆順教學由于英語字母有印刷體和書寫體之分,幼兒在書寫時容易將它們混淆,教師在教學時應多在這方面進行強調(diào),特別是字母的筆順很難在作業(yè)中體現(xiàn)出來。講解書寫方法時,首先教師要明確自己所教的字體。英語書寫的字體有三種最基本的類型,分別是圓體、斜體和直體?,F(xiàn)行小學英語教材用的書寫字體叫勻筆斜體行書,是屬于斜體字的一種。它比粗細筆的斜體行書要簡單易學。① 字母的書寫大寫字母都寫在第一第二格,上不頂格,但下要站在書寫基線上,書寫基線就是第三條線。筆畫要從上向下,字體要朝左傾斜寫,如果只有一條書寫基線,大寫字母就應站在此線上,字體高度要一致,例: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 一筆完成的大寫字母有 C G J L O S V W Z 兩筆完成的大寫字母有 B D K M N P Q R T U X Y 三筆完成的大寫字母有 A E F I H 它們的基本筆順都是從上到下,從左到右,先外后內(nèi)。小寫字母不管是寫在中格、上中兩格還是中下兩格都要寫滿格。但有四個字母例外,它們是 I,j,f,t。字母書寫的規(guī)格如下。② 字母的斜度約 5°,單詞與單詞之間間隔一個小寫字母 a 的距離; ③ 小寫字母只占中間一格的必須頂天立地,含有字母i, t 的點和橫線最后寫,橫線可以連寫。④ 類似于 d, o, g 等圓形字母的要封口。
(二)語音的基本內(nèi)容
1.音標的含義:。狹義上的“音標”就是指英 語音標。本文提到的音標都是指英語音標或英語國際音標。
音標的分類音標的種類繁多,美國有美國的音標(KK 音標),英國有英國的音標(DJ 音標),在英國還有牛津、劍橋自己出的音標,加上民間出版的韋氏音標、新國際音標,版本非常多。在眾多版本中,使用較普遍的有英國的 DJ 音標和 IPA 音標,以及美音的 KK 音標。(1)元音(29 個)念長元音時,一定要注意音的長度。學長元音時的通病是,念的長度不夠,甚至念得和短元音一樣。念短元音時,一定要念得短而自然。一般來說,清輔音前的短元音應念得非常短。發(fā)雙元音時由一個元音向另一個元音滑動,口型有變化。前一個元音發(fā)音清晰響亮,且時間長;后一個元音發(fā)音模糊軟弱,且時間短。① 單元音(18 個)前元音: /i:/ /i/ /e/ / ? / 中元音: /?:/ /?/(美式特有音素/?:r/ /?r/)后元音: /a:/ /?/ /?:/ /?/ /u:/ /u/(美式特有音素/a/ /a:r/ /?:r/ /?r/)② 雙元音(11 個)合口雙元音(特點:其第二組成部分為/i/或/u/)/ai/ /ei/ /au/ /?u/ /?i/ 集中雙元音(特點:其第二組成部分為/?/,美式為/?r/)/i?/ /ε?/ /u?/(美式特有音素/i?r/ /ε?r/ /u?r/)(2)輔音(28 個)發(fā)清輔音時聲帶不震動。發(fā)濁輔音時幾乎不送氣,聲帶震動。(3)鼻音(3 個)發(fā)音時軟腭下垂,使氣流從鼻腔逸出而產(chǎn)生的一種語音。雙唇鼻音/m/:map 齒齦鼻音/n/:nap 軟顎鼻音/?/:hang(4)濁輔音(4 個)這四個發(fā)音非常相似。聲門擦音/h/:ham 齒齦無擦通音/r/:run 齒齦邊音/l/:left 軟腭化齒齦邊音/l/:cancel
二、學前英語字母與語音的教學方法
(一)字母的教學方法 1.利用卡片 2.唱歌學字母
3.結合單詞進行字母教學 4.模仿 5.字母體操 6.示范、臨摹書寫法 7.游戲法
(1)搶讀字母 將全班分為若干小組,然后教師逐個出示一些字母卡片,幼兒們舉手搶答,看哪個組的幼兒讀得又 快又準。
(2)聽音舉卡片 教師發(fā)出指令:“Show me the big letter A.”或“Show me the small letter e.”等,看誰舉得快、記得牢。
(3)點名 教師準備 26 張字母卡片,大小寫字母寫在同一張卡片上,然后將卡片的順序打亂,幼兒每人抽一張,卡片上的字母即為幼兒的名字,然后教師任意點字母,持該卡片的幼兒馬上站起來說“Here I am.”,并 出示卡片讓大家檢驗。
(4)找搭檔 教師準備 52 張字母卡片,大小寫分開寫,將卡片順序打亂分給幼兒,擊鼓傳花,鼓聲停在誰處,該 生站起來出示字母,與他對應的大寫或小寫字母馬上跑過去,兩個人一起舉卡片,并大聲朗讀。
(5)接龍 幼兒分組游戲或全班游戲。由第一個人抽出一張反扣的字母卡片讀出該字母,按順序其后一個同學 馬上讀出該字母后的字母,并依次讀完,直至完成全部所學字母。
(6)猜字母 教師出示一些與字母極像的圖案或?qū)嵨?,讓幼兒運用想象力去猜測和辨認,看看像什么字母。
(7)字母畫 教師設計藏有不同字母的畫,讓幼兒看圖,找出圖中所藏的大小寫字母,并將所找到的字母標 在該圖下,看誰找到的字母多,還可以讓幼兒用大寫或小寫字母自創(chuàng)一幅圖,與同桌互相練習找 字母。
(8)聽音辨字母 這是一個訓練幼兒辨別容易混淆字母的游戲。教師可將易混的字母分別寫在紙上,如 G, J, Q, W 等,共準備 2~4 套,同時將幼兒分成 2~4 個小組,每組抽一名幼兒上前,面向全班站立,教師發(fā)給每個人 一套卡片(2~4 張為宜)。游戲開始時,教師念其中的一個字母,幼兒應立即找出并高舉起該字母。先 找對的得 2 分,后找對的得 1 分,沒找對的不得分。最后得分最多的組獲勝。
(9)字母滾雪球 這是一個訓練幼兒記憶字母能力的游戲。把幼兒分成若干組或男女兩組。游戲開始時,第一個幼兒 說一個字母(如 B),第二個幼兒在后面任意加上一個字母(如 B, E),然后依次進行(如 B-BE-BEK-BEKG-BEKGL?),說錯了(即說的前幾個字母與前面說的不一致)就被淘汰,說得多而準確的 小組為勝。
(10)找元音字母 將全班幼兒分為兩組,發(fā)給兩組幼兒一些卡片,這些卡片中既有元音字母,又有輔音字母。教師說“開始”后,持有元音字母卡片的幼兒應立即舉著卡片到前面來按次序站隊,先按次序站好隊的組 獲勝。
(11)按順序接力讀寫字母 老師可按照橫或豎的順序讓幼兒背誦或書寫字母,并隨機停下,再由另一排的幼兒接著背、寫,也 可隨機指定某個幼兒背或?qū)懀@樣可使幼兒的注意力更為集中。
(12)What’s missing? 老師手上拿著若干張字母卡片,先給幼兒看一遍再抽走一張,問幼兒“What’s missing?”,猜得又 對又快的獲勝。
(13)按編號找字母 老師在黑板上寫下若干字母,并在字母的下面寫上相應的號碼,老師說編號幼兒讀字母,或者老師 讀字母幼兒說編號。
(14)招兵買馬 字母分類課采用“招兵買馬”的游戲,5 個元音字母是司令,其他字母是小兵。A 司令的小兵:H, K, J E 司令的小兵:B, C, D, G, P, T, V I 司令的小兵:Y O 是一個光棍司令 U 司令的小兵:W, Q /e/是一個假司令,它的小兵:F, L, M, N, S, X, Z R 是一個流浪兵。
(15)搶答字母組 將全班分成兩個小組,并把兩套字母卡片分別發(fā)給各組幼兒。游戲開始,教師用中文說:“美國”“中 華人民共和國”??持有這些字母卡片的幼兒應立即快速站起來并舉起字母“USA”“PRC”??答得 既快又準的小組獲勝。
(16)加加減減成字母 規(guī)則:老師在黑板上寫出一些字母,請同學們加上或減去一筆,使其成為另外一個字母。
(二)音標的教學方法 1.認讀游戲:學習48個國際音標如同一年級小朋友學漢語拼音一樣,有一個音與形的認識過程。
2.聽辨音游戲:要培養(yǎng)幼兒正確的語音,聽力反應是相當重要的。聽辨音游戲可分為兩類:一類是書面練習,另一類可以利用音標卡片來舉一反三地做出許多種游戲。3.拼讀游戲 學習國際音標的主要目的是培養(yǎng)幼兒的拼讀能力。
三、學前英語字母與語音的教學設計
(一)學前英語字母教學設計
教學對象:幼兒園小班 教學內(nèi)容:Mummy A,Baby a,Mummy H,Baby h 教學過程: Step 1 warm-up 熱身
Game 1: Watch the video(Mummy A,Baby a,Mummy H,Baby h 的故事)Step 2 presentation 呈現(xiàn) Game 2: A magic bag 魔法袋
T: I have a magic bag(內(nèi)裝 4 張字母卡).Guess, guess, guess, what's in it?(走到一名幼兒前)Look!Touch it and guess.What's this?(幼兒若答對了,就將字母卡暫時獎勵給他/她)Yes, great!Here you are.(直到 將所有字母卡都獎勵完為止)Step 3 practice 練習
Game 3: Look for friends 找朋友
教師隨機請拿到卡片的幼兒讀卡片上的字母,這時拿著相應大寫(或小寫)字母卡片的幼兒站起來響應,并出示字母卡片領讀。再讓拿到大寫(或小寫)字母卡片的幼兒去找小寫(或大寫)字母配對。
Game 4: High-low voice 大小聲 教師手上拿著 A, a, H, h 四張字母卡片,拿大寫字母時,用大聲讀,拿小寫字母時,用小聲讀,即 A(大聲), a(小聲), H(大聲), h(小聲)。
Game 5: What's missing? 找失物 教師手上拿著 A, a, H, h 四張字母卡片,在幼兒看清后教師說“Look carefully, please.”隨后教師抽去字 母 h,手里只剩 A, a, H 三張卡片,再問“What’s missing?”要求幼兒迅速說出所缺的字母 h。
Game 6: What's it? 猜一猜 T: 塔尖下面藏根藤,是哪個字母?(A)T: 一雙筷子栓小繩,是哪個字母?(H)T: 自家房子背上背,是哪個字母?(a)T: 一把椅子面前擺,是哪個字母?(h)Game 7: Listen and find 聽一聽,找一找 請一個幼兒上前被蒙上眼睛,再請另一個幼兒上前說出一個字母。然后教師說:“Now, Let’s listen and find who is speaking.”被蒙上眼睛的幼兒此時取下蒙眼布,根據(jù)聲音判斷,找到說話的幼兒。這時,所有 幼兒一起說這個字母。
Step 4:production 鞏固
Game 8: Look for my babies 找寶貝 幼兒圍成一圈,教師給兩名幼兒分別發(fā)大寫字母卡 A 和 H,其余幼兒拿任意一張小寫字母卡,教師 帶領幼兒按故事視頻內(nèi)容,由 mummy A 和 mummy H 分別把自己的 babies 帶回家。Step 5: extension 延伸
Game 9: Fingers up 手指字母操 T: 帶領幼兒進行肢體書寫字母練習T: One/two/three-A, A 是尖塔下面藏根藤。T: One, two-a, a 是自家房子背上背。T: One/two/three-H, H 是一雙筷子栓小繩。T: One, two-h, h 是一把椅子面前擺。T: 帶領幼兒在律動中結束新課,提醒幼兒回家后和爸爸媽媽一起表演手指字母操。
(二)學前英語語音教學設計 1.教學目標
(1)學習2 個元音音素[ i: ]、[i], 和 3 個輔音音素[p]、[b]、[m],掌握正確的發(fā)音方法。
(2)訓練幼兒通過 2 個元音和 3 個輔音組合進行簡單拼讀音標的能力,以及正確練讀包含[i:]、[i]、[p]、[b]、[m]的詞、短語、句子。
(3)正確書寫 Bb, Ii, Mm, Pp 這 4 個字母和 [i:]、[i]、[p]、[b]、[m]這 5 個音標。
(4)培養(yǎng)幼兒學習英語的興趣、熱情,以及與同伴之間的合作意識。2.課前準備
教師:錄音機、相關磁帶、圖片詞卡、一根細線、一張白紙、26 個字母卡片、以及[i:]、[i]、[p]、[b]、[m]的音標卡片以及相關卡片。
幼兒:“p, b, m, l”4 個字母的卡片,以及[i:]、[i]、[p]、[b]、[m]的音標卡片。3.教學過程(1)復習熱身。
① 師生日常交談后,唱歌曲《ABC》。(復習26 個英語字母的讀音)② 看誰反應快。教師任意出示 26 個英語字母卡片,幼兒讀出字母的讀音。(2)新課呈示。引入:(T: We have five new friends, today.)① 教授[i:]的發(fā)音。教師示范[i:]——穿針引線音,邊示范邊用拇指和食指捏住線從左向右拉,同時,解說發(fā)音要領,即[i:]在發(fā)音時,舌尖抵下齒,前舌中部最高,嘴唇向兩旁伸開,成扁平形。幼兒模仿,比一比,誰的發(fā)音最佳,并給予恰當?shù)脑u價。② 教授[i]的發(fā)音。教師示范[i]——微笑露酒窩音,邊示范邊將手掌張開放到頭上向自己的方向揮動。同時,解說發(fā)音要領,即[i]在發(fā)音時,舌尖抵下齒,前舌后部最高,舌前部向硬顎抬起比[i:]低些,下顎稍 下垂,舌前部也稍下降。請幼兒從 26 個英語字母中,找出哪些字母的發(fā)音包含[i:]。(答案有 Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Gg, Pp, Tt, Vv)
③ 教授[p]的發(fā)音。教師出示一張白紙,放在嘴前,示范發(fā)音,紙會顫動。要求幼兒注意:發(fā)[p]時,雙唇緊閉,形成阻塞,氣流經(jīng)雙唇從口腔沖出,送氣有力,聲帶不振動。[p]不響亮,單發(fā)[p]時,在遠處 幾乎聽不見。開火車比賽發(fā)音,(p——p——[p] [p] [p]),(運用 p——p——[p] [p] [p]這樣有節(jié)奏的 練習發(fā)音,充滿趣味性,幼兒會學得非常有興趣)
四、學前英語字母與語音模擬教學
(一)幼兒園小班英語教案 A-P 的字母和單字
(二)幼兒園英語教案 就餐
第二節(jié) 詞匯教學活動設計與模擬教學
一、學前英語詞匯的內(nèi)容概述
詞匯是語言的基本材料,是語言的三要素之一。英語詞匯包括單詞、短語和習慣用語。根據(jù)學前兒童學習英語的特點,學前英語詞匯教學主要是以單詞和簡單的短語為主,掌握一定數(shù)量的詞匯是幼兒學好英語的基礎。詞匯是學前英語學習的重要內(nèi)容,在學前英語教育的活動中,幼兒通過基本生活詞匯的積累,通過簡單的交際,體驗說英語的快樂。
(一)詞匯在英語基本技能的培養(yǎng)中的作用 1.詞匯在聽力中的重要性在聽、說、讀、寫、譯的全面發(fā)展中,聽是先鋒??死暝f,“無論兒童或成年人,在語言習得中,頭等重要的是聽力理解”。聽是獲得語言信息及語言感受的主要途徑,也是提高其他技能的重要途徑之一。在教學中,加強聽力訓練,有助于英語學習者獲得全面的語言應用能力,所以在任何一個階段的英語教學中都應該加強聽力訓練這一觀點已得到大家的共識,這是無可置疑的,但聽力訓練一直是教學中的弱點,英語學習者往往對聽力考試望而生畏。如何提高他們的英語聽力水平是擺在廣大英語教學研究者面前一個值得探討的課題。
2.詞匯在口語中的重要性眾所周知,我們學習語言,無論是哪一種語言,其最終的目的都是交流?;仡櫽⒄Z口語教學的歷史,“啞巴英語”一直都充當著一個常見的角色。尤其是在農(nóng)村的英語教學中,口語簡直就是沒有用兵之地,不僅僅因為當?shù)氐奈幕R水平低下,而且因為教師自身的素質(zhì)和知識水平有限??谡Z能力強并不代表英語交際能力強,也并不是說英語的語音標準、發(fā)音準確就一定說明英語的交際能力強。當然,高水平的英語交際能力是包含所有因素的,如語音標準,詞匯量豐富,大膽開口等。而詞匯量的豐富就是口語的最有用的“助手”,何以見得呢?口語是用來交流的平臺,要做到有話說,就必須要有詞匯來表達自己的思想和意思。詞匯量越多就越能表達得清楚生動,就越能讓聽者有更深刻的理解,這就是人們交流的意圖。
3.詞匯在閱讀中的重要性提高英語學習者的閱讀理解能力是英語教學的主要目標之一,在完成閱讀理解題時,因為對一些生詞理解得不準確影響了對文章的理解,使答題的正確率降低。所以學習者通過掌握猜測生詞的技巧來提高閱讀理解能力是非常必要的。猜測詞義主要是根據(jù)上下文進行邏輯推理,在具體的語言環(huán)境中用他們所熟悉的詞語來推測不熟悉的生詞的詞義。如果有一個生詞在這一系列的同一范疇的詞語中,可以通過這些詞語的一段特征和語義范圍推斷出生詞的詞義范圍。當然,生詞的解決,關鍵要看詞匯量,還是要加強學習者的單詞量,在實際學習中運用。
4.詞匯在寫作中的重要性可以想象,如果要寫一個句子,10 個單詞中有 8 個單詞拼寫錯誤或拼寫不出,有 2 個單詞用法不當,又怎么能清楚地表達自己的思想呢?因此,在平時的教學中教師要強調(diào)學生記憶單詞的重要性,記住單詞的拼讀、用法、意思等。記憶單詞的方法有很多,各人有各人的記憶方法和習慣,可因人而異。教師可通過要求學生朗讀單詞、聽寫單詞、默寫單詞、遣詞造句、詞匯競賽等多種方法促進學生記單詞。記憶單詞是一個長期的反復的過程,要堅持下去,這樣才能不斷積累大量的詞匯,為英語寫作打下堅實的基礎。
5.詞匯在翻譯中的重要性翻譯是英語學習的一個重要部分,也是在交際能力中的一個很好的體現(xiàn)。說到底,在單詞、短語、句子、語篇的翻譯中,不都是定位于最基層的那一部分——單詞嗎?要想準確地翻譯句子,就必須有豐富的詞匯量。這些詞匯包括同義詞、反義詞、褒義詞、貶義詞等,就如一個句子有多種表達法一樣。詞匯量的豐富帶來的不只是視覺上的舒服、讀者的耳目一新,還有就是譯文的多姿多采,更是英語能力水平提高的反映。
(二)幼兒英語詞匯的選擇
1.生活性:選擇與幼兒生活經(jīng)驗有直接聯(lián)系的詞匯
教師所選擇的英語詞匯應是幼兒日常生活所能接觸到的高頻率的、實用性強的詞匯,涉及幼兒的日常生活用品、食物、交通工具、自然現(xiàn)象等,如“water”、“cup”“bed”“milk”等,2.趣味性:選擇幼兒特別感興趣的詞匯
幼兒活潑好動,除了經(jīng)常接觸日常生活的物品名詞外,幼兒還對伴有情緒色彩和動作的詞匯非常感興趣。如動詞“jump”“run”“walk”等,表示色彩的名詞“red”“white” “blue”等,表達美感和情緒的形容詞“beautiful”“l(fā)ove”“hungry”等。3.交際性:選擇服從于交際活動需要的詞匯
教師要盡量選擇能與常用生活交際句型相結合的詞匯,從交際溝通的需要來選擇詞匯。這樣,才能做到詞不離句,即將詞匯教學最終與常用句型相結合,組成句子,使詞匯學習由靜態(tài)走向動態(tài),這就在語言教學活動中,突出了語言的交際功能,使幼兒能學以致用、活學活用。單詞教學是小學英語教學的主要內(nèi)容,是必不可少的一個重要環(huán)節(jié)。如果單詞掌握得不好,要熟練應用英語是不可能的。但英語單詞教學并不是簡單地要求幼兒死記硬背。這就要求教師要利用多樣化的教學手段,充分調(diào)動幼兒的學習積極性,讓單詞教學與娛樂融為一體,讓單詞教學過程充滿生機與活力。
二、學前英語詞匯的教學方法
(一)激發(fā)學生對新詞匯興趣的教學法 1.利用實物呈現(xiàn)單詞 2.利用圖片呈現(xiàn)單詞 3.簡筆畫呈現(xiàn) 4.課件呈現(xiàn) 5.運用體態(tài)語呈現(xiàn) 6.運用游戲呈現(xiàn)單詞 7.謎語呈現(xiàn)法 8.利用兒歌韻律教學法
(二)創(chuàng)設語境教學法 1.利用對話記憶單詞 2.利用英文歌曲教授詞匯 3.讓學生在聽故事中學習詞匯
(三)單詞操練形式力求靈活多樣
1.跟讀 跟讀是指教師教讀或者跟著錄音讀,這對于剛剛學習英語的較小幼兒來說非常必要。由于他們還沒 有學習音標,還不能自己學習單詞的發(fā)音,要掌握單詞的發(fā)音,就必須先跟讀。
2.指名讀 這是檢測幼兒是否掌握了單詞讀音的一個好方法。教師教讀過后,就可以有針對性地點幾個幼兒讀 一讀,以檢測幼兒是否掌握了該單詞的讀音。3.開火車讀 教師出示某一個單詞,讓某一組的同學一個接一個地讀。這種方式的優(yōu)點在于它能激發(fā)幼兒的競爭 意識,同時也能幫助那些對單詞發(fā)音掌握不太好的幼兒,讓他們在聽了別人的發(fā)音后,及時更正自己的 發(fā)音。
4.分組讀 分組讀是一種常見的操練形式,既可以分小組讀,也可以分男女組讀。幼兒在這種競賽的氛圍中進 行操練,對單詞掌握得比較牢固。
5.齊讀 齊讀也是操練單詞的一種常見方式。但要注意的是在齊讀過程中教師要注意監(jiān)控課堂,以防有些同學“濫竽充數(shù)”。
(四)單詞游戲種類
1.單詞認讀 老師快速地展示一張卡片,卡片上的單詞可以是大寫字母,也可以是倒寫的大寫字母,還可以是反 著寫的小寫字母。然后迅速把卡片放下,讓幼兒說出卡片上的單詞。
2.畫星 這是一個拼詞活動。老師出示一張卡片,如 s___,幼兒能在規(guī)定的時間內(nèi)拼寫出這一單詞,則畫上 一筆。一個五角星要十筆才能畫完,先畫完五角星者為勝方。
3.變換字母 老師展示一個單詞,如 make,然后讓幼兒更換其中的一個字母,使其變成新的單詞,如果有多種 改法,應盡可能全部說出。
4.快速寫詞 老師用卡片展示一個英語字母,幼兒則用這個字母作為首字母拼寫出新的單詞,如以字母 D 為首 字母的單詞:desk, doctor, door, dog 等,并把它們寫在黑板上,在規(guī)定的時間內(nèi)拼寫出的單詞越多 越好。
5.拼讀單詞列隊比賽 將全班分成兩組,教師發(fā)給每個幼兒一張字母卡片,不常用的字母(如 Q,Z)可以一人多拿幾張。游戲開始,教師說一個單詞,如 ship,或出示一張輪船的圖片,兩個小組中持 S, H, I, P 字母的幼兒應 立即站到講臺前按順序站好隊,先按正確次序排好隊的為優(yōu)勝。
6.拼單詞對抗賽 將全班分成若干小組,對抗賽在兩個小組中進行。在教師宣布游戲開始后,第一組的第一名幼兒立 即用中文說出一個單詞(如自行車),第一組的第二名幼兒應立即將這個單詞說出來,說錯或不能迅速 說出單詞的記負分,最后哪組扣分最少為優(yōu)勝。
7.摸鼻子 這是訓練幼兒聽單詞并快速作出反應的游戲。
三、學前英語詞匯的教學設計 水果的英語單詞學習
四、學前詞匯模擬教學 大班英語(學習單詞)
第三節(jié) 對話教學活動設計與模擬教學
一、學前英語對話教學案例
二、學前英語對話教學概述
(一)學前英語對話的選擇 1.英語對話的選擇應體現(xiàn)實用性
2.英語對話的選擇應注意語法結構的簡單化,要適合幼兒的年齡特點 3.英語對話的選擇要突出情景性
(二)幼兒英語對話教學的方法與手段
幼兒英語對話教學基本教學環(huán)節(jié)主要有:warming up—presentation—practice—consolidation。Warming up 階段要充分調(diào)動孩子的學習興趣;presentation 階段的目標是讓幼兒接觸目標語言,感知 語音與語意;practice 階段主要是讓幼兒通過一些簡單活動進行語言操練;consolidation 階段是讓幼兒 在一些場景中運用語言。
三、學前英語對話的教學方法與注意事項
(1)幼兒口語的培養(yǎng)是一個從語音不準確到準確、從內(nèi)容有錯到少錯再到不錯、從不熟練到較熟練以至于形成習慣的過程。作為幼兒英語教師要自始至終地有耐心、細心、恒心,不能有絲毫偏差,否則會誤人子弟。(2)在句型、對話教學中,要以操練和扮演等游戲活動為主,并訓練幼兒的交際能力。(3)日常交際用語的教學活動要堅持“課前三分鐘、課后不放松、見面就開口、天天練習有恒心” 的原則。(4)堅持聽說結合、學用結合、課內(nèi)外結合,讓幼兒養(yǎng)成開口的習慣。(5)讓幼兒完整地感知對話。幼兒對事物的感知是整體的、直覺的,因此,教師不要割裂幼兒對對話的整體感知,不要一句一句拆開孤立地呈現(xiàn),更不必拆開對話進行語法分析,而應讓幼兒在背景中完整感受和欣賞對話,這樣才能更符合幼兒的心理特點,從而更有利于幼兒的理解和記憶。(6)對話和情景相結合。教師在具體組織英語對話教育活動時,要善于創(chuàng)設對話發(fā)生的真實場景,并輔以形象的實物和動作,讓幼兒借助于情景,更好地感知、理解和運用對話中的句子。(7)對話的學習和使用要有趣味性。教師可通過具體情景中角色扮演的方法來進行對話的學習,讓幼兒扮演對話中的某一個角色,邊進行表演邊操練對話,這樣既提高了對話學習和使用的趣味性,又能 063 第三章學前英語知識教學活動設計與模擬教學激發(fā)幼兒開口用英語交流的欲望,提高幼兒語言表達的能力。(8)對話的操練和運用要有層次性。小班幼兒往往以自我為中心,不會和同伴主動交際,教師可利用泛靈論的特點,創(chuàng)設環(huán)境讓幼兒與小木偶、動物進行交流與對話,如由教師扮演一個動物角色,其他幼兒集體扮演另一個動物角色,引導幼兒與小動物進行對話。教師在小班幼兒的對話教學活動中,要由始至終鼓勵幼兒多開口。中班的對話操練和使用,可與真實的人物角色進行交流,如幼兒與教師分別扮演真實生活中的角色進行對話,或讓幼兒與教師指定的個別能力較強的幼兒進行角色對話。大班則鼓勵幼兒與幼兒之間,即同伴的平等的角色扮演和對話交流。如此有層次地進行操練,就能不斷提高幼兒語言使用的主動性,擴大幼兒對話交流使用的覆蓋面。
第二篇:VI設計講義
VI設計講義
主講:胡艷珍
教學提綱:
第一章 CI概述
第一節(jié) CI的產(chǎn)生背景 第二節(jié) CI發(fā)展沿革 第三節(jié) CI的概念與構成
第二章 CI的價值功能及導入
第一節(jié) CI的價值與功能 第二節(jié) CI的導入
第三章 VI設計(視覺識別系統(tǒng)設計)
第一節(jié) VI的概念與CI、MI、BI的關系 第二節(jié) VI的構成 第三節(jié) VI的基礎設計系統(tǒng)一、企業(yè)名稱
二、標準標志
三、標志變形
四、標準字體
五、印刷字體
六、標準色彩
七、輔助色彩
八、要素編排
九、色帶組合
十、象征紋樣
十一、吉祥物 第四節(jié) VI的應用設計系統(tǒng)一、辦公用品類
二、旗幟類
三、指示標識類
四、資料類
五、環(huán)境與陳設類
六、服裝服飾類
七、運輸工具
八、公共禮品類
九、產(chǎn)品包裝類
十、廣告宣傳類
十一、其他
第四章 VI手冊制定
第一節(jié) VI手冊編輯的目的及形式 第二節(jié) VI手冊管理
第三節(jié) VI手冊的編輯原則及設計規(guī)定 第四節(jié) VI手冊的裝幀設計
第五章 VI設計操作流程及市場調(diào)研
市場調(diào)研
優(yōu)秀設計案例賞析(幻燈及多媒體)綜合考核作業(yè) VI設計
第一章 CI概述
第一節(jié) CI的產(chǎn)生背景
CI(Corporate Identity)是指企業(yè)形象的統(tǒng)一識別系統(tǒng),它的產(chǎn)生有其深刻的歷史背景。
一、CI的興起,首先在50年代的美國。原因有三:
1、首先是企業(yè)經(jīng)營管理的需要
50年代,美國經(jīng)濟高速發(fā)展,新企業(yè)紛紛成立,大型企業(yè)經(jīng)營趨向國際化,此時迫切需要有一套系統(tǒng)的企業(yè)形象塑造方法,以體現(xiàn)企業(yè)的經(jīng)營思想,給消費者制造視覺沖擊和識別差異,從而提高企業(yè)在市場中的競爭力。
2、其次是車輛文化的社會背景
美國的交通在50年代得到大力發(fā)展,交通的發(fā)達帶來了服務業(yè)的迅速發(fā)展,加油站、餐廳、旅館、停車場等應運而生,為了吸引駕駛員,這些店鋪都設計的簡單明了;車輛文化在建筑物、廣告、標志等視覺設計上,要求規(guī)范,易于消費者認同和識別。
3、再者是工業(yè)設計學的興起
工業(yè)設計學是由上世紀20年代德國“包豪斯設計學院”創(chuàng)辦的,二戰(zhàn)后,工業(yè)設計在制作高質(zhì)量的批量產(chǎn)品過程中,作用明顯增強。同時,工業(yè)設計學的興起,也為CI的設計制作提供了方法,比如:有了設計的概念,有了制作的手段,加工工藝有了質(zhì)的飛躍等。
這一切營造了CI需求的大環(huán)境,造就了CI形成的良好時機。
二、日本緊隨美國之后CI推向了一個新的高度
1、信息時代的來臨
信息時代是CI產(chǎn)生并廣為推行的客觀基礎。
2、新時代、新價值觀的沖擊
由于時代的變革,CI成為新價值觀、新的管理觀念、新時代企業(yè)的象征。
3、競爭方式的改變 商業(yè)間的競爭,從“商品力”和“銷售力”競爭的時代轉(zhuǎn)向了與“形象力”三足鼎立的時代。
第二節(jié) CI發(fā)展沿革 現(xiàn)代意義的CI發(fā)展軌跡:
本世紀初意大利的“奧利維蒂”牌打火機非常重視企業(yè)標識的設計。
1914年德國的AEG電器公司將其商標在系列化的電器產(chǎn)品上展開統(tǒng)一性的應用。
奧利維蒂和AEG可以看作是CI的雛形,但不是真正意義上的CI。
美國:20世紀50年代的IBM開創(chuàng)了CI的先河 20世紀70年代的可口可樂導入CI 日本:1971年,日本第一銀行與勸業(yè)銀行合并,導入CI,一藤百貨同年也成功的完成了形象更新,隨后NTT、大榮百貨等許多公司紛紛導入CI。臺灣:上世紀70年代末,臺灣食品業(yè)味全公司,為臺灣樹立了CI開發(fā)的典范。中國:上世紀80年代末期90年代初,廣東“太陽神”成功導入CI。
第三節(jié) CI的概念與構成
CI是將企業(yè)經(jīng)營理念與精神文化,運用整體傳達系統(tǒng)(特別是視覺傳達系統(tǒng))傳遞給企業(yè)的關系者或團體(包括企業(yè)內(nèi)部與社會大眾)的企業(yè)文化活動。
CI是Corporate Identity System,簡稱為CIS 或CI,被翻譯為企業(yè)形象統(tǒng)一識別系統(tǒng),即CI系統(tǒng)、CI設計等。
CI是一個龐大的系統(tǒng),是由理念識別(MI)、行為識別(BI)、視覺識別(VI)三部分構成:
1、理念識別——簡稱MI(Mind Identity)理念識別是整個CI系統(tǒng)的核心和原動力,因為它規(guī)劃著企業(yè)內(nèi)部的主導思想和觀念精神,制定經(jīng)營策略、經(jīng)營信條、決定企業(yè)性格等。從其包含的內(nèi)容看,MI是CI的靈魂所在,CI的最高決策者。
麥當勞公司之所以成為世界最大的快餐集團,與之明確的推行極具特色的經(jīng)營理念“Q、S、C、V”分不開的,“Q、S、C、V”即Quality(質(zhì)量)、Service(服務)、Cleanness(清潔)、Value(價值)。
2、行為識別——簡稱BI(Behaviour Identity),行為活動識別是以明確完善的企業(yè)經(jīng)營理念為核心,指定企業(yè)內(nèi)部的制度、組織管理、教育、行為等。另外企業(yè)的社會公益活動、贊助活動、公共關系等動態(tài)識別也屬于行為識別范疇。
3、視覺識別——簡稱VI(Visual Identity)視覺識別是CI的靜態(tài)識別,它通過一切視覺符號將企業(yè)的基本精神及差異性進行充分表達,使消費者和社會大眾識別并認知。VI是由一個完整的視覺系統(tǒng)所構成,包括基本設計系統(tǒng)和應用設計系統(tǒng)兩部分。VI設計是本次課程所講的重點內(nèi)容。
第二章 CI的價值功能及導入 第一節(jié) CI的價值與功能
1、總結和提升企業(yè)的歷史、信仰、所有權、技術、文化、人員素質(zhì)等。2、3、4、5、確立企業(yè)和產(chǎn)品在市場中的地位和特征。創(chuàng)造企業(yè)文化。保證信息傳播的一致性
最終目的是通過提高企業(yè)形象來增強企業(yè)的知名度,提高產(chǎn)品的競爭力,使企業(yè)在獲得生產(chǎn)要素配置時始終處于優(yōu)先地位。
第二節(jié) CI的導入
1、導入時機的確定
2、導入周期
3、導入的關鍵性問題
4、CI的投資與發(fā)布
5、具體項目的導入
6、導入后的實施管理和運行維護
7、CI的效果評估
第三章 VI設計(視覺識別系統(tǒng)設計)
第一節(jié) VI的概念與CI、MI、BI的關系
VI是Visual Identity——視覺識別的英文簡稱,它借助一切可見的視覺符號在企業(yè)內(nèi)外傳遞與企業(yè)相關的信息。VI對外傳達企業(yè)的經(jīng)營理念與情報信息,它能夠?qū)⑵髽I(yè)識別的基本精神及其差異性,利用視覺符號充分的表達出來,從而使消費公眾識別并認知。
在企業(yè)內(nèi)部,VI則通過標準識別來劃分生產(chǎn)區(qū)域、工種類別,統(tǒng)一視覺要素等,以利于規(guī)范化管理和增強員工歸屬感。在CI的整個構成中,MI是核心部分,是精神實質(zhì),是根
基。能夠為CI汲取營養(yǎng),是知道CI方向的依托。BI是企業(yè)規(guī)定對內(nèi)及對外的行為標準,是企業(yè)形象的載體,是傳遞CI的媒介物,是架在MI、VI之間的橋梁;VI是外在的具體形式和體現(xiàn),是最直觀的部分。它以形式美感染人、吸引人、是人們最容易注意到,并形成形象記憶的部分。
如果用一棵樹來形容CI,在這里MI就是樹根,BI就是樹枝、樹干,VI則是樹葉、花朵。
第二節(jié) VI的構成
VI是由兩大部分組成的,一個是基本設計系統(tǒng),另一個是應用設計系統(tǒng)。如果用一棵大樹做比喻,基礎設計系統(tǒng)是樹根,是VI設計的基本元素;應用設計系統(tǒng)是樹枝、樹葉,是整 9 個企業(yè)形象的傳播媒體。
在基本設計系統(tǒng)中,又以標志、標準字體、標準色為核心,一般稱為VI的三大核心,整個VI設計系統(tǒng)完全建立在三大核心所構成的基礎之上。而標志又是核心之核心,它是促成和形成所有視覺要素的主導力量。
由于各企業(yè)的性質(zhì)不同,在其應用設計系統(tǒng)的項目中,側重不盡相同,它需要根據(jù)實際情況進行取舍,呈現(xiàn)出復雜多變的應用體系,但無論什么企業(yè),基本設計系統(tǒng)的內(nèi)容都大同小異。第三節(jié) VI的基礎設計系統(tǒng)一、企業(yè)名稱
企業(yè)名稱往往會因時代的變遷而不適應于信息傳遞,因此不但是新建企業(yè)要考慮企業(yè)名稱,老企業(yè)也會根據(jù)需要更換企業(yè)名稱。因此企業(yè)名稱一方面要符合法規(guī),同時也要在思想性、獨特性、措辭明確性、文字明了性、適應廣泛性、國際性等方面進行把握。
二、標準標志(標志課已經(jīng)上過了,這里只講一講有關VI設計的企業(yè)標志)
標志是非語言性的圖形符號,它以各種精練的形象表現(xiàn)一定的含義,傳達明確的信息,有利于傳播和記憶,能起到語言和文字難以完成的作用。
在VI設計中,企業(yè)的標準標志是核心之核心,VI中所涉及的圖形、字體、色彩、組合模式,無一不滲透著標準標志所蘊涵的理念,企業(yè)標志通過含義明確、造型單純的符號形象,將企業(yè)的精神面貌、行業(yè)特征等充分表現(xiàn)出來,是以小見大的典型,是企業(yè)圖形的最高境界
1、標志設計原則 企業(yè)標志在設計中,應遵循以下原則: A、以MI為核心 B、賦予人情味 C、不脫離民族特色 D、順應時代潮流 E、遵守法律原則
2、標志設計的途徑與方法
標志造型的確立可以通過下列途徑和方法得以實現(xiàn): 聽取客戶的主觀要求和設計意向,了解企業(yè)的經(jīng)營理念和未來展望,分析其經(jīng)營內(nèi)容、行業(yè)特征。
廣羅同行業(yè)標志的中外案例。
分析同行業(yè)標志的創(chuàng)意基礎和造型特點,目的在于探索通用語言的特征,尋找設計方向。
歸納表現(xiàn)對象的語言形式并加以表現(xiàn)。A、尋找關鍵詞
B、確定形象落點,造型目標 C、出具多種不同的設計方案 D、繪制設計初稿。
3、標志釋意
標志釋意就是對標志意義的文字性詮釋。可以從以下幾個部分去說明:
1)構成要素——包括造型要素的來源說明,造型要素的特點等。
2)圖形意義——標志雖然是經(jīng)過提煉的簡潔圖形,但是從何而來,又如何提煉,表現(xiàn)了什么內(nèi)容,應該特別加以說明,以表明造型意義的準確、巧妙、及不同凡響。3)色彩意義——色彩是表現(xiàn)圖形個性的另一方面,為標志專門搭配的色彩,是特別用于傳達某中特殊意義的,所以也要進行文字詮釋。
4、標志標準制圖方法
企業(yè)標志是企業(yè)形象的核心要素,在使用中精確的復制是非常重要的,這就需要合理便捷的標準制圖,讓制作者有章可循,依圖制作。常見有以下幾種制圖的方法:
1)尺寸標注法,標出標志圖形的具體尺寸,如長、寬、高、半徑等。如圖。通常辦公用品如信封、信紙、名片等的標準標注采用此方法。
2)方格標注法:當標志圖形比較特異時采用,通常格子越密集,制作和復制越精細。通常標準標志和標準字體常采用此方法制圖。
3)比例標注法:選取標志圖形的某一個局部尺寸作為基準參數(shù),令其為n,或其他代碼,其余的筆畫粗細、間隔距離等,均為n的倍數(shù)關系,如直徑為3n,筆畫為1.5n等。
4)圓弧角度標注法
若標志中圓弧造型,斜線造型較多,為了方便復制和制作,可表明圖形的弧度和角度。
5)坐標標注法
依據(jù)水平、垂直兩個坐標,確定造型邊緣各關鍵點的位置,這適合與特異形狀的圖形制作方法。
5、標志圖形的矯正
標志圖形在應用中,除了有因復制不精確造成的走形外,還可能因為放大縮小、色彩變化、印刷等原因造成一些錯覺或不應有的變化因此,為避免出現(xiàn)一些不良效果,個別標志圖形 應確定切實的矯正方案,以備在特殊情況下使用。
奧運標志是我們熟悉的圖形,它是由藍、黃、黑、綠、紅,五色環(huán)構成的,由于五個色明度差異較大,五環(huán)看起來有粗有細,這個問題是色彩變化引起的,為了視覺上的平衡舒適,設計者適當進行了調(diào)整,五環(huán)粗細比例為藍、黃、黑、綠、紅=1:1.3:0.92:1:1,這樣改變之后,五環(huán)看起來粗細就比較均勻了。
美能達公司標志圖形中5條帶有弧度的白色線條,準確的反映了公司所從事的光學儀器的行業(yè)特點,然而當標志縮小使用時中間的五條白線回形成一片模糊,分不清彼此,為此設計師提供了修正方案,如圖。
味全公司標志是由五個完全相同的圓形相切而成,構成了一個W的樣式,表現(xiàn)五味俱全的意思,然而當標志圖形縮小印刷時圓形中間原由的白色回縮小甚至完全被油墨覆蓋,這是因為印刷時油墨擠壓造成的。為此設計師提供了修正方案,如圖。
標志圖形在放大縮小時所產(chǎn)生的意外變化,原因多種多樣,修正的辦法也要因圖制宜。通常在標準標志制圖時,要有標志最小尺寸的規(guī)定。
三、標志變形
在廣告宣傳、設計裝飾或一些特殊場合,需要強化標志認同時可以采用標志的變形樣式——經(jīng)過夸張或重新組合變化后的標志。
變形標志以不損害標準標志的設計理念和形象特征為原則,抓住原標志的造型或主體意義特征進行延伸變化。其內(nèi)容包括單色(一般為黑色或反黑)、空心、反白和變形等,這其中單色、空心、反白是必須有的變化樣式,變形的內(nèi)容則根據(jù)標 志特征和意義進行個性化表現(xiàn)。
標志變形的設計手法是在原由標志基礎上,采用夸張延展特征、線條化、截取局部造型、直接變化外形、立體化、基本要素重組、夸張局部造型、添加形象、綜合等設計手法。
四、標準字體
標準字體與標準標志一樣,是企業(yè)文化的一種象征,包括中英文標準字體。標準字體以獨具風格的文字形象出現(xiàn)在各種場合。在設計上要求具有強烈的個性與美感,易于閱讀,與標志風格具有統(tǒng)一性等。
標準字體的中英文字體雖在結構上有極大的差別,在設計上卻應該力求風格統(tǒng)一。
標準字體在設計變化上通常在原有電腦字體的基礎上采用筆畫變形、筆頭變化、筆頭與筆畫均變化、連筆處理、添加裝飾、筆畫夸張出位等手法。
在標準字體設計時需要注意:
1、標準字體與標志一樣,要能反映企業(yè)的特定和性格。
2、要保持中英文在形式上的一致性,既可以協(xié)調(diào)統(tǒng)一,也可以對比互襯。
3、字體形式不要太過求異,要易于辨認。
五、印刷字體
在廣告文案和企業(yè)的行文中經(jīng)常要甬道一些印刷字體,這些字體也是要實現(xiàn)設定的。印刷字體不需要特別設計,只是在現(xiàn)行的字庫中選擇一套或多套與其形象和風格匹配的字型即可。外文印刷字體也用同樣的方法選定。
六、標準色彩
標準色彩是企業(yè)特定的色彩,用于強化刺激及增強對企業(yè)的識別,如可口可樂公司的紅色就是色彩運用最成功的例子之 一。
企業(yè)標準色包括標準色和輔助色兩大類。標準色通常采用1—3種色單獨或組合使用,標準標志的色彩一般作為標準色使用。選定標準色要給出標準的色值,以保證在制作工藝中的準確度,一般情況下,表明C、M、Y、K的數(shù)值即可。多套標準色彩中也分主次關系。
七、輔助色彩
標準色在應用中,常顯單調(diào),需要一些相應的色彩作為輔助色來使用。輔助色的設計要注意與標準色之間的協(xié)調(diào)關系,以及與用色環(huán)境及對象的協(xié)調(diào)。選擇輔助色一般采用標準色的同類色、臨近色、淺色系、深色系、對比色。
八、要素編排
標志、標準字體、標準色等基本要素在設計完成后,就是基本要素的編排和組合?;疽氐慕M合方式包括:
1、標準標志與中英文全稱的組合
2、標準標志與中英文簡稱的組合
3、標準標志與中文全稱、簡稱、及品牌名稱的組合
4、標準標志與英文全稱、簡稱、及品牌名稱的組合
5、橫排組合樣式
6、豎排組合樣式
為了確保應用的規(guī)范統(tǒng)一,可明確指出禁止使用的編排樣式,例如“不允許的排列樣式、行間過大、字間過大、彎曲變形、任意排列等”。
九、色帶組合
色帶組合是編排模式中的特殊類型,它是通過色彩的延伸和擴張表現(xiàn),賦予企業(yè)形象更強烈的個性特征,色帶在廣告牌、車體等傳播媒體中作用顯著。
標準色彩是色帶的重要表現(xiàn)元素,企業(yè)標志在色帶組合中也可以靈活應用,既可以用其標準樣式,也可以用局部或變形樣式,標準字體的使用,分為全稱使用和品牌字使用。
色帶組合設計手法的歸納:
1、方向——左或右橫向延伸,上和下縱向延伸,特殊角度的傾斜延伸
2、色彩——在色帶表現(xiàn)中多彩配合使用時,注意標準色中主輔色的比重處理,單色使用時,多以主色使用為主。
3、標志圖形與色帶樣式的組合——色帶的表現(xiàn)要盡量配合標志的造型特征,一般多采用標志與色帶交接處相互嵌合的手法自然結合,也常有以色帶直接襯托標志的重疊手法來表現(xiàn)。
4、色帶的造型處理——大多情況下,色帶以橫向、縱向、斜向長條樣式延展,色彩多以單色平涂來表現(xiàn),也有用漸變色、漸變圖形來表現(xiàn)的。
十、象征紋樣
象征紋樣是通過變化多樣的裝飾紋樣,補充企業(yè)標志等造型要素所缺乏的豐富和靈活,象征紋樣采用多種組合方式,裝飾效果非常強烈,常用在包裝紙、購物袋、面料裝飾及禮品設計上。取材方式:將基本形直接取用、局部取用、變形取用,組合排列。構成手法:二方連續(xù)紋樣,作為邊飾應用。四方連續(xù)紋樣,大面積使用。單獨紋樣,單獨裝飾使用。
十一、吉祥物
吉祥物是為了強調(diào)企業(yè)性格、配合廣告宣傳為企業(yè)專門設計創(chuàng)作的人物、動物或植物等擬人化形象,借以活躍企業(yè)形象,以動感形態(tài)引起人們注意,為企業(yè)在消費者心中建立親切感,拉近企業(yè)與消費者之間的距離。第四節(jié) VI的應用設計系統(tǒng)一、辦公用品類
辦公用品包括名片、信封、信紙、便箋、傳真紙、公文袋等事務性用品以及發(fā)票、預算書、介紹信、合同書等。
名片的標準規(guī)格為55mm×90mm。
信紙常見尺寸的規(guī)格為:184mm×260mm、216mm×279.5mm(信紙的標準尺寸)、210mm×297mm 信封的常見規(guī)格有: 小號——220mm×110mm 中號——230mm×158mm 大號——320mm×228mm 辦公用品的設計宗旨:注重功能區(qū)域的位置保留和設計要素的有機配合。設計要素包括標準標志、中英文標準字體、標準色、聯(lián)系方式、象征紋樣等。
二、旗幟類
企業(yè)門前飄揚的司旗,辦公桌上的桌旗,道路兩邊的豎旗,慶典活動中的掛旗等,旗幟的種類、形式非常豐富,可根據(jù)企業(yè)特點選擇使用,利用旗幟可以將企業(yè)標志、標準色,名稱等基本要素做充分的展示,并可以獲得明顯的效果
三、指示標識類
指示標識是表示商品和企業(yè)存在的標志,是對辦公室和企業(yè)位置的確認,各種設施的指南,功能區(qū)域的區(qū)分,它包括接待大廳內(nèi)樓層分布圖,樓梯見的樓層標識,指路標識牌、分區(qū)標識牌、辦公室門牌,公共設施標志牌,警示牌以及廣告塔等,另外還包括胸牌、徽章等。
四、資料類
招標書、培訓教材、文件夾、光盤、軟盤等企業(yè)對內(nèi)、對外的資料。
五、廣告宣傳類
公司指南、內(nèi)部刊物、企業(yè)形象廣告、產(chǎn)品廣告、產(chǎn)品目錄,宣傳手提袋等手屬于廣告宣傳類,這是推廣企業(yè)視覺形象最直接、最重要的部分,也是工作量較大,變化較多的一部分。
1)形象推廣招貼、報紙廣告、雜志廣告 2)路牌廣告
3)燈箱、霓虹燈、夜晶廣告、4)電視廣告 5)宣傳手冊和禮品袋
六、環(huán)境與陳設類
作為標識設計的延伸,不僅要統(tǒng)一建筑物設計的內(nèi)外觀形象,而且工廠、辦公室環(huán)境設計也是非常重要的,特別是店鋪、會客廳、連鎖店等更應注重設計分割的一致性。
七、服裝服飾類
統(tǒng)一的員工服裝,是使員工產(chǎn)生歸屬感的一種有效手段,同時也便于管理,并為企業(yè)帶來整齊劃一的視覺效果。
員工的服裝應視其工作性質(zhì)、工作崗位制定不同的樣式,選用不同的面料,服裝造型一要符合工身份,二要符合人體工學,三要考慮流行趨勢,四要注意色彩協(xié)調(diào)搭配。
員工服飾主要有辦公服、工裝、禮服、飾物(領帶、領結、絲巾、別針、領帶夾、扣子等)、雨具(雨傘、雨披)、T恤等。
八、運輸工具 營業(yè)用車輛、運輸用車輛、作業(yè)用車輛等,屬于運動著的傳播媒體,是企業(yè)宣傳的重要渠道。車體是流動的形象載體設計區(qū)域相對較大,但由于其運動的特性視覺印象大多為瞬間的,應次應以基本形象表現(xiàn)為重點。
九、公共禮品類
公共禮品類是企業(yè)為聯(lián)絡各方面感情的媒介物,因此無論選擇怎樣的禮品造型其設計重點都在于配合其材質(zhì)和色彩,突出企業(yè)的基本要素,從而隨著禮品的發(fā)放傳播美好的企業(yè)形象。
十、產(chǎn)品包裝類
產(chǎn)品的造型與色彩都應體現(xiàn)出企業(yè)的個性,同時也要照顧產(chǎn)品特征,而包裝作為商品的鏡子,有時比商品本身還重要,直接影響著企業(yè)的形象。
十一、其他
科技的進步,社會的發(fā)展,不斷出現(xiàn)新的傳播媒體,例如網(wǎng)絡媒體的迅速成長,將網(wǎng)上形象的推廣迅速的推向前臺。許多企業(yè)都希望有一個特別的網(wǎng)上形象。多媒體技術的日益普及,還將帶來更多、更新的應用項目。
第四章 VI手冊制定
第一節(jié) VI手冊編輯的目的及形式
編輯目的:VI系統(tǒng)的設計開發(fā)完成后,應及時的建立一套規(guī)范而有效的手冊,VI導入工作中作為指南性工具,從而保證VI的有序及條理性導入,VI的應用品質(zhì)。
編輯形式:
一、為基本設計系統(tǒng)和應用設計系統(tǒng)合訂方式;
二.基本設計系統(tǒng)和應用設計系統(tǒng)分冊方式
三、應用設計手冊依項目再細分冊的方式 裝訂方式:由于VI是前進著的,在導入過程中回不斷的加以矯正和增減,因此其裝訂一般為活頁式。第二節(jié) VI手冊管理
嚴格遵守手冊的相關規(guī)定,在企業(yè)內(nèi)部真正貫徹和執(zhí)行形象標準,沒有特殊原因,手冊內(nèi)容不應隨意擴散。第三節(jié) VI手冊的編輯原則及設計規(guī)定
編輯原則:在手冊的編輯過程中,首先應將企業(yè)理念作為根本貫徹始終;其次手冊的設計風格與整體的視覺形象保持一致,尤其是要通過手冊的版面編排樣式將設計意圖充分體現(xiàn)。
設計規(guī)定:
1、尺寸標注:許多項目都是在標準的尺寸環(huán)境中實現(xiàn)的,如信封、名片、旗幟等既要有具體的尺寸要求,又有不同的型號標準,在設計中,應特別加以說明。一些不能具體尺寸標示的,應給出可容許的空間、距離等項目。
2、材料規(guī)定:印刷品的設計中,要命卻紙張的材料,服裝設計要說明面料的規(guī)定。
3、制作工藝說明:想旗幟就有水印、絲網(wǎng)印、刺繡等不同的制作工藝,因根據(jù)企業(yè)的實際情況及形象品位,為其選擇適當?shù)闹谱鞴に嚒?/p>
4、特殊情況下的設計矯正
5、版面編排
第四節(jié) VI手冊的裝幀設計
VI手冊的編輯,設計完成后,就要考慮手冊裝幀,其中包括封面設計、設計說明、目錄、正頁等四部分的內(nèi)容,最后 確定印制和裝訂方式。
第五章 VI設計操作流程及市場調(diào)研
優(yōu)秀設計案例賞析(幻燈及多媒體)綜合考核作業(yè)
VI設計一套,編輯成冊,其中基礎部分20頁,基礎設計系統(tǒng)的各個設計要素都要做,應用部分20——30頁
參考文獻:
1、《企業(yè)形象設計之助手VI設計模板》 陳青編著 陜西人民美術出版社
2、《企業(yè)識別:CI的策劃和設計》吳為善等編著,上海人民美術出版社
3、《企業(yè)CI戰(zhàn)略》 朱健強編著 廈門大學出版社
4、《最新企業(yè)視覺識別設計叢書》 鐘寧等編著 黑龍江科學技術出版社
5、《VI—設計表現(xiàn)的突破》 陳青編著 西按交通大學出版社
第三篇:CPA會計英語講義
會計英語 【字體:大 中 小】【打印】
Ⅰ.背景介紹
中國注冊會計師協(xié)會決定在今年的中國注冊會計師資格考試會計科、審計科加試10分英語試題,并將該成績納入最后考試的總成績,也即110分的試卷60分及格。該安排看似突然,實際上代表了一個趨勢,就是要全面提升中國注冊會計師的語言水平,進而達到中西合璧,融會貫通,取長補短,為我所用的目的。
針對此變化,廣大考生應該做到:
穩(wěn)定情緒 調(diào)整心態(tài) 振奮精神 悉心備考
該考試變化對廣大考生的參考并未產(chǎn)生實質(zhì)性的不利影響。
所以應該充滿自信,不要出現(xiàn)急躁、不安情緒!
積極應對!從積極方面來看待這個趨勢和變化!
Ⅱ.考試題型預測
目前獲得的關于這10分英語考試最新的信息為:
1.一道題
2.主觀題
3.專業(yè)題
分析:
正是針對此次考試?三題?的特點,我們預測此次考試極有可能的題型如下:
1.名詞解釋
2.簡答題
3.翻譯(英漢互譯)
4.案例分析
這四類題型都會很好地體現(xiàn)?三題?精神。
會計科考試體系是在中國會計準則(CAS)與國際會計準則(IAS/IFRS)趨同的背景下考察英文水平的;趨同不是等同,所以考察具體某些業(yè)務的分錄的可能性雖然存在,但是不大;更重要考察的是一些?務虛?的內(nèi)容,即理論或文字表述的內(nèi)容。
輔導大體安排
TIME SCHEDULE MEMO 1-1.5hrs 題型分析 對每類題型結合具體實例進行說明,并講解答題技巧 2.5-3hrs 考點預測 結合題型對可能考查的內(nèi)容進行預測講解
該項英語考試對書面表達的要求在英語四級水平。
該項考前緊急沖刺輔導時間緊,任務重,不是零起點輔導,需要有一定的英語基礎。
Ⅲ.內(nèi)容講解
考試題型
極有可能的題型如下:
案例分析
名詞解釋 簡答題 翻譯 案例分析是在名詞解釋、簡答題和翻譯基礎上構建起來的,是這三種題型的綜合,因此,在分別介紹各種題型后,將著重研讀案例分析及應對策略和答題技巧。
目前2006版中國會計準則(CAS 2006)和國際會計準則體系大體趨同,但在諸多細節(jié)上仍存在差異。要么是國情特點決定的,要么是引進的新的理念。
對于會計科英語考試,主要從以下方面來準備:
1.ACCOUNTING TERMS
2.ACCOUNTING THEORIES
3.ACCOUNITNG APPLICATIONS
4.IAS/IFRS/CAS
題型分析
一、名詞解釋
EXAMPLE
Fair Value
[答疑編號31010101:針對該題提問]
Solution:
Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged or a liability settled between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction。
所謂公允價值計量模式,就是資產(chǎn)和負債按照在公平交易中,熟悉情況的交易雙方自愿進行資產(chǎn)交換或者債務清償?shù)慕痤~計量。
Notes:
1.for which…in an arm's length transaction:?介詞+關系詞?引導的定語從句,修飾the amount
2.arm's length transaction 公平交易
答題規(guī)律:開門見山,言簡意賅
二、簡答題
Of particular importance within the Framework are the definitions and recognition criteria for assets and liabilities.Required:
Define assets and liabilities and explain the important aspects of their definitions.Explain why these definitions are of particular importance to the preparation of an entity’s balance sheet and income statement.[答疑編號31010201:針對該題提問]
Solution:
Definitions–assets:
The IASB’s Framework defines assets as‘a(chǎn) resource controlled by an entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity’.The first part of the definition puts the emphasis on control rather than ownership.This is done so that the balance sheet reflects the substance of transactions rather than their legal form.This means that assets that are not legally owned by an entity, but over which the entity has the rights that are normally conveyed by ownership, are recognised as assets of the entity.Common examples of this would be finance leased assets and other contractual rights such as aircraft landing rights.An important aspect of control of assets is that it allows the entity to restrict the access of others to them.The reference to past events prevents assets that may arise in future from being recognised early.國際會計準則委員會的框架文件將資產(chǎn)定義為:由過去事項而由企業(yè)控制的、預期會導致未來經(jīng)濟利益流入企業(yè)的資源。該定義的前半部分強調(diào)的是對控制而不是所有權。之所以這樣是因為資產(chǎn)負債表反映的是交易的實質(zhì)而不是交易的法律形式。這意味著即使在法律上所有權不歸企業(yè),但企業(yè)享有與擁有該所有權同樣的權利,此時也應在資產(chǎn)負債表上將其確認為資產(chǎn)。通常的實例為融資租賃資產(chǎn)和其他類似航空著陸權的其他和約義務。資產(chǎn)的控制權另一重要體現(xiàn)是限制他人對該資產(chǎn)的染指。對過去事件的提及是阻止對未來可能擁有的資產(chǎn)過早得在資產(chǎn)負債表予以確認。
-liabilities:
The IASB’s Framework defines liabilities as ‘a(chǎn) present obligation of the entity arising from past events, the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the entity of resources embodying economic benefits’.Many aspects of this definition are complementary(as a mirror image)to the definition of assets, however the IASB stresses that the essential characteristic of a liability is that the entity has a present obligation.Such obligations are usually legally enforceable(by a binding contract or by statute), but obligations also arise where there is an expectation(by a third party)of an entity assuming responsibility for costs where there is no legal requirement to do so.Such obligations are referred to as constructive(by IAS 37 Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets).An example of this would be repairing or replacing faulty goods(beyond any warranty period)or incurring environmental costs(e.g.landscaping the site of a previous quarry)where there is no legal obligation to do so.Where entities do incur constructive obligations it is usually to maintain the goodwill and reputation of the entity.One area of difficulty is where entities cannot be sure whether an obligation exists or not, it may depend upon a future uncertain event.These are more generally known as contingent liabilities.--負債
國際會計準則委員會編報財務報表的框架將負債定義為:企業(yè)由于過去事項而承擔的現(xiàn)時義務,該義務的履行預期會導致含有經(jīng)濟利益的資源流出企業(yè)。該定義許多方面與資產(chǎn)定義遙相呼應。但國際會計準則強調(diào)負債的本質(zhì)特征是指企業(yè)要有現(xiàn)時的義務。這樣的義務通常在法律上是強制執(zhí)行的(具有約束力的合同或法定要求)義務。有時該項義務來來自第三方的期望,即企業(yè)會承擔某些非法定要求的成本。這樣的義務稱之為推定義務。例如企業(yè)在產(chǎn)品保證期期滿后才顯現(xiàn)缺陷也要予以修理或承擔環(huán)保成本,這些都不是法定要求去做的。如果企業(yè)產(chǎn)生了推定義務,則是為了保持商譽或信譽而做。但比較困難的一點是企業(yè)有時很難確定是否存在一項義務,它將取決于某件將來要發(fā)生的不確定事件。這些通常稱為或有負債。
Importance of the definitions of assets and liabilities:
The definitions of assets and liabilities are fundamental to the Framework.Apart from forming the obvious basis for the preparation of a balance sheet, they are also the two elements of financial statements that are used to derive the equity interest(ownership)which is the residue of assets less liabilities.資產(chǎn)和負債的定義是框架文件的基本概念。除了形成編制資產(chǎn)負債表的基礎外,他們也是財務報表中用來計算所有者權益的兩個因素,所有者權益是資產(chǎn)和負債的差額。
Assets and liabilities also have a part to play in determining when income(which includes gains)and expenses(which include losses)should be recognised.Income is recognised(in the income statement)when there is an increase in future economic benefits relating to increases in assets or decreases in liabilities, provided they can be measured reliably.Expenses are the opposite of this.Changes in assets and liabilities arising from contributions from, and distributions to, the owners are excluded from the definitions of income and expenses.資產(chǎn)和負債在確認收入(包括資本利得)和費用(包括損失)。當資產(chǎn)增加或負債減少引發(fā)的未來經(jīng)濟利益增加且能準確度量時,在損益表中確認收入。費用確認與此相反.但所有者出資或向所有者分配不在收入和費用的定義涉及范圍內(nèi)。
Currently there is a great deal of concern over‘off balance sheet finance’.This is an aspect of what is commonly referred to as creative accounting.Key ratio
Many recent company failure scandals have been in part due to companies having often massive liabilities that have not been included on the balance sheet.Robust definitions, based on substance, of assets and liabilities in particular should ensure that only real assets are included on the balance sheet and all liabilities are also included.In contradiction to the above point, there have also been occasions where companies have included liabilities on their balance sheets where they do not meet the definition of liabilities in the Framework.Common examples of this are general provisions and accounting for future costs and losses(usually as part of the acquisition of a subsidiary).Companies have used these general provisions to smooth profits i.e.creating a provision when the company has a good year(in terms of profit)and releasing them to boost profits in a bad year.Providing for future costs and losses during an acquisition may effectively allow them to bypass the income statement as they would become part of the goodwill figure.目前比較關注的是表外融資。這是通常所說的創(chuàng)造性會計的一部分。最近出現(xiàn)的許多公司破產(chǎn)倒閉丑聞,部分原因都是因為這些公司大量的負債未在資產(chǎn)負債中予以體現(xiàn)。特別是應從資產(chǎn)和負債的實質(zhì)含義入手,將真實的資產(chǎn)和全部的債務包含在資產(chǎn)負債表中。還有與上述相反的情況,也即公司將不符合負債定義的債務包括在資產(chǎn)負債表中。通常的例子是總體準備和計提將來損失和成本,即以豐補歉的做法。在并購時計提將來成本和損失實際上使之繞過損益表而成為商譽的一部分。
三、翻譯(英漢互譯)
A.英譯漢
Definitions of Four Categories of Financial Assets
A financial asset or liability held for trading is one that was acquired or incurred principally for the purpose of generating a profit from short-term fluctuations in price or dealer's margin.A financial asset should be classified as held for trading if, regardless of why it was acquired, it is part of a portfolio for which there is evidence of a recent actual pattern of short-term profit-taking.Derivative financial assets and derivative financial liabilities are always deemed held for trading unless they are designated and effective hedging instruments.Held-to-maturity investments are financial assets with fixed or determinable payments and fixed maturity that an enterprise has the positive intent and ability to hold to maturity other than loans and receivables originated by the enterprise.Besides:除了…,包括所?除?事物在內(nèi);
Except:除了…,不包括所?除?事物在內(nèi)。
Loans and receivables originated by the enterprise are financial assets that are created by the enterprise by providing money, goods, or services directly to a debtor, other than those that are originated with the intent to be sold immediately or in the short term, which should be classified as held for trading.Loans and receivables originated by the enterprise are not included in held-to-maturity investments but, rather, are classified separately under this Standard.Available-for-sale financial assets are those financial assets that are not(a)loans and receivables originated by the enterprise,(b)held-to-maturity investments, or(c)financial assets held for trading.[答疑編號31010202:針對該題提問]
參考譯文
四類金融資產(chǎn)的定義
為交易而持有的金融資產(chǎn)或金融負債,指主要為了從價格或交易商保證金的短期波動中獲利而購置的金融資產(chǎn)或承擔的金融負債。一項金融資產(chǎn)不論因何種原因購置,如果它屬于投資組合的組成部分,且有證據(jù)說明最近該組合可實際獲得短期收益,則該金融資產(chǎn)應歸類為為交易而持有的金融資產(chǎn)。對于衍生金融資產(chǎn)和衍生金融負債,除非它們被指定且是有效的套期工具,否則應認為是為交易而持有的金融資產(chǎn)和金融負債.持有至到期日的投資指具有固定或可確定金額和固定期限,且企業(yè)明確打算并能夠持有至到期日的金融資產(chǎn)。企業(yè)源生的貸款和應收款項不包括在內(nèi)。
企業(yè)源生的貸款和應收款項,指企業(yè)直接向債務人提供資金、商品或勞務所形成的金融資產(chǎn)。但打算立即或在短期內(nèi)就轉(zhuǎn)讓的貸款和應收款項不包括在內(nèi),而應歸類為為交易而持有的金融資產(chǎn)。在本準則中,企業(yè)源生的貸款和應收款項不應包括在持有至到期日的投資內(nèi),而應另行歸類。
可供出售的金融資產(chǎn),指不屬于以下三類的金融資產(chǎn):(1)企業(yè)源生的貸款和應收款項;(2)持有至到期日的投資;(3)為交易而持有的金融資產(chǎn)。
節(jié)選自: 國際會計準則第39號——金融工具:確認和計量
B.漢譯英
開發(fā)階段
只有當企業(yè)可證明以下所有各項時,開發(fā)(或內(nèi)部項目的開發(fā)階段)產(chǎn)生的無形資產(chǎn)應予確認:
1.完成該無形資產(chǎn),使其能使用或銷售,在技術上可行;
2.有意完成該無形資產(chǎn)并使用或銷售它;
3.有能力使用或銷售該無形資產(chǎn);
4.該無形資產(chǎn)如何產(chǎn)生很可能的未來經(jīng)濟利益.其中,企業(yè)應證明存在著無形資產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)出市場或無形資產(chǎn)本身的市場;如果該無形資產(chǎn)將在內(nèi)部使用,那么應證明該無形資產(chǎn)的有用性;
5.有足夠的技術、財務資源和其他資源支持,以完成該無形資產(chǎn)的開發(fā),并使用或銷售該無形資產(chǎn);
6.對歸屬于該無形資產(chǎn)開發(fā)階段的支出,能夠可靠地計量.[答疑編號31010203:針對該題提問]
Development Phase
An intangible asset arising from development(or from the development phase of an internal project)should be recognised if, and only if, an enterprise can demonstrate all of the following:
(a)the technical feasibility of completing the intangible asset so that it will be available for use or sale;
(b)its intention to complete the intangible asset and use or sell it;
(c)its ability to use or sell the intangible asset;
(d)how the intangible asset will generate probable future economic benefits.Among other things, the enterprise should demonstrate the existence of a market for the output of the intangible asset or the intangible asset itself or, if it is to be used internally, the usefulness of the intangible asset;
(e)the availability of adequate technical, financial and other resources to complete the development and to use or sell the intangible asset;
(f)its ability to measure the expenditure attributable to the intangible asset during its development reliably.三、案例分析
EXAMPLE 2
Ambush, a public limited company, is assessing the impact of implementing the revised IAS39 ‘Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement’.The directors realise that significant changes may occur in their accounting treatment of financial instruments and they understand that on initial recognition any financial asset or liability can be designated as one to be measured at fair value through profit or loss(the fair value option).However, there are certain issues that they wish to have explained and these are set out below.Required:
(a)Outline in a report to the directors of Ambush the following information:
(i)how financial assets and liabilities are measured and classified, briefly setting out the accounting method used for each category.(Hedging relationship can be ignored.)(10 marks)
[答疑編號31010301:針對該題提問]
The following report sets out the principal aspects of lAS 39 in the designated areas.(i)Classification of financial instruments and their measurement
Financial assets and liabilities are initially measured at fair value which will normally be the fair value of the consideration given or received.Transaction costs are included in the initial carrying value of the instrument unless it is carried at ‘fair value through profit or loss’ When these costs are recognized in the income statement.Financial assets should be classified into four categories:
(i)financial assets at fair value through profit or loss
(ⅱ)loans and receivables
(ⅲ)held-to-maturity investments(HTM)
(ⅳ)available-for-sale financial assets(AFS)
The first category above has two sub categories which are ‘held for trading’ and those designated to this category at inception/initial recognition.This latter designation is irrevocable.Financial liabilities have two categories: those at fair value through profit of loss, and ‘other’ liabilities.As with financial assets those liabilities designated as at fair value through profit or loss have two sub categories which are the same as those for financial assets.Reclassifications between categories are uncommon and restricted under IAS 39 and are prohibited into and out of the fair value through profit or loss category.Reclassifications between AFS and HTM are possible but it is not possible from loans and receivables to AFS.The held to maturity category is limited in its application as if the company sells or reclassifies more than an immaterial amount of the portfolio, it is barred from using the category for at least two years.Also all remaining HTM investments would be reclassified to AFS.Subsequent measurement of financial assets and liabilities depends on the classification.The following table summarizes the position:
Financial Assets Measurement
Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss fair value
Loans and receivables amortised cost
Held to maturity investments amortised cost
Available-for-sale financial assets fair value
Financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss fair value
Other financial liabilities amortised cost
Amortised cost is the cost of an asset or liability adjusted to achieve a constant effective interest rate over the life of the asset of liability.It is not possible to compute amortised cost for instruments that do not have fixed or determinable payments, such as for equity instruments, and such instruments therefore cannot be classified into these categories.A company must apply the effective interest rate method in the measurement of amortised cost.The effective interest rate method determines how much interest income or interest expense should be reported in profit and loss.For financial assets at fair value through profit or loss and financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss, all changes in fair value are recognized in profit or loss when they occur.This includes unrealized holding gains and losses.For available-for-sale financial assets, unrealized holding gains and losses are deferred in reserves until they are realized and losses are recognized in profit or loss.Investments in unquoted equity instruments that cannot be reliably measured at fair value are subsequently measured at cost.Unrealized holding gains/losses are not normally recognized in profit/loss.答題思路:
1.其實是考查名詞解釋、簡答題、翻譯
2.基本準則:在案例給定的框架和范圍內(nèi)
3.問什么答什么
EXAMPLE 1
Trident, a public limited company, operates in the financial services sector and is planning to prepare its first financial statements under international Financial Reporting Standards(IFRSs)as at 31 December 2005.The Generally Accepted Accounting Practices(GAAP)used by Trident are very similar to IFRS but there are some differences which are set out below.The Group is currently preparing its local GAAP financial statements for the year ending 31 December 2004.The company has two foreign subsidiaries, Spar and Mask, both public limited companies.Spar is 80% owned by Trident and prepared its first IFRS financial statement at 31 December 2003 in order to comply with local legislation.Trident acquired a 70% holding in Mask in 1999.Mask was consolidated from that date using purchase accounting practices that are similar but not the same as those used by IFRS.However the local rules relating to the financial statements of Mask as regards, for example, the concept of substance over form are totally different to IFRS.Mask has adopted the international accounting standards relating to financial instruments in its own financial statements for the year ended 31 December 2003 because these standards had been incorporated into the local legislation.Group policy is to amortise goodwill but some goodwill had been totally written off against retained earnings on the acquisition of certain subsidiaries.On the disposal or closure of the business to which the goodwill related, goodwill previously eliminated against retained earnings is charged to the income statement.The gains and losses on the translation of the financial statement of overseas subsidiaries have been charged to retained earnings for many years and not recycled to the income statement on the disposal of subsidiaries.On 30 October 2004, the Group revalued its tangible non-current assets and incorporated these values into its financial statement.The company uses a straight line method to depreciate its tangible non-current assets.Further Trident had been developing computer software which was to be used as a financial modeling tool.The software cost had not been capitalised but charged to the income statement.The Group has a separately administered defined benefit pension scheme.Contributions are charged to the income statement and the regular pension costs are attributed using the projected unit method.Variations in pension costs as a result of actuarial valuations are amortised over the average remaining service lives of employees.No actuarial gains and losses had been recognised in the financial statements.Trident has several financial instruments in issue.It has preference share capital which was originally redeemable on 1 January 2001.However if the preference shareholders so wish the capital can be converted into ordinary shares of Trident at any time up to 31 December 2007 at which time the preference shares will be converted compulsorily.Additionally Trident enters into foreign exchange contracts to hedge existing monetary assets and liabilities, and hedges against the effects of changes in exchange rates in the net investment in overseas subsidiaries.Hedge accounting is currently not used by Trident.Required:
Based on the information above, draft a memorandum to the Directors of Trident setting out:
(a)the general principles behind IFES1 ‘First-time Adoption of international Financial Reporting Standards’.(5 marks)
[答疑編號31010302:針對該題提問]
(b)whether the measurement criteria in IFRS1 would be applied to the opening balances of Mask and Spar in the first IFRS group financial statements.(5 marks)
[答疑編號31010303:針對該題提問]
Solution
Memorandum to the Directors of Trident, a public limited company
Implications of IFRS1 ‘First time Adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards’
(a)The introduction of IFRS1 will have wide implications for any company which adopts IFRSs for the first time.The IFRS applies when a company adopts IFRSs for the first time by an explicit and unreserved statement of compliance with IFRSs.The opening balance sheet for the purpose of IFRS1 and the date of transition will be as at 1 January 2004 as this is the beginning of the comparative period.As of that date the company will have to:
(?。㏑ecognise and derecognise assets and liabilities as required by IFRSs
(ⅱ)Reclassify items recognised under local GAAP as an asset, liability or equity that are treated differently under IFRSs
(ⅲ)Apply IFRSs in measuring all recognised assets and liabilities
(ⅳ)Recognise any adjustments required to move from previous GAAP to IFRS directly in retained earnings or an appropriate category of equity.IFRS1 grants limited exemptions from these requirements.The IFRS requires retrospective action in some areas but also prohibits this where judgment would be required by management about past conditions after the outcome of the transaction is already known.The transitional provisions in IFRS generally do not apply and the latest version of the IFRS at the date of the first financial statements(31 December 2005)shall apply to its opening balance sheet(1 January 2004)and throughout all periods presented in its first financial statements.Thus Trident will have to prepare its opening balance sheet retrospectively, which may cause problems in terms of the collection of the information required as at 1 January 2004.(b)An immediate question arises as to whether partial adoption of IFRS, as in the case of the subsidiary Mask, would constitute prior adoption of IFRS and, therefore, would not require the use of IFRS1.(IFRS1 applies to the first IFRS financial statements beginning after 1 January 2004.)However, because Mask only utilised IAS32 and IAS39 in its financial statements there would not have been an explicit and unreserved statement of compliance with IFRS and, therefore, Mask will be treated as a ‘first-time adopter’(FTA)and the assets and liabilities measured using IFRS1.Trident has become a first time adopter later than its subsidiary Spar.Spar has already applied the IFRS in force at 31 December 2003, and these balances will be included in the opening balance sheet of Trident at 1 January 2004(after the normal consolidated adjustments).Thus there will be no need to adjust retrospectively the financial statements of Spar for the IFRS effective at 31 December 2005, and no need to apply IFRS1 to the opening balances of Spar at 1 January 2004.考點預測
重要的會計概念、理論
財務報表的簡單分析
用英語表達的簡單的會計分錄
某些重要會計準則(IAS/IFRS/CAS)的研讀理解
對中國會計準則趨同的宏觀分析
GOODWILL
[答疑編號31010304:針對該題提問]
Any excess of the cost of the acquisition over the acquirer's interest in the fair value of the identifiable assets and liabilities acquired as at the date of the exchange transaction should be described as goodwill and recognised as an asset.交易發(fā)生時,購買成本超過購買企業(yè)在所取得的可辨認資產(chǎn)和負債的公允價值中的股權份額的部分,應作為商譽并確認為一項資產(chǎn)。
SUBSTANCE OVER FORM
The principle of recording the substance or economic reality of transactions rather than their legal form lies at the heart of the Framework for Preparation and Pressentation of Financial Statements’(Framework)and several lnternational Accounting Standards.The development of this principle was partly in reaction to a minority of public interest companies entering into certain complex transactions.These transactions sometimes led to accusations that company directors were involved in ‘creative accounting’.Required:
(a)(?。〆xplain,with relevant examples, what is generally meant by the term ’creative accounting’;(5 marks)
[答疑編號31010305:針對該題提問]
(ⅱ)explain why it is important to record the substance rather than the legal form of transactions and describe the features that may indicate that the substance of a transaction is different from its legal form.(5 marks)
[答疑編號31010306:針對該題提問]
Solution:
(a)(ⅰ)creative accounting is a term in general used to describe the practice of applying inappropriate accounting policies or entering into complex or ‘special purpose’ transactions with the objective of making a company’s financial statements appear to disclose a more favourable position, particularly in relation to the calculation of certain ‘key’ ratios,than would otherwise be the case.Most commentators believe creative accounting stops short of deliberate fraud, but is nonethless undesirable as it is intended to mislead users of financial statements.Probably the most criticised area of creative accounting relates to off balance sheet financing.This occurs where a company has financial obligations that are not recorded on its balance sheet.There have been several examples of this in the past:
-finance leases treated as operating leases
-borrowings(usually convertible loan stock)being classified as equity
-secured loans being treated as ‘sales’(sale and repurchase agreementes)
-the non-consolidation of ‘special purpose vehicles’(quasi subsidiaries)that have been used to raise finance
-offsetting liabillities against assets(certain types of accounts receivable factoring)
The other main area of creative accounting is that of increasing or smoothing profits, Examples of this are;
-the use of inappropriate provisions(this reduces profit in good years and increases them in poor years)
-not providing for liablilties, either at all or not in full, as they arise.This often related to environmental provisions, decommissioning costs and constructive obligations.-restructuring costs not being charged to income(often related to a newly acquired subsidiary-the costs are effectively added to goodwill)
It should be noted that recent international Accounting Standards have now prevented many of the above past abuses, however more recent examples of creative accounting are in use by some of the new lntermet Dolcom companies.Most of these companies do not(yet)make any profit so other performance criteria such as site ‘hits’, conversion rates(browsers tuming into buyers), bum periods(the length of time eash resources are expected to last)and even sales revenuse are massaged to give a mord favourable impression.(ⅱ)One of the primary characteristics of financial statements is reliability i.e.they must faithfully represent the transactions and other events that have occurred.It can be possible for the eccnomic substance of a transaction(effectively its commercial intention)to be different from its strict legal position or ‘form’.Thus financial statements can only give a faithful representation of a company’s performance if the substance of its transactions is reported.It is worth stressing that there will be very few transactions where their substance is different from their legal form, but for those where it is, they are usually very important.This is because they are material in terms of their size or incidence, or because they may be intended to mislead.a.(i)創(chuàng)造性會計通常是指不恰當?shù)臅嬚叩倪\用或敘做復雜、有特殊目的的交易以達到使財務報表,特別是某些關鍵指標顯得更加有力的目的.許多人認為雖該做法可減少一些有意的欺詐,但決不值得期許,因為它也是有意識去誤導財務報表的使用者.創(chuàng)造性會計最遭人非議的恐怕要數(shù)表外融資了,即企業(yè)未將其金融負債在資產(chǎn)負債表上予以體現(xiàn).具體實例如下:
-將融資租賃按經(jīng)營租賃處理
-可轉(zhuǎn)換股權債券按股權處理
-抵押貸款按銷售處理(銷售并回購協(xié)議)
-將專門用來融資的準子公司未納入合并報表中
-資產(chǎn)和負債抵消(應收賬款保理)
創(chuàng)造性會計另一大運用就是用來虛增或抹平利潤.-準備的不恰當使用
-對負債沒有計提準備
-改組費用未計入當期損益
(ii)財務報表的主要特征之一就是可靠性,即他們必須忠實記錄交易與事件.有時交易的經(jīng)濟實質(zhì)和它的法律形式不一致.財務報表要想做到公允表達就必須記錄交易的經(jīng)濟實質(zhì).事實上僅有少量交易的經(jīng)濟實質(zhì)與其法律形式不一致,但一旦出現(xiàn)該情況,就需十分重視,因為它一般涉及較大的金額或是有意的誤導.Common features which may indicate that the substance of a transaction(or series of connected transactions)is different from its legal form are:
-where the ownership of an asset does not rest with the party that is expected to experience the risks and reward relating to it(i,e., equivalent to control of the asset).-where a transaction is linked with other related transactions , it is necessary to assess the substance of the series of connected transactions as a whole.-the use of options within contracts ,it may be that options are either almost certain to be(or not to be)exercised.In such cases these are not really options at all and should be ignored in determining commercial substance.-where assets are sold at values that differ from their fair values(either above or below fair values).Many complex transactions often contain several of the above features.Determining the true substance of transactions can be a difficult and sometimes subjective procedure.一筆交易如果它的經(jīng)濟實質(zhì)與其法律形式不同,則通常具有以下特征:
-資產(chǎn)所有權不歸屬承擔風險和收益的這一方;
-如果一項交易與其他交易相關聯(lián),有必要將這些交易作為一個整體來考慮他們的經(jīng)濟實質(zhì)
-合同內(nèi)含有選擇權,但該選擇權注定行使或不行使.-資產(chǎn)背離其公允價值出售
許多復雜的交易通常同時具體以上幾個特征.PROVISION(準備)
IAS 37 ‘Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent Assets’ was issued in 1998.The standard sets out the principles of accounting for these items and clarifies when provisions should and should not be made.Prior to its issue, the inappropriate use of provisions had been an area where companies had been accused of manipulating the financial statements and of creative accounting.Required:
(a)Describe the nature of provisions and the accounting requirements for them contained in IAS37.(6 marks)
[答疑編號31010307:針對該題提問]
(b)Explain why there is a need for an accounting standard in this area.Illustrate your answer with three practical examples of how the standard addresses controversial Issues.(6 marks)
[答疑編號31010308:針對該題提問]
(a)IAS 37‘Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets’only deals with those provisions that are regarded as liabilities.The term provision is also generally used to describe those amounts set aside to write down the value of assets such as depreciation charges and provisions for diminution in value(e.g.provision to write down the value of damaged or slow moving inventory).The definition of a provision is the Standard is quite simple;provisions are liabilities of uncertain timing or amount.If there is reasonable certainty over these two aspects the liability is a creditor.There is clearly an overlap between provisions and contingencies.Because of the ‘uncertainty’aspects of the definition, it can be argued that to some extent all provisions have an element of contingency.The IASB distinguishes between the two by stating that a contingency is not recognized as a liability if it is either only possible and therefore yet to be confirmed as a liability, or where there is a liability but it cannot be measured with sufficient reliability.The IASB notes the latter should be rare.The IASB intends that only those liabilities that meet the characteristics of a liability in its Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements should be reported in the balance sheet.IAS 37 summarises the above by requiring provisions to satisfy all of the following three recognition criteria:
- there is present obligation(legal or constructive)as a result of past event;
- it is probable that a transfer of economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation;
- the obligation can be estimated reliably.A provision is triggered by an obligating event.This must have already occurred, future events cannot create current liabilities.The first of the criteria refers to legal or constructive obligations.A legal obligation is straightforward and uncontroversial, but constructive obligations are a relatively new concept.These arise where a company creates an expectation that it will meet certain obligations that it is not legally bound to meet.These may arise due to a published statement or even by a pattern of past practice.In reality constructive obligations are usually because the alternative action is unattractive or may damage the reputation of the company.The most commonly quoted example of such is a commitment to pay for environmental damage caused by the company, even where there is no legal obligation to do so.To summarise: a company must provide for a liability where the three defining criteria of a provision are met, but conversely a company cannot provide for a liability where they are not met.The latter part of the above may seem obvious, but it is an area where there has been some past abuse of provisioning as is referred to in(b).(b)The main need for an accounting standard in this area is to clarify and regulate when provisions should and should not be made.Many controversial areas including the possible abuse of provisioning are based on contravening aspects of the above definitions.One of the most controversial examples of provisioning is in relation to future operating losses.The attraction of providing for this type of expense/loss is that once the provision has been made, the future costs are then charged to the provision such that they bypass the income statement(of the period when they occur).When assessing the company’s future prospects.If this type of provision were to be incorporated as a liability as part of a subsidiary’s net assets at the date of acquisition, the provision itself would not be charged to the income statement.IAS 37 now prevents this practice as future costs and operating losses(unless they are for an onerous contract)do not constitute past events.Another important change initiated by IAS 37 is the way in which environmental provisions must be treated.Practice in this area has differed considerably.Some companies did not provide for such costs and those that did often accrued for them on an annual basis.If say a company expected environmental site restoration cost of $1 million per annum for 10 years(ignoring discounting).Somewhat controversially this practice is no longer possible.IAS 37requires that if the environmental costs are a liability(legal or constructive), then the whole of the costs must be provided for immediately.That has led to large liabilities appearing in some companies’ balance sheets.A third example of bad practice is the use of ‘big bath’provisions and over provisioning.In its simplest form this occurs where a company makes a large provision, often for non-specific future expenses, or as part of an overall restructuring package.If the provision is deliberately overprovided, then its later release will improve future profits.Alternatively the company could charge to the provision a different cost than the one it was originally created for.IAS 37 addresses this practice in two ways: by not allowing provisions to be created if they do not meet the definition of an obligation;and specifically preventing a provision and a new one would be created with appropriate disclosures.Whilst this treatment does not affect overall profits, it does enhance transparency.Note: other examples would be acceptable.答案大意
(a)國際會計準則第37號?準備,或有資產(chǎn)和或有負債?僅處理屬于負債定義內(nèi)的準備.準備的定義是不確定金額和時間的債務.準備應該符合債務的定義.準備是由過去事件引發(fā)的,通常法定義務和推定義務會引起準備.(b)國際會計準則第37號主要規(guī)范什么時候計提/不計提準備.準備濫用包括(1)為將來的損失做準備;(2)不正確準備環(huán)境成本;(3)以豐補歉.IMPAIRMENT OF ASSETS(資產(chǎn)減值)
It is generally recognized in practice that non-current assets should not be carried in a balance sheet at values that they are greater than are ?worth?.In the past there has been little guidance in this area with the result that impairment losses were not recognized on a consistent or timely basis or were not recognized at all.IAS 36 ‘Impairment of Assets’was issued in June 1998 on this topic.Required:
(a)(i)Define an impairment loss and explain when companies should carry out a review for impairment of assets;(3 marks)
(ii)Describe the circumstances that may indicate that a company’s assets may.have become impaired.(7 marks)
Solution:
(a)(i)An impairment loss arises where the carrying value of an asset, or group of assets, is higher than their recoverable amounts.In effect the Standard requires that assets should not appear on a balance sheet at a value which is higher than they are ‘worth’.The recoverable amount of an asset is defined as the higher of its net realizable value(i.e.the amount at which it can be sold for net of direct selling expenses)or its value in use(i.e.its estimated future net cash flows discounted to a present value).IAS 36 ‘Impairment of Assets’recognises that many assets do not produce independent cash flows and therefore the value in use may have to be calculated for a group of assets-a cash-generating unit.The standard recognizes that it would be too onerous for companies to have to test for impaired assets every year and therefore only requires impairment reviews when there is some indication that an impairment has occurred.The exception to this general principle is where goodwill or other intangible assets are being depreciated over a period of more than 20 years, in which case an impairment review is required at least annually.This also applies where any tangible non-current asset, other than land, has a remaining life of more than 50 years.(ii)Impairments generally arise where there has been an event or change in circumstances.It may be that something has happened to the assets themselves(e.g.physical damage)or there has been a change in the economic environment relating to the assets(e.g.new regulations may have come into force).The Standard gives several examples of indicators of impairment, which may be available from internal or external sources:
(i)Poor operating results.This could be a current operating loss or a low profit.One year’s losses in itself does not necessarily mean there has been an impairment, but if this is coupled with previous losses of expected future losses then this is an indication of impairment;
(ii)A significant decline in an asset’s market value(in excess of normal depreciation though use or the passage of time)or evidence of obsolescence(through market changes or technology)or physical damage;
(ii)Evidence of a reduction in the useful economic life or estimated residual value of assets;
(iv)Adverse changes in the market or economy such as the entrance of a major competitor, new statutory or regulatory rules or any indicator of value that has been used to value an asset(e.g.on acquisition a brand may have been valued on a ‘multiple’ of sale revenues’, If subsequent sales were below expectations this may indicate an impairment);
(v)A commitment to a significant reorganization or restructuring of the business;
(vi)Loss of key employees or major customers;
(vii)Increases in long-term interest rates(this could materially impact on value in use calculations thus affecting the recoverable amounts of assets);
(viii)Where the carrying amount of an enterprise’s net assets is more than its market capitalization.答案大意
(i)當資產(chǎn)或資產(chǎn)組的賬面價值高于其可收回價值時則出現(xiàn)了資產(chǎn)減值損失.可收回價值是指可變現(xiàn)價值和使用價值(資產(chǎn)預計未來現(xiàn)金流量的現(xiàn)值)中較高的值.當出現(xiàn)資產(chǎn)減值跡象時,企業(yè)需進行資產(chǎn)減值測試.(ii)資產(chǎn)減值的跡象特征
1.較差的運營結果
2.資產(chǎn)市值的大幅度下降
3.使用年限縮短/殘值減少
4.經(jīng)濟/市場形勢逆轉(zhuǎn)
5.重大重組
6.關鍵員工/顧客流失
7.長期利率上揚
8.資產(chǎn)價值高于可變現(xiàn)價值
補充閱讀材料(出自《金融時報》,建議大家自行掌握)
China adopts new accounting standards
By Richard McGregor in Beijing, FT.com site
Published: Feb 15, 2006
China has agreed to adopt new national accounting standards to bring them into line with international rules following a decade-long review of the local industry and its practices.Lou Jiwei, the vice-finance minister, said in Beijing on Wednesday that China would adopt “one basic accounting standard” based on the so-called International Financial Reporting Standards now used in almost 100 countries including the EU member states.China's decision to bring its accounting standards largely into line with global norms is further evidence of the government's determination to internationalise its economy and business practices.It is likely to boost the confidence of foreign investors in the quality of financial information from the fast-growing economy.However, the introduction of the standards will present a new challenge for local accounting firms, already struggling to compete with the big four international players.The decision was hailed by members of the global profession in Beijing for an announcement ceremony at the Great Hall of the People, saying that China's move would have an impact on other countries in Asia, such as South Korea, pondering a similar policy change.“There is going to a chain reaction as a result of this,” said Sir David Tweedie, the chairman of the International Accounting Standards Board.“The decision happened very fast in the end.They are almost there(as far as accounting standards go)and they are determined to get there.”
China will not take adopt the IFRS word for word, but rather take on board the principles and translate them into their own code, called the “Chinese Accounting Standards System”.“They will embed the principles into their system in a way that can be understood by local practitioners,” said Yvonne Kam, a director at PWC in Shanghai.Mr.Lou said the new system would introduce the concept of “fair value” into Chinese accounting for the first time along the lines of present international practices.The Chinese standard will maintain a number of significant exceptions to the IFRS rules because of the peculiarities of the local economy.China will maintain an exemption for state enterprises from the “related party” disclosures provisions because of the overwhelmingly dominance of government-enterprises in the economy.“You can understand why they would do that, because otherwise 95 per cent of the economy would be a related party,” said a foreign adviser to the Chinese.“But if your brother-in-law is your supplier in China, he is a related party just like anywhere else in the world.”
The implementation of the “fair value” provisions is also complicated because of the government's control of the price of assets such as unlisted securities, and the inability for the moment to find independent parties to assess them.“There is still the challenge of implementation, especially as companies will have to significantly reform their internal processes and retrain personnel,” said Mr.Kam.Another area in which China will maintain some differences with the IFRS is the so-called “impairment of assets” provisions, which allow companies to write down the value of businesses and their physical assets and goodwill.Under IFRS, companies can write down the value of assets and then revalue them upwards if conditions change.Chinese officials, however, say they will not allow revaluation because they worry it would leave too much opportunity for manipulation of accounts.The US also does not allow a revaluation upwards of assets that have been written down.The new rules will apply for listed companies from January 1 next year, while they will be phased in for other enterprises.WORLD NEWS: China to adopt accounting code in line with international rules
By Richard McGregor in Beijing, Financial Times Published: Feb 16, 2006
China has agreed to bring its national accounting standards into line with international rules, a move that will boost foreign investor confidence in the quality of financial information from the fast-growing economy.Lou Jiwei, Beijing's vice-finance minister, said yesterday that China would adopt “one basic accounting standard” based on the International Financial Reporting Standards used in almost 100 countries, including European Union member states.The move, which follows a decade-long review of local industry practices, is further evidence of the Chinese government's determination to internationalise its economy.But the introduction of the standards will be a challenge for local accounting firms, already struggling to compete with the big four international firms.Members of the global accountancy profession who were in Beijing for an announcement ceremony at the Great Hall of the People hailed China's decision and said the move would affect other Asian countries, such as South Korea, pondering a similar change.Sir David Tweedie, chairman of the International Accounting Standards Board, said: “There is going to be a chain reaction as a result of this.”The decision happened very fast in the end.They are almost there [as far as accounting standards go] and they are determined to get there.“
China will not adopt the IFRS word for word but will take on board the principles and translate them into its own code, the Chinese Accounting Standards System.Mr.Lou said the system would introduce the concept of ”fair value“ into Chinese accounting, along the lines of international practices.But it will maintain significant exceptions to IFRS rules because of the peculiarities of the Chinese economy.China will keep an exemption for state enterprises from the ”related party“ disclosure provisions because of the dominance of government enterprises.”You can understand why they would do that, because otherwise 95 per cent of the economy would be a related party,“ said a foreign adviser to the Chinese.The implementation of the ”fair value“ provisions is also complicated because of the government's control of the price of assets such as unlisted securities, and the inability to find independent parties to assess them.Another area in which China will maintain differences with IFRS is in the ”impairment of assets" provisions, which allow companies to write down the value of businesses, physical assets and goodwill.Under IFRS, companies can write down the value of assets and revalue them upwards if conditions change.Chinese officials say they will not allow revaluation because they fear it would leave too much room for manipulation of accounts.The US also refuses to allow the revaluation upwards of assets already written down.The new rules will apply for listed companies from January 1 next year.Converging accounting standards work must go on
By Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa
FT.com site, May 18, 2006
Surprisingly, the Financial Times and a draft report from the UK arm of PWC recently called for efforts aimed at further international convergence of accounting standards to be abandoned.In the light of progress already made by the International Accounting Standards Board and the US Financial Accounting Standards Board, these calls are unfounded and should be firmly resisted.The simple fact is that markets are integrating worldwide.Differences in accounting methodologies and reporting systems impose an increasing burden on economic efficiency.They make cross-border comparisons difficult and costly.They may mislead markets and capital allocation.They also encourage a competition in laxity, because countries may reduce the quality of their standards in a short-sighted attempt to attract listings or to appeal to special interests.None of these consequences serves the interests of the global economy or investors.Users and Their Information Needs
9.The users of financial statements include present and potential investors, employees, lenders, suppliers and other trade creditors, customers, governments and their agencies and the public.They use financial statements in order to satisfy some of their different needs for information.These needs include the following:
財務的使用者包括現(xiàn)在和潛在的投資者、雇員、貸款人、供應商和其他商業(yè)債權人、顧客、政府及其機構與公眾。他們利用財務報表以滿足他們對資料的某些不同需要。這些需要包括:
(a)Investors.The providers of risk capital and their advisers are concerned with the risk inherent in, and return provided by, their investments.They need information to help them determine whether they should buy, hold or sell.Shareholders are also interested in information which enables them to assess the ability of the enterprise to pay dividends.(1)投資者。風險資本的提供者以及他們的顧問關心他們投資的內(nèi)在風險和投資報酬。他們需要資料來幫助他們決定是否應當買進、持有或賣出。股東們還關心幫助他們評估企業(yè)支付股利的能力的資料。
(b)Employees.Employees and their representative groups are interested in information about the stability and profitability of their employers.They are also interested in information which enables them to assess the ability of the enterprise to provide remuneration, retirement benefits and employment opportunities.(2)雇員。雇員及其代表性組織關心有關其雇主穩(wěn)定性和獲利能力方面的資料。他們還關心使他們評估企業(yè)提供報酬、退休福利和就業(yè)機會的能力的資料。
(c)Lenders.Lenders are interested in information that enables them to determine whether their loans, and the interest attaching to them, will be paid when due.(3)貸款人。貸款人關心那些能使他們確定自己的貸款和貸款利息在到期時能否得到支付的資料。
(d)Suppliers and other trade creditors.Suppliers and other creditors are interested in information that enables them to determine whether amounts owing to them will be paid when due.Trade creditors are likely to be interested in an enterprise over a shorter period than lenders unless they are dependent upon the continuation of the enterprise as a major customer.(4)供應商和其他商業(yè)債權人。供應商和其他債權人關心那些能使他們確定欠他們的款項在到期時能否得到支付的資料。商業(yè)債權人只要不依賴企業(yè)繼續(xù)作為其主要顧客,其對企業(yè)的關心在時間上就可能比貸款人要短。
(e)Customers.Customers have an interest in information about the continuance of an enterprise, especially when they have a long-term involvement with, or are dependent on, the enterprise.(5)顧客。顧客關心有關企業(yè)延續(xù)性方面的資料,尤其是當他們與企業(yè)有長期性聯(lián)系或依賴企業(yè)時。
(f)Governments and their agencies.Governments and their agencies are interested in the allocation of resources and, therefore, the activities of enterprises.They also require information in order to regulate the activities of enterprises, determine taxation policies and as the basis for national income and similar statistics.(6)政府及其機構。政府及其機構關心資源的分配,因此也關心企業(yè)的活動。為了管理企業(yè)的活動、決定稅收政策和作為國民收入等類似統(tǒng)計資料的基礎,它們也需要資料。
(g)Public.Enterprises affect members of the public in a variety of ways.For example, enterprises may make a substantial contribution to the local economy in many ways including the number of people they employ and their patronage of local suppliers.Financial statements may assist the public by providing information about the trends and recent developments in the prosperity of the enterprise and the range of its activities.(7)公眾。企業(yè)以各種方式影響公眾的成員。例如,企業(yè)可能以多種方式對當?shù)亟?jīng)濟作出貢獻,包括其雇請的人數(shù)和對當?shù)毓痰幕蓊?。財務報表通過提供關于企業(yè)興衰趨勢、近期發(fā)展和活動范圍方面的資料,可以對公眾有所幫助。
10.While all of the information needs of these users cannot be met by financial statements, there are needs which are common to all users.As investors are providers of risk capital to the enterprise, the provision of financial statements that meet their needs will also meet most of the needs of other users that financial statements can satisfy.雖然上述使用者對資料的需要不可能完全由財務報表來滿足,但是仍然存在著對所有使用者來說是共同的需要。因為投資者是企業(yè)風險資本的提供者,因此,為了滿足他們的需要而提供的財務報表,也可以滿足財務報表能夠滿足的其他使用者的大部分需要。
11.The management of an enterprise has the primary responsibility for the preparation and presentation of the financial statements of the enterprise.Management is also interested in the information contained in the financial statements even though it has access to additional management and financial information that helps it carry out its planning, decision-making and control responsibilities.Management has the ability to determine the form and content of such additional information in order to meet its own needs.The reporting of such information, however, is beyond the scope of this framework.Nevertheless, published financial statements are based on the information used by management about the financial position, performance and changes in financial position of the enterprise.企業(yè)的管理當局對企業(yè)財務報表的編制和呈報負有首要責任。企業(yè)管理當局也關心財務報表中所包括的信息,盡管它能夠取得有助于其執(zhí)行計劃、決策和控制職責的其他管理和財務方面的資料。管理當局有能力決定這類附加資料的形式和內(nèi)容,以滿足其自己的需要。然而,對這一類信息的報告,不屬于本結構的范圍。但是,公布的財務報表都是以管理當局所使用的關于企業(yè)財務狀況、經(jīng)營業(yè)績和財務狀況變動方面的資料為依據(jù)的。
Qualitative Characteristics of Financial Statements
24.Qualitative characteristics are the attributes that make the information provided in financial statements useful to users.The four principal qualitative characteristics are understandability, relevance, reliability and comparability.質(zhì)量特征是指使財務報表提供的信息對使用者有用的那些屬性。四項主要的質(zhì)量特征是:可理解性、相關性、可靠性和可比性。
Understandability
25.An essential quality of the information provided in financial statements is that it is readily understandable by users.For this purpose, users are assumed to have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and accounting and a willingness to study the information with reasonable diligence.However, information about complex matters that should be included in the financial statements because of its relevance to the economic decision-making needs of users should not be excluded merely on the grounds that it may be too difficult for certain users to understand.財務報表所提供的信息的一條基本質(zhì)量特征就是要讓使用者便于理解。為此目的,人們假定使用者對商業(yè)和經(jīng)濟活動以及會計有恰當?shù)牧私獠⑶以敢饣ㄙM適當?shù)木θパ芯啃畔?。然而,有些關于復雜事項的信息由于它們與使用者作經(jīng)濟決策的需要相關而應包括有財務報表之中,不能僅僅因為這些信息對于某些使用者來說過于難以理解而將它們排除在財務報表之外。
Relevance
26.To be useful, information must be relevant to the decision-making needs of users.Information has the quality of relevance when it influences the economic decisions of users by helping them evaluate past, present or future events or confirming, or correcting, their past evaluations.為了使信息有用,信息必須與使用者的決策需要相關。當信息能夠通過幫助使用者評價過去、現(xiàn)在和未來事項或確認、更改他們過去的評價從而影響到使用者的經(jīng)濟決策時,信息就具有相關性。
27.The predictive and confirmatory roles of information are interrelated.For example, information about the current level and structure of asset holdings has value to users when they endeavour to predict the ability of the enterprise to take advantage of opportunities and its ability to react to adverse situations.The same information plays a confirmatory role in respect of past predictions about, for example, the way in which the enterprise would be structured or the outcome of planned operations.信息的預測作用和確認作用是相互聯(lián)系的。例如,關于擁有資產(chǎn)的現(xiàn)有水平和結構的資料,在使用者致力于預測企業(yè)利用機遇和對付逆境的能力時,對使用者是有價值的。對于過去關于企業(yè)結構或計劃安排的經(jīng)營活動的結果等情況的預測,同樣的資料則可以起到確認作用。
28.Information about financial position and past performance is frequently used as the basis for predicting future financial position and performance and other matters in which users are directly interested, such as dividend and wage payments, security price movements and the ability of the enterprise to meet its commitments as they fall due.To have predictive value, information need not be in the form of an explicit forecast.The ability to make predictions from financial statements is enhanced, however, by the manner in which information on past transactions and events is displayed.For example, the predictive value of the income statement is enhanced if unusual, abnormal and infrequent items of income or expense are separately disclosed.關于財務狀況和過去經(jīng)營業(yè)績的資料經(jīng)常被加以使用,作為預測未來財務狀況、經(jīng)營業(yè)績以及使用者直接關心的其他事項的基礎。其他事項包括股利和工資支付、證券價格變動及企業(yè)承兌到期承諾的能力等。資料要具有預測價值,不一定非要采取明確的預測形式。然而,關于過去交易和事項的資料的編列方式,可以提高根據(jù)財務報表進行預測的能力。例如,如果分別揭示非常、異常和非經(jīng)常性的收益和費用項目,就可以提高收益表的預測價值。
Materiality
29.The relevance of information is affected by its nature and materiality.In some cases, the nature of information alone is sufficient to determine its relevance.For example, the reporting of a new segment may affect the assessment of the risks and opportunities facing the enterprise irrespective of the materiality of the results achieved by the new segment in the reporting period.In other cases, both the nature and materiality are important, for example, the amounts of inventories held in each of the main categories that are appropriate to the business.信息的相關性受其性質(zhì)和重要性的影響。在某些情況下,單憑信息的性質(zhì)就足以確定其相關性。例如,如果不管一個新分部在報告期內(nèi)所取得的成果的重要性如何,對該新分部的報告都可能會影響對企業(yè)所面臨的風險與機遇的評價。在另外一些情況下,性質(zhì)和重要性都是重要的。例如,與經(jīng)營業(yè)務相適應的各主要類別存貨的持有金額。
30.Information is material if its omission or misstatement could influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements.Materiality depends on the size of the item or error judged in the particular circumstances of its omission or misstatement.Thus, materiality provides a threshold or cut-off point rather than being a primary qualitative characteristic which information must have if it is to be useful.如果信息的遺漏或錯報會影響使用者根據(jù)財務報表所作的經(jīng)濟決策,信息就具有重要性。重要性取決于在發(fā)生遺漏或錯報的特定環(huán)境下所判斷的項目或錯誤的大小。因此,重要性與其說是信息要成為有用所必須具備的基本質(zhì)量特征,倒不如說是提供了一個門檻或取舍點。
Reliability
31.To be useful, information must also be reliable.Information has the quality of reliability when it is free from material error and bias and can be depended upon by users to represent faithfully that which it either purports to represent or could reasonably be expected to represent.為了使信息有用,信息還必須具有可靠性。當信息沒有重要錯誤或偏向并且能夠忠實反映其所擬反映或理當反映的情況以供使用者作依據(jù)時,信息就具備了可靠性。
32.Information may be relevant but so unreliable in nature or representation that its recognition may be potentially misleading.For example, if the validity and amount of a claim for damages under a legal action are disputed, it may be inappropriate for the enterprise to recognize the full amount of the claim in the balance sheet, although it may be appropriate to disclose the amount and circumstances of the claim.信息可能會具有相關性,但在性質(zhì)或反映上可能會不那么可靠,以致確認這種信息可能會令人誤解。例如,如果一項法律訴訟的賠償要求的成立與否和金額大小都處在爭執(zhí)當中,雖然企業(yè)揭示賠償要求的金額和情況可能是適宜的,但在資產(chǎn)負債表中確認賠償要求的全部金額卻可能是不適宜的。
Faithful Representation
33.To be reliable, information must represent faithfully the transactions and other events it either purports to represent or could reasonably be expected to represent.Thus, for example, a balance sheet should represent faithfully the transactions and other events that result in assets, liabilities and equity of the enterprise at the reporting date which meet the recognition criteria.要使信息可靠,信息就必須忠實反映其所擬反映或理當反映的交易或其他事項。因此,舉例來說,資產(chǎn)負債表就應忠實反映在報告日期符合確認標準的那些形成企業(yè)資產(chǎn)、負債和權益的交易和其他事項。
34.Most financial information is subject to some risk of being less than a faithful representation of that which it purports to portray.This is not due to bias, but rather to inherent difficulties either in identifying the transactions and other events to be measured or in devising and applying measurement and presentation techniques that can convey messages that correspond with those transactions and events.In certain cases, the measurement of the financial effects of items could be so uncertain that enterprises generally would not recognize them in the financial statements;for example, although most enterprises generate goodwill internally over time, it is usually difficult to identify or measure that goodwill reliably.In other cases, however, it may be relevant to recognize items and to disclose the risk of error surrounding their recognition and measurement.大部分財務信息都可能遇到由于它不能完全忠實反映它所擬反映的情況而帶來的風險。這并不是由于存有偏向,而是由于在辨認所要計量的交易和其他事項,或在設計和運用能夠傳遞與那些交易和事項相對應的信息的計量和反映技術上,存在著固有的困難。在某些情況下,對項目財務影響的計量可能是那么地不確定,以致使企業(yè)在通常情況下對它們無法在財務報表中加以確認。例如,雖然大多數(shù)企業(yè)隨著時間的推移在內(nèi)部都會產(chǎn)生商譽,但是要可靠地確認或計量這種商譽,通常是困難的。然而,在另外一些情況下,確認項目并且揭示在確認和計量方面存在著錯誤的風險,可能是恰當?shù)摹?/p>
Substance Over Form
35.If information is to represent faithfully the transactions and other events that it purports to represent, it is necessary that they are accounted for and presented in accordance with their substance and economic reality and not merely their legal form.The substance of transactions or other events is not always consistent with that which is apparent from their legal or contrived form.For example, an enterprise may dispose of an asset to another party in such a way that the documentation purports to pass legal ownership to that party;nevertheless, agreements may exist that ensure that the enterprise continues to enjoy the future economic benefits embodied in the asset.In such circumstances, the reporting of a sale would not represent faithfully the transaction entered into(if indeed there was a transaction).如果信息要想忠實反映它所擬反映的交易或其他事項,那就必須根據(jù)它們的實質(zhì)和經(jīng)濟現(xiàn)實,而不是僅僅根據(jù)它們的法律形式進行核算和反映。交易或其他事項的實質(zhì),不總是與它們的法律或設計形式的外在面貌相一致的。例如,企業(yè)將一項資產(chǎn)處理給另一單位,可以在文件中聲稱將法律所有權轉(zhuǎn)讓給該單位:然而,還可能存在協(xié)議,可以保證企業(yè)繼續(xù)享有該項資產(chǎn)所包含的未來經(jīng)濟利益。在這種情況下,報告一項銷售就不可能忠實反映所達成的交易(如果確有交易存在的話)。
Neutrality
36.To be reliable, the information contained in financial statements must be neutral, that is, free from bias.Financial statements are not neutral if, by the selection or presentation of information, they influence the making of a decision or judgement in order to achieving a predetermined result or outcome.要使信息可靠,財務報表所包含的信息還必須具有中立性。也就是說,要不帶有偏向。如果為了達到預定的成果或結果,通過對信息的選擇和列報,使財務報表影響了決策或判斷,那么,財務報表就不是中立的了。
Prudence
37.The preparers of financial statements do, however, have to contend with the uncertainties that inevitably surround many events and circumstances, such as the collectability of doubtful receivables, the probable useful life of plant and equipment and the number of warranty claims that may occur.Such uncertainties are recognized by the disclosure of their nature and extent and by the exercise of prudence in the preparation of the financial statements.Prudence is the inclusion of a degree of caution in the exercise of the judgements needed in making the estimates required under conditions of uncertainty, such that assets or income are not overstated and liabilities or expenses are not understated.However, the exercise of prudence does not allow, for example, the creation of hidden reserves or excessive provisions, the deliberate understatement of assets or income, or the deliberate overstatement of liabilities or expenses, because the financial statements would not be neutral and, therefore, not have the quality of reliability.然而,財務報表的編制者確實還必須考慮到許多事件和情況必然圍繞著不確定性,例如,有疑問的應收賬款的可收回程度、廠房和設備的可能使用年限以及可能發(fā)生的要求保修的次數(shù)等。要對這類不確定性加以確認,則應揭示它們的性質(zhì)和范圍,并在編制財務報表過程中實施審慎性原則。審慎是指在不確定性條件下作出所需要的估計時,在實施必需的判斷中加入一定程度的謹慎,以便不高估資產(chǎn)或收益,也不低估負債或費用。然而,實施審慎性原則并不允許諸如設立秘密儲備金、過分地提取準備、故意壓低資產(chǎn)或收益,或故意抬高負債或費用等,因為這樣編制出來的財務報表不可能是中立的,從而也就不會具有可靠性。
Completeness
38.To be reliable, the information in financial statements must be complete within the bounds of materiality and cost.An omission can cause information to be false or misleading and thus unreliable and deficient in terms of its relevance.要使信息可靠,財務報表中的信息必須在重要性和成本的許可范圍內(nèi)做到完整。遺漏能造成信息虛假或令人誤解,從而使信息不可靠并且在相關性上留有缺陷。
Comparability
39.Users must be able to compare the financial statements of an enterprise through time in order to identify trends in its financial position and performance.Users must also be able to compare the financial statements of different enterprises in order to evaluate their relative financial position, performance and changes in financial position.Hence, the measurement and display of the financial effect of like transactions and other events must be carried out in a consistent way throughout an enterprise and over time for that enterprise and in a consistent way for different enterprises.使用者必須能夠比較企業(yè)在不同時期的財務報表,以便明確企業(yè)財務狀況和經(jīng)營業(yè)績的變化趨勢。使用者還必須能夠比較不同企業(yè)之間的財務報表,以使評價它們相對的財務狀況、經(jīng)營業(yè)績和財務狀況變動。因此,不論是對于某個企業(yè)的任何地方和不同時間,還是對于不同的企業(yè),對于同類交易和其他事項的財務影響的計量與反映,都必須按照一致的方法進行。
40.An important implication of the qualitative characteristic of comparability is that users be informed of the accounting policies employed in the preparation of the financial statements, any changes in those policies and the effects of such changes.Users need to be able to identify differences between the accounting policies for like transactions and other events used by the same enterprise from period to period and by different enterprises.Compliance with International Accounting Standards, including the disclosure of the accounting policies used by the enterprise, helps to achieve comparability.可比性這一質(zhì)量特征有一個重要的含義,即應把編制財務報表所采用的會計政策、這些政策的變更以及變更的影響告訴使用者。使用者必須能夠鑒別同一企業(yè)在不同時期以及不同企業(yè)對同類交易和其他事項所采用的會計政策之間的差別。遵循國際會計準則,包括揭示企業(yè)所采用的會計政策,有助于達成可比性。
41.The need for comparability should not be confused with mere uniformity and should not be allowed to become an impediment to the introduction of improved accounting standards.It is not appropriate for an enterprise to continue accounting in the same manner for a transaction or other event if the policy adopted is not in keeping with the qualitative characteristics of relevance and reliability.It is also inappropriate for an enterprise to leave its accounting policies unchanged when more relevant and reliable alternatives exist.對可比性的要求,不應混同于單純的統(tǒng)一性,并且不應允許其成為引進經(jīng)過改進的會計準則的一種障礙。如果采用的政策不符合相關性和可靠性的質(zhì)量特征,企業(yè)就不宜繼續(xù)以相同的方式核算某一交易或其他事項。當存在更具相關性和更可靠性的備選方法時,如果企業(yè)仍保持會計政策不變,也是不適宜的。
42.Because users wish to compare the financial position, performance and changes in financial position of an enterprise over time, it is important that the financial statements show corresponding information for the preceding periods.由于使用者希望比較企業(yè)在不同時期的財務狀況、經(jīng)營業(yè)績和財務狀況變動,財務報表反映以前各期的相應信息是重要的。
Constraints on Relevant and Reliable Information
Timeliness
43.If there is undue delay in the reporting of information it may lose its relevance.Management may need to balance the relative merits of timely reporting and the provision of reliable information.To provide information on a timely basis it may often be necessary to report before all aspects of a transaction or other event are known, thus impairing reliability.Conversely, if reporting is delayed until all aspects are known, the information may be highly reliable but of little use to users who have had to make decisions in the interim.In achieving a balance between relevance and reliability, the overriding consideration is how best to satisfy the economic decision-making needs of users.在報告信息的過程中如果有不恰當?shù)难诱`,信息就失去了其相關性。企業(yè)管理當局可能需要權衡及時報告與提供可靠信息這兩者的相對優(yōu)點。為了在及時的基礎上提供信息,往往在了解某一交易或其他事項的所有方面之前,就可能必須作出報告,這樣就會損害可靠性。相反,如果要延誤到所有方面都了解以后才予以報告,信息可能會相當可靠,但對于必須在事中作出決策的使用者來說,用處可能就會很小。為了在相關性和可靠性之間作出權衡,首先需要考慮的是如可最好地滿足使用者作出經(jīng)濟決策的需要的問題。
Balance between Benefit and Cost
44.The balance between benefit and cost is a pervasive constraint rather than a qualitative characteristic.The benefits derived from information should exceed the cost of providing it.The evaluation of benefits and costs is, however, substantially a judgmental process.Furthermore, the costs do not necessarily fall on those users who enjoy the benefits.Benefits may also be enjoyed by users other than those for whom the information is prepared;for example, the provision of further information to lenders may reduce the borrowing costs of an enterprise.For these reasons, it is difficult to apply a cost-benefit test in any particular case.Nevertheless, standard-setters in particular, as well as the preparers and users of financial statements, should be aware of this constraint.效益和成本之間的平衡,是一種普遍存在的限制因素,而不是一種質(zhì)量特征。從信息中派生出來的效益應該超過提供它的成本。然而,評價效益和成本實際上是一種判斷過程。而且,成本不一定落在享受效益的那些使用者身上。效益也可能被不屬于信息提供對象的其他使用者所享受。例如,向貸款人提供進一步的資料可能能夠降低企業(yè)的借款費用。根據(jù)以上這些理由,在任何特定情況下,要進行成本效益測試,都是困難的。然而,財務報表的編制者和使用者,尤其是準則制定者,應當了解這一限制因素。
Balance between Qualitative Characteristics
45.In practice a balancing, or trade-off, between qualitative characteristics is often necessary.Generally the aim is to achieve an appropriate balance among the characteristics in order to meet the objective of financial statements.The relative importance of the characteristics in different cases is a matter of professional judgment.在實務中,在質(zhì)量特征之間進行平衡或作出取舍,經(jīng)常是有必要的。通常來說其目的是在各質(zhì)量特征之間取得適當平衡,以便達到財務報表的目標。在不同的場合下判定質(zhì)量特征的相對重要性,是一種專業(yè)判斷的問題。正實和公正的觀點/公正地反映
True and Fair View/Fair Presentation
46.Financial statements are frequently described as showing a true and fair view of, or as presenting fairly, the financial position, performance and changes in financial position of an enterprise.Although this Framework does not deal directly with such concepts, the application of the principal qualitative characteristics and of appropriate accounting standards normally results in financial statements that convey what is generally understood as a true and fair view of, or as presenting fairly such information.財務報表經(jīng)常被描述為真實和公正地反映了或公正地反映了企業(yè)的財務狀況、經(jīng)營成果和財務狀況變動情況。雖然本結構不直接涉及這類概念,但是,對主要質(zhì)量特征和恰當會計準則的應用,通常可以產(chǎn)生能夠傳遞真實和公正的信息或公正地反映信息的財務報表。
常用會計英語詞匯 【字體:大 中 小】【打印】
基本詞匯
A(1)account 賬戶,報表
A(2)accounting postulate 會計假設
A(3)accounting valuation 會計計價
A(4)accountability concept 經(jīng)營責任概念
A(5)accountancy 會計職業(yè)
A(6)accountant 會計師
A(7)accounting 會計
A(8)agency cost 代理成本
A(9)accounting bases 會計基礎
A(10)accounting manual 會計手冊
A(11)accounting period 會計期間
A(12)accounting policies 會計方針
A(13)accounting rate of return 會計報酬率
A(14)accounting reference date 會計參照日
A(15)accounting reference period 會計參照期間
A(16)accrual concept 應計概念
A(17)accrual expenses 應計費用
A(18)acid test ratio 速動比率(酸性測試比率)
A(19)acquisition 收購
A(20)acquisition accounting 收購會計
A(21)adjusting events 調(diào)整事項
A(22)administrative expenses 行政管理費
A(23)amortization 攤銷
A(24)analytical review 分析性復核
A(25)annual equivalent cost 等量成本法
A(26)annual report and accounts 報告和報表
A(27)appraisal cost 檢驗成本
A(28)appropriation account 盈余分配賬戶
A(29)articles of association 公司章程細則
A(30)assets 資產(chǎn)
A(31)assets cover 資產(chǎn)擔保
A(32)asset value per share 每股資產(chǎn)價值
A(33)associated company 聯(lián)營公司
A(34)attainable standard 可達標準 A(35)attributable profit 可歸屬利潤 A(36)audit 審計
A(37)audit report 審計報告
A(38)auditing standards 審計準則
A(39)authorized share capital 額定股本 A(40)available hours 可用小時 A(41)avoidable costs 可避免成本 B(42)back-to-back loan 易幣貸款
B(43)backflush accounting 倒退成本計算 B(44)bad debts 壞帳
B(45)bad debts ratio 壞帳比率 B(46)bank charges 銀行手續(xù)費 B(47)bank overdraft 銀行透支
B(48)bank reconciliation 銀行存款調(diào)節(jié)表 B(49)bank statement 銀行對賬單 B(50)bankruptcy 破產(chǎn)
B(51)basis of apportionment 分攤基礎 B(52)batch 批量
B(53)batch costing 分批成本計算 B(54)beta factor B(市場)風險因素B B(55)bill 賬單
B(56)bill of exchange 匯票 B(57)bill of lading 提單
B(58)bill of materials 用料預計單 B(59)bill payable 應付票據(jù) B(60)bill receivable 應收票據(jù) B(61)bin card 存貨記錄卡 B(62)bonus 紅利
B(63)book-keeping 薄記
B(64)Boston classification 波士頓分類 B(65)breakeven chart 保本圖 B(66)breakeven point 保本點
B(67)breaking-down time 復位時間 B(68)budget 預算
B(69)budget center 預算中心
B(70)budget cost allowance 預算成本折讓 B(71)budget manual 預算手冊 B(72)budget period 預算期間
B(73)budgetary control 預算控制 B(74)budgeted capacity 預算生產(chǎn)能力 B(75)business center 經(jīng)營中心 B(76)business entity 營業(yè)個體 B(77)business unit 經(jīng)營單位
B(78)by-product 副產(chǎn)品
C(79)called-up share capital 催繳股本 C(80)capacity 生產(chǎn)能力
C(81)capacity ratios 生產(chǎn)能力比率 C(82)capital 資本
C(83)capital assets pricing model 資本資產(chǎn)計價模式 C(84)capital commitment 承諾資本 C(85)capital employed 已運用的資本 C(86)capital expenditure 資本支出
C(87)capital expenditure authorization 資本支出核準 C(88)capital expenditure control 資本支出控制 C(89)capital expenditure proposal 資本支出申請 C(90)capital funding planning 資本基金籌集計劃 C(91)capital gain 資本收益
C(92)capital investment appraisal 資本投資評估 C(93)capital maintenance 資本保全
C(94)capital resource planning 資本資源計劃 C(95)capital surplus 資本盈余 C(96)capital turnover 資本周轉(zhuǎn)率 C(97)card 記錄卡 C(98)cash 現(xiàn)金
C(99)cash account 現(xiàn)金賬戶 C(100)cash book 現(xiàn)金賬薄 C(101)cash cow 金牛產(chǎn)品 C(102)cash flow 現(xiàn)金流量
C(103)cash flow budget 現(xiàn)金流量預算 C(104)cash flow statement 現(xiàn)金流量表 C(105)cash ledger 現(xiàn)金分類賬 C(106)cash limit 現(xiàn)金限額 C(107)CCA 現(xiàn)時成本會計 C(108)center 中心
C(109)changeover time 變更時間
C(110)chartered entity 特許經(jīng)濟個體 C(111)cheque 支票
C(112)cheque register 支票登記薄 C(113)classification 分類 C(114)clock card 工時卡 C(115)code 代碼
C(116)commitment accounting 承諾確認會計 C(117)common cost 共同成本
C(118)company limited by guarantee 有限擔保責任公司 C(119)company limited by shares 股份有限公司 C(120)competitive position 競爭能力狀況 C(121)concept 概念
C(122)conglomerate 跨行業(yè)企業(yè)
C(123)consistency concept 一致性概念 C(124)consolidated accounts 合并報表 C(125)consolidation accounting 合并會計 C(126)consortium 財團
C(127)contingency plan 應急計劃
C(128)contingent liabilities 或有負債 C(129)continuous operation 連續(xù)生產(chǎn) C(130)contra 抵消
C(131)contract cost 合同成本
C(132)contract costing 合同成本計算 C(133)contribution centre 貢獻中心 C(134)contribution chart 貢獻圖 C(135)control 控制
C(136)control account 控制賬戶 C(137)control limits 控制限度
C(138)controllability concept 可控制概念 C(139)controllable cost 可控制成本 C(140)conversion cost 加工成本
C(141)convertible loan stock 可轉(zhuǎn)換為股票的貸款 C(142)corporate appraisal 公司評估 C(143)corporate planning 公司計劃
C(144)corporate social reporting 公司社會報告 C(145)cost 成本
C(146)cost account 成本賬戶 C(147)cost accounting 成本會計
C(148)cost accounting manual 成本手冊 C(149)cost adjustment 成本調(diào)整 C(150)cost allocation 成本分配 C(151)cost apportionment 成本分攤 C(152)cost attribution 成本歸屬 C(153)cost audit 成本審計
C(154)cost benefit analysis 成本效益分析 C(155)cost center 成本中心 C(156)cost driver 成本動因
C(157)cost of capital 資本成本 C(158)cost of goods sold 銷貨成本
C(159)cost of non-conformance 非相符成本 C(160)cost of sales 銷售成本 C(161)cost reduction 成本降低 C(162)cost structure 成本結構 C(163)cost unit 成本單位
C(164)cost-volume-profit analysis(CVP)本量利分析 C(165)costing 成本計算
C(166)credit note 貸項通知
C(167)credit report 信貸報告書 C(168)creditor 債權人
C(169)creditor days ratio 應付賬款天數(shù)率 C(170)creditors ledger 應付賬款分類賬 C(171)critical event 關鍵事項 C(172)critical path 關鍵路線
C(173)cumulative preference shares 累積優(yōu)先股 C(174)current asset 流動資產(chǎn)
C(175)current cost accounting 現(xiàn)時成本會計 C(176)current liabilities 流動負債
C(177)current purchasing power accounting 現(xiàn)時購買力會計 C(178)current ratio 流動比率 C(179)cut-off 截止 C(180)CVP 本量利分析
C(181)cycle time 周轉(zhuǎn)時間 D(182)debenture 債券
D(183)debit note 借項通知
D(184)debit capacity 舉債能力 D(185)debt ratio 債務比率 D(186)debtor 債務人;應收賬款
D(187)debtor days ratio 應收賬款天數(shù)率 D(188)debtors ledger 應收賬款分類賬
D(189)debtor' age analysis 應收賬款賬齡分析 D(190)decision driven costs 決策連動成本 D(191)decision tree 決策樹 D(192)defects 次品
D(193)deferred expenditure 遞延支出 D(194)deferred shares 遞延股份 D(195)deferred taxation 遞延稅款 D(196)delivery note 交貨單
D(197)departmental accounts 部門報表 D(198)departmental budget 部門預算 D(199)depreciation 折舊 D(200)dispatch note 發(fā)運單
D(201)development cost 開發(fā)成本 D(202)differential cost 差別成本 D(203)direct cost 直接成本 D(204)direct debit 直接借項
D(205)direct hours yield 直接小時產(chǎn)出率
D(206)direct labour cost percentage rate 直接人工成本百分比 D(207)direct labour hour rate 直接人工小時率
D(208)directs on indirect work 間接工作事項上的工時 D(209)discount rate 貼現(xiàn)率
D(210)discounted cash flow 現(xiàn)金流量貼現(xiàn) D(211)discretionary cost 酌量成本 D(212)distribution cost 攤銷成本 D(213)diversions 移用
D(214)diverted hours 移用小時
D(215)diverted hours ratio 移用工時比率 D(216)dividend 股利
D(217)dividend cover 股利產(chǎn)出率 D(218)dividend per share 每股股利 D(219)dog 疲軟產(chǎn)品
D(220)double entry accounting 復式會計 D(221)double-entry book-keeping 復式薄記 D(222)doubtful debts 可疑債務 D(223)down time 停工時間
D(224)dynamic programming 動態(tài)規(guī)劃 E(225)earning per share 每股盈利 E(226)earning ratio 市盈率
E(227)economic order quantity(EOQ)經(jīng)濟訂購批量 E(228)efficient market hypothesis 有效市場假設 E(229)efficiency ration 效率性比率 E(230)element of cost 成本要素 E(231)entity 經(jīng)濟個體
E(232)environmental audit 環(huán)境審計
E(233)environmental impact assessment 環(huán)境影響評價 E(234)EOQ 經(jīng)濟訂購批量 E(235)equity 權益
E(236)equity method of accounting 權益法會計計算 E(237)equity share capital 權益股本 E(238)equivalent units 當量 E(239)event 事項
E(240)exceptional items 例外事項 E(241)expected value 期望值 E(242)expenditure 支出 E(243)expenses 費用
E(244)external audit 外部審計
E(245)external failure cost 外部損失成本 E(246)extraordinary items 非常事項 F(247)factory goods 讓售商品 F(248)factoring 應收帳款讓售 F(249)fair value 公允價值 F(250)feedback 反饋 F(251)FIFO 先近先出法
F(252)final accounts 年終報表 F(253)finance lease 融資租賃
F(254)financial accounting 財務會計
F(255)financial accounts calendar adjustment 財務報表的日歷時間調(diào)整
F(256)financial management 財務管理
F(257)financial planning 財務計劃
F(258)financial statement 財務報表
F(259)finished goods 完成品
F(260)fixed asset 固定資產(chǎn)
F(261)fixed overhead 固定制造費用
F(262)fixed asset turnover 固定資產(chǎn)周轉(zhuǎn)率
F(263)fixed assets register 固定資產(chǎn)登記薄
F(264)fixed cost 固定成本
F(265)flexed budget 變動限額預算
F(266)flexible budget 彈性預算
F(267)float time 浮動時間
F(268)floating charge 流動抵押
F(269)flow of funds statement 資金流量表
F(270)forecasting 預測
F(271)founder's shares 發(fā)起人股份
F(272)full capacity 滿負荷生產(chǎn)能力
F(273)function costing 職能成本計算
F(274)functional budget 職能預算
F(275)fund accounting 基金會計
F(276)fundamental accounting concept 基礎會計概念
F(277)fungible assets 可互換資產(chǎn)
F(278)futuristic planning 遠景計劃
G(279)gap analysis 間距分析
G(280)gearing 舉債經(jīng)營比率(杠桿)
G(281)goal congruence 目標一致性
G(282)going concern concept 持續(xù)經(jīng)營概念
G(283)goods received note 商品收訖單
G(284)goodwill 商譽
G(285)gross dividend yield 總股息產(chǎn)出率
G(286)gross margin 總邊際
G(287)gross profit 毛利潤
G(288)gross profit percentage 毛利潤百分比
G(289)group 企業(yè)集團
G(290)group accounts 集團報表
H(291)high-geared 高結合杠桿(比例)
H(292)hire purchase 租購
H(293)historical cost 歷史成本
H(294)historical cost accounting 歷史成本會計
H(295)hours 小時
H(296)hurdle rate 最低可接受的報酬率
I(297)ideal standard 理想標準
I(298)idle capacity ration 閑置生產(chǎn)能力比率 I(299)idle time 閑置時間
I(300)impersonal accounts 非記名賬戶 I(301)imprest system 定額備用制度
I(302)income and expenditure account 收益和支出報表 I(303)incomplete records 不完善記錄 I(304)incremental cost 增量成本 I(305)incremental yield 增量產(chǎn)出率 I(306)indirect cost 間接成本 I(307)indirect hours 間接小時 I(308)insolvency 無力償付
I(309)intangible asset 無形資產(chǎn) I(310)integrated accounts 綜合報表
I(311)interdependency concept 關聯(lián)性概念 I(312)interest cover 利息保障倍數(shù) I(313)interlocking accounts 連鎖報表 I(314)internal audit 內(nèi)部審計 I(315)internal check 內(nèi)部牽制
I(316)internal control system 內(nèi)部控制體系 I(317)internal failure cost 內(nèi)部損失成本
I(318)internal rate of return(IRR)內(nèi)含報酬率 I(319)inventory 存貨 I(320)investment 投資
I(321)investment center 投資中心 I(322)invoice register 發(fā)票登記薄 I(323)issued share capital 已發(fā)行股本 J(324)job 定單
J(325)job card 工作卡
J(326)job costing 工作成本計算 J(327)job sheet 工作單 J(328)joint cost 聯(lián)合成本 J(329)joint products 聯(lián)產(chǎn)品
J(330)joint stock company 股份公司 J(331)joint venture 合資經(jīng)營 J(332)journal 日記賬
J(333)just-in-time(JIT)適時制度
J(334)just-in-time production 適時生產(chǎn) J(335)just-in-time purchasing 適時購買 K(336)key factor 關鍵因素 L(337)labour 人工
L(338)labour transfer note 人工轉(zhuǎn)移單 L(339)leaning curve 學習曲線 L(340)ledger 分類賬戶
L(341)length of order book 定單平均周期
L(342)letter of credit 信用證
L(343)leverage 舉債經(jīng)營比率
L(344)liabilities 負債
L(345)life cycle costing 壽命周期成本計算
L(346)LIFO 后近先出法
L(347)limited liability company 有限責任公司
L(348)limiting factor 限制因素
L(349)line-item budget 明細支出預算
L(350)liner programming 線性規(guī)劃
L(351)liquid assets 變現(xiàn)資產(chǎn)
L(352)liquidation 清算
L(353)liquidity ratios 易變現(xiàn)比率
L(354)loan 貸款
L(355)loan capital 借入資本
L(356)long range planning 長期計劃
L(357)lost time record 虛耗時間記錄
L(358)low geared 低結合杠桿(比例)
L(359)lower of cost or net realizable value concept 成本或可變凈價孰低概念
M(360)machine hour rate 機器小時率
M(361)machine time record 機器時間記錄
M(362)managed cost 管理成本
M(363)management accounting 管理會計
M(364)management accounting concept 管理會計概念
M(365)management accounting guides 管理會計指導方針
M(366)management audit 管理審計
M(367)management buy-out 管理性購買產(chǎn)權
M(368)management by exception 例外管理原則
M(369)margin 邊際
M(370)margin of safety ration 安全邊際比率
M(371)margin cost 邊際成本
M(372)margin costing 邊際成本計算
M(373)mark-down 降低標價
M(374)mark-up 提高標價
M(375)market risk premium 市場分險補償
M(376)market share 市場份額
M(377)marketing cost 營銷成本
M(378)matching concept 配比概念
M(379)materiality concept 重要性概念
M(380)materials requisition 領料單
M(381)materials returned note 退料單
M(382)materials transfer note 材料轉(zhuǎn)移單
M(383)memorandum of association 公司設立細則
M(384)merger 兼并
M(385)merger accounting 兼并會計 M(386)minority interest 少數(shù)股權 M(387)mixed cost 混合成本 N(388)net assets 凈資產(chǎn)
N(389)net book value 凈賬面價值
N(390)net liquid funds 凈可變現(xiàn)資金 N(391)net margin 凈邊際
N(392)net present value(NPV)凈現(xiàn)值 N(393)net profit 凈利潤
N(394)net realizable value 可變現(xiàn)凈值 N(395)net worth 資產(chǎn)凈值
N(396)network analysis 網(wǎng)絡分析 N(397)noise 干撈
N(398)nominal account 名義賬戶
N(399)nominal share capital 名義股本 N(400)nominal holding 代理持有股份 N(401)non-adjusting events 非調(diào)整事項
N(402)non-financial performance measurement 非財務業(yè)績計量 N(403)non-integrated accounts 非綜合報表 N(404)non-liner programming 非線性規(guī)劃 N(405)non-voting shares 無表決權的股份 N(406)notional cost 名義成本
N(407)number of days stock 存貨周轉(zhuǎn)天數(shù) N(408)number of weeks stock 存貨周轉(zhuǎn)周數(shù) O(409)objective classification 客體分類 O(410)obsolescence 陳舊
O(411)off balance sheet finance 資產(chǎn)負債表外籌資 O(412)offer for sale 標價出售 O(413)operating budget 經(jīng)營預算 O(414)operating lease 經(jīng)營租賃
O(415)operating statement 營業(yè)報表 O(416)operation time 操作時間
O(417)operational control 經(jīng)營控制 O(418)operational gearing 經(jīng)營杠桿 O(419)operating plans 經(jīng)營計劃 O(420)opportunity cost 機會成本 O(421)order 定單
O(422)ordinary shares 普通股
O(423)out-of-date cheque 過期支票 O(424)over capitalization 過分資本化 O(425)overhead 制造費用
O(426)overhead absorption rate 制造費用分配率 O(427)overhead cost 制造費用
O(428)overtrading 超過營業(yè)資金的經(jīng)營 P(429)paid cheque 已付支票
P(430)paid-up share capital 認定股本 P(431)parent company 母公司
P(432)pareto distribution 帕累托分布
P(433)participating preference shares 參與優(yōu)先股 P(434)partnership 合伙
P(435)payable ledger 應付款項賬戶 P(436)payback 回收期
P(437)payments and receipts account 收入和支出報表 P(438)payments withheld 保留款額 P(439)payroll 工資單
P(440)payroll analysis 工資分析
P(441)percentage profit on turnover 利潤對營業(yè)額比率 P(442)period cost 期間成本
P(443)perpetual inventory 永續(xù)盤存 P(444)personal account 記名賬戶 P(445)PEPT 項目評審法
P(446)petty cash account 備用金賬戶 P(447)petty cash voucher 備用金憑證 P(448)physical inventory 實地盤存 P(449)planning 計劃
P(450)planning horizon 計劃時限 P(451)planning period 計劃期間 P(452)policy cost 政策成本 P(453)position audit 狀況審計
P(454)post balance sheet events 資產(chǎn)負債表編后事項 P(455)practical capacity 實際生產(chǎn)能力 P(456)pre-acquisition losses 購置前損失 P(457)pre-acquisition profits 購置前利潤 P(458)preference shares 優(yōu)先股
P(459)preference creditors 優(yōu)先債權人 P(460)preferred creditors 優(yōu)先債權人 P(461)prepayments 預付款項 P(462)present value 現(xiàn)值
P(463)prevention cost 預防成本 P(464)price ratio 市盈率 P(465)prime cost 主要成本
P(466)prime entry-books of 原始分錄登記薄 P(467)principal budget factor 主要預算因素 P(468)prior charge capital 優(yōu)先股
P(469)prior year adjustments 以前調(diào)整
P(470)priority base budgeting 優(yōu)先順序體制的預算 P(471)private company 私人公司
P(472)pro-forma invoice 預開發(fā)票 P(473)problem child 問號產(chǎn)品
P(474)process costing 分步成本計算 P(475)process time 加工時間 P(476)product cost 產(chǎn)品成本
P(477)Product life cycle 產(chǎn)品壽命周期 P(478)production cost 生產(chǎn)成本
P(479)production cost of sales 售貨成本
P(480)production volume ratio 生產(chǎn)業(yè)務量比率 P(481)profit center 利潤中心
P(482)profit per employee 每員工利潤
P(483)profit retained for the year 利潤留存 P(484)profit to turnover ratio 利潤對營業(yè)額比率 P(485)profit-volume graph 利量圖 P(486)profitability index 盈利指數(shù) P(487)programming 規(guī)劃
P(488)project evaluation and review technique 項目評審法 P(489)projection 預計
P(490)promissory note 本票 P(491)prospectus 募債說明書
P(492)provisions for liabilities and charges 償債和費用準備 P(493)prudent concept 穩(wěn)健性概念 P(494)public company 公開公司 P(495)purchase order 訂購單
P(496)purchase requisition 請購單 P(497)purchase ledger 采購賬戶
Q(498)quality related costs 質(zhì)量有關成本 Q(499)queuing time 排隊時間 R(500)rate 率 R(501)ratio 比率
R(502)ration pyramid 比率金字塔 R(503)raw material 原材料
R(504)receipts and payments account 收入和支付報表 R(505)receivable ledger 應收款項賬戶 R(506)redeemable shares 可贖回股份 R(507)redemption 贖回
R(508)registered share capital 注冊資本 R(509)rejects 廢品
R(510)relevancy concept 相關性概念 R(511)relevant costs 相關成本 R(512)relevant range 相關范圍
R(513)reliability concept 可靠性概念 R(514)replacement price 重置價格 R(515)report 報表
R(516)reporting 報告
R(517)research cost, applied 應用性研究成本
R(518)research cost, pure or basic 理論或基礎研究成本
R(519)reserves 留存收益
R(520)residual income 剩余收益
R(521)responsibility center 責任中心
R(522)retention money 保留款額
R(523)return on capital employed 運用資本報酬率
R(524)returns 退回
R(525)revenue 收入
R(526)revenue center 收入中心
R(527)revenue expenditure 收益支出
R(528)revenue investment 收入性投資
R(529)right issue 認股權發(fā)行
R(530)rolling budget 滾動預算
R(531)rolling forecast 滾動預測
S(532)sales ledger 銷售分類賬
S(533)sales order 銷售定單
S(534)sales per employee 每員工銷售額
S(535)scrap 廢料
S(536)scrip issue 紅股發(fā)行
S(537)secured creditors 有擔保的債權人
S(538)segmental reporting 分部報告
S(539)selling cost 銷售成本
S(540)semi-fixed cost 半固定成本
S(541)semi-variable cost 半變動成本
S(542)sensitivity analysis 敏感性分析
S(543)service cost center 服務成本中心
S(544)service costing 服務成本計算
S(545)set-up time 安裝時間
S(546)shadow prices 影子價格
S(547)share 股票
S(548)share capital 股份資本
S(549)share option scheme 購股權證方案
S(550)share premium 股票溢價
S(551)sight draft 即期匯票
S(552)single-entry book-keeping 單式薄記
S(553)sinking fund 償債基金
S(554)slack time 松弛時間
S(555)social responsibility cost 社會責任成本
S(556)sole trader 獨資經(jīng)營者
S(557)source and application of funds statement 資金來源和運用表
S(558)special order costing 特殊定單成本計算
S(559)staff costs 職工成本
S(560)statement of account 營業(yè)賬單 S(561)statement of affairs 財務狀況表 S(562)statutory body 法定實體 S(563)stock 存貨
S(564)stock control 存貨控制 S(565)stock turnover 存貨周轉(zhuǎn)率 S(566)stocktaking 盤點存貨
S(567)stores requisition 領料申請單
S(568)strategic business unit 戰(zhàn)略性經(jīng)營單位
S(569)strategic management accounting 戰(zhàn)略管理會計 S(570)strategic planning 戰(zhàn)略計劃 S(571)strategy 戰(zhàn)略
S(572)subjective classification 主體分類 S(573)subscribed share capital 已認購的股本 S(574)subsidiary undertaking 子公司 S(575)sunk cost 沉沒成本
S(576)supply estimate 預算估計 S(577)supply expenditure 預算支出 S(578)suspense account 暫記賬戶
S(579)SWOT analysis 長處和短處,機會和威脅分析 S(580)system 制度,體系
T(581)tactical planning 策略計劃 T(582)tactics 策略 T(583)take-over 接收
T(584)tangible asset 有形資產(chǎn)
T(585)tangible fixed asset statement 有形固定資產(chǎn)表 T(586)target cost 目標成本
T(587)terotechnology 設備綜合工程學 T(588)throughput accounting 生產(chǎn)量會計 T(589)time 時間
T(590)time sheet 時間記錄表 T(591)total assets 總資產(chǎn)
T(592)total quality management 全面質(zhì)量管理 T(593)total stocks 存貨總計
T(594)trade creditors 購貨客戶(應付賬款)T(595)trade debtors 銷貨客戶(應收賬款)T(596)trading profit and loss account 營業(yè)損益表 T(597)transfer price 轉(zhuǎn)讓價格 T(598)transit time 中轉(zhuǎn)時間 T(599)treasurership 財務長制度 T(600)trail balance 試算平衡表 T(601)turnover 營業(yè)額
U(602)uncalled share capital 未催繳股本
U(603)under capitalization 不足資本化
U(604)under or over-absorbed overhead 少吸收或多吸收的制造費用
U(605)uniform accounting 統(tǒng)一會計
U(606)uniform costing 統(tǒng)一成本計算
U(607)unissued share capital 未發(fā)行股本
V(608)value 價值
V(609)value added 增值
V(610)value analysis 價值分析
V(611)value for money audit 經(jīng)濟效益審計
V(612)vote 表決
V(613)voucher 憑證
W(614)waiting time 等候時間
W(615)waste 廢品(料)
W(616)wasting asset 遞耗資產(chǎn)
W(617)weighted average cost of capital 資本的加權平均成本
W(618)weighted average price 加權平均價格
W(619)with resource 有追索權
W(620)without recourse 無追索權
W(621)working capital 營運資本
W(622)write-down 減值
Z(623)zero base budgeting 零基預算
Z(624)zero coupon bond 無息債券
Z(625)Z score 破產(chǎn)預測計分法
第四篇:英語口譯(二級)講義
英語口譯(二級)精講班第1講講義
001 二級口譯實務考試介紹
Lecture 1
1、二級口譯實務考試介紹
英語口譯二級考試分《口譯綜合能力》 和《口譯實務》測試兩部分,旨在檢測應試者的口譯實踐能力是否達到專業(yè)譯員水平。合格的應試者應能熟練運用口譯技巧,完整準確地譯出原話內(nèi)容,無錯譯漏譯。
英語口譯實務(二級)考試含“英漢交替?zhèn)髯g”和“漢英交替?zhèn)髯g”。題量各占50%,含總量約1000單詞的英語講話兩篇和總量約1000漢字的漢語講話兩篇,時間約60分鐘??荚噧?nèi)容涉及政治、經(jīng)濟、文化、外交、旅游、信息科技、經(jīng)融貿(mào)易、環(huán)境保護、衛(wèi)生健康等,跟翻譯專業(yè)所要求掌握的知識和技能相一致,要求應試者知識結構分布合理,專業(yè)技能達到一定的水平。
英語口譯實務考試一律采取現(xiàn)場錄音的方式,考試結果記錄在磁帶上??荚嚨脑u分標準非常細化,一個考生的磁帶要有兩個以上的人去聽,并且聽出來的結果基本一致,最后再由專家組根據(jù)考生錄音核定成績。
應該說英語口譯實務(二級)考試具有一定的挑戰(zhàn)性,要求應試者過語言關、知識關和技術關,同時還要有穩(wěn)定的心理因素。按照翻譯專業(yè)人員的四個等級來劃分,即:助理翻譯、翻譯、副譯審和譯審,二級就是翻譯級,也就是我們所說的中級職稱。因此,二級口譯試題的定位基本上是針對大學外語專業(yè)比較優(yōu)秀的畢業(yè)生,經(jīng)過幾年的翻譯實踐應能達到的水平。二級口譯考試模塊的設計也是基于這一理念,即要求應試者具備比較全面的知識結構和良好的雙語互譯能力。具體說來,應試者應具備良好的語言知識(Linguistic Knowledge)、語言外的知識(Extra-Linguistic Knowledge)以及分析能力(Analysis)。同時應試者還應具備敏銳的聽力、良好的短時記憶、行之有效的筆記、以及準確靈活的雙語表達等口譯所必須的基本能力。
2、口譯學習講解
技巧和語言基本功相結合。課程講解同時關注這兩點。
3、口譯技巧介紹
口譯技巧(Interpretation Techniques)根據(jù)口譯步驟(信息接收—信息儲存—信息處理—信息輸出)為基礎,總結出以下技巧:(1)聽辨;
(2)思維理解1—邏輯分析;
(3)思維理解2—信息視覺;
(4)思維理解3 —將認知信息納入理解軌道
(5)記憶機制1—瞬時記憶、短時記憶、長時記憶;
(6)記憶機制2-記憶訓練方法;
(7)筆記方法1—記什么?(8)筆記方法2—怎么記?
(9)數(shù)字口譯1—單純數(shù)字口譯
(10)數(shù)字口譯2—數(shù)字與信息相結合(11)習語的口譯;
(12)模糊信息處理技巧;
(13)口譯中的文化差異;
(14)口譯中的句法轉(zhuǎn)換;
(15)語境因素處理技巧;
(16)臨場應變技巧。
我們將把這些技巧穿插在我們的講解之中,輔以必要練習。
4、口譯課程結構介紹
每次課內(nèi)容安排:50分鐘
技巧講解和練習20' 語言練習10' 篇章練習20' 002 聽辨技巧
一、聽辨技巧
“聽辨”,顧名思義,不僅要“聽”還要“辨”,即思考、分析?!奥牨妗笔强谧g過程中的第一個階段。在這個過程中我們接收到源語信息,并通過種種分析手段把接收到的信息納入到我們的理解范疇,以便儲存和輸出。毫無疑問,口譯的成敗在很大程度上取決于聽辨的過程。所以大家首先要對口譯的聽辨過程有一個透徹的認識,以便有針對性地進行練習,以提高自己的聽辨能力。
口譯中的聽辨過程和大家平時在英語學習中所接受的聽力訓練是不同的,但二者又有一定的聯(lián)系。
首先,具備良好的聽力水平是培養(yǎng)好的聽辨能力的基礎。換句話說,如果一個人的外語聽力有問題,那么無論他的語言表達能力有多強,他都很難勝任口譯工作。然而光有好的聽力還不夠,因為聽辨過程還涉及到其他方面的能力。這一點可以從聽力訓練與聽辨過程的區(qū)別中看出來。
1.英語的聽力訓練中比較注重語言層面,也就是說他們會十分注意語音、語調(diào)和語言的表達及用法等。而譯員在聽辨過程中所注重的是意思,或是講話者的意圖而不是具體的詞句表達。所以譯員在聽到一段話之后在頭腦中形成的是一個有邏輯關系的語意整體,而不僅僅是詞句的簡單集合。
2.聽力練習中主要啟動聽覺系統(tǒng),理解只是一個被動而附帶的過程。而譯員在聽辨過程中不僅要啟動聽覺系統(tǒng),還要啟動大腦中的分析理解機制和記憶機制。也就是說譯員要邊聽、邊分析、邊理解、邊記憶。所以,與一般的外語學習相比較而言,專業(yè)譯員要具有更強的分析能力,要會“一心多用”。
3.在聽的過程中,信息接收是被動和跟隨性的,對信息的反映略顯滯后。而譯員的聽辨過程是積極而主動的。在聽的過程中伴有很大程度的預測和判斷行為。常常需要調(diào)動非語言因素對所聽內(nèi)容進行分析、整理、補充和聯(lián)想等。
4.用作聽力訓練的材料,信息比較清晰,雜音干擾較少。而譯員在口譯工作中所處的信息環(huán)境是現(xiàn)場性的,因此不確定性因素較多;信息干擾、信息缺失時有發(fā)生。而且,講話者以交流為唯一目的,在信息發(fā)布過程中并不照顧或考慮譯員的狀態(tài)。
綜上所述,口譯的聽辨過程較一般外語聽力訓練過程要復雜得多,對能力的要求也要高得多。大家需要建立這樣一個意識,即口譯的過程不是一個信息背誦加字詞翻譯的過程。而是一個通過聽辨將信息接收、理解,再用譯入語將理解了的信息加以表達的過程。以下提供一些訓練方法供大家參考,以英語聽辨能力的訓練為主。
1.可以選擇一些英文有聲資料(最好是現(xiàn)場講話)或是請練習搭檔模擬現(xiàn)場發(fā)言。聽過一段話后,在不記筆記的情況下用源語(英文)進行復述。注意在聽的過程中要把注意力從詞句表達上移開,而專注于整段話的邏輯意思。在復述時不要拘泥于原文的詞句,更不要試圖背原話。意思和邏輯關系要盡量復述的準確完整。
2.在聽辨訓練的初級階段,如果還不能完全掌握邊聽、邊分析、邊記憶的技能,可采取就所聽內(nèi)容進行提問的方式建立邏輯關系。比如可以將注意力放在WHAT、WHO、WHEN AND WHERE、HOW AND WHY 等幾個要素上。通過這種方式增強邏輯分析意識,努力跟上講話人的思路,從而對所聽語篇有一個正確的理解。
3.每段講話的長度可隨熟練程度的加強而逐步增加:比如從聽幾句話到聽一小段,從一小段到一大段到數(shù)段等。并且可以嘗試聽各種不同風格的講話。選題也可以從比較熟悉的領域逐步擴展到比較陌生的領域,以培養(yǎng)臨場適應能力和分析綜合的能力。
練習1:
要求,認真聽原文,不要記筆記,根據(jù)WHAT、WHO、WHEN AND WHERE、HOW AND WHY 幾大要素總結段落大意。
Tea drinking was common in China for nearly one thousand years before anyone in Europe had ever heard about tea.People in Britain were much slower in finding out what tea was like, mainly because tea was very expensive.It could not be bought in shops and even those people who could afford to have it sent from Holland did so only because it was a fashionable curiosity.Some of them were not sure how to use it.They thought it was a vegetable and tried cooking the leaves.Then they served them mixed with butter and salt.They soon discovered their mistake but many people used to spread the used tea leaves on bread and give them to their children as sandwiches.What's the general idea of this short passage? Compared with the Chinese, People in Europe, particularly in Britain were much slower in finding out what tea was like, and how to use it.They cooked tea leaves as vegetable and served them with butter and salt and even made them part of Children's sandwiches.練習2 Tea remained scarce and very expensive in England until the ships of the East India Company began to bring it direct from China early in the seventeenth century.During the next few years so much tea came into the country that the price fell and many people could afford to buy it.At the same time people on the Continent were becoming more and more fond of tea.Until then tea had been drunk without milk in it, but one day a famous French lady named Madame de Sevigne decided to see what tea tasted like when milk was added.She found it so pleasant that she would never again drink it without milk.Because she was such a great lady her friends thought they must copy everything she did, so they also drank their tea with milk in it.Slowly this habit spread until it reached England and today only very few Britons drink tea without milk.General idea:
Tea remained scarce and very expensive in England until the ships of the East India Company began to bring it direct from China early in the seventeenth century.?? On the continent, people used to drink tea without milk until a French lady invented the habit of drinking tea with milk.003 詞匯積累
二、主題練習——會議致辭詞匯
詞匯積累
(致)歡迎/開幕/閉幕詞(deliver/make)a welcome/opening/closing speech/address/lecture 開/閉/揭幕式 opening/closing/unveiling ceremony
舉行烈士紀念碑的揭幕典禮 unveil a monument to the martyrs 為展覽會揭幕 inaugurate an exhibition 奠基典禮 foundation laying ceremony 開學典禮 school’s opening ceremony
畢業(yè)典禮 graduation ceremony /commencement 開國大典 founding ceremony of a state 婚禮 wedding ceremony 慶典 celebration 答謝宴會 return banquet 晚宴 evening reception/dinner 招待會/宴會 reception 冷餐招待會 buffet reception 聯(lián)歡/新年/篝火晚會 get-together/spring festival/campfire party 酒會 cocktail party 宣布…開幕 declare…open;declare the commencement of … 宣布…閉幕 declare the closing/conclusion of … 陛下 Your/His/Her Majesty 殿下 Your/His/Her(Royal/Imperial/Serene)Highness 閣下 Your/His/Her Honor/Excellency 貴賓們 distinguished guests 尊敬的主席先生respectable/honorable/respected Mr.President 至此… 之際 on the occasion of 代表… on behalf of …
我愿借此機會… I would like to take this opportunity to …/ I would like to avail myself of this great opportunity to …
我代表中國政府向各位來賓表示熱烈歡迎,對會議的召開表示衷心祝賀!On behalf of the Chinese government, I would like to extend our sincere welcome to all the guests here and to express our warm congratulations on the convening of this session.最后,祝各位在北京生活愉快,并祝會議圓滿成功!
Finally, I wish a full success of the conference and wish you all a pleasant stay here in Beijing.
第五篇:英語第一節(jié)課講義
山豐教育英語講義
第一講
英語語法中的基本概念
主語,是執(zhí)行句子的行為或動作的主體,如“我寫字”中的“我”,就是主語,它做出“寫”這個動作?!皩憽眲t是謂語,用來修飾主語,而“字”是接受謂語“寫”這個動作的對象,它因此被稱為賓語,有的語法書也稱它為“客體”或“受體”。主語可以由這些列詞類或形式來擔任:名詞,代詞,名詞化的動詞,形容詞,分詞,副詞或數(shù)詞等,動詞不定式或不定式短語,從句,某些固定詞組。
謂語是對主語動作或狀態(tài)的陳述或說明,指出“做什么”do what,“是什么”what is this或是“怎么樣”how.謂語動詞的位置一般在主語之后,經(jīng)常用動詞和形容詞搭配然后用來充當謂語動詞。
賓語,又稱受詞,是指一個動作(動詞)的接受者。賓語分為直接賓語和間接賓語兩大類,其中直接賓語指動作的直接對象,間接賓語說明動作的非直接,但受動作影響的對象。一般而言,及物動詞后面最少要有一個賓語,而該賓語通常為直接賓語,有些及物動詞要求兩個賓語,則這兩個賓語通常一個為直接賓語,另一個為間接賓語。
定語是用來修飾、限定、說明名詞或代詞的品質(zhì)與特征的。主要有形容詞,此外還有名詞、代詞、數(shù)詞、介詞短語、動詞不定式(短語)、分詞、定語從句或相當于形容詞的詞、短語或句子都可以作定語。漢語中常用?……的?表示。定語和中心語之間是修飾和被修飾、限制和被限制的關系。在漢語中,中心語與定語二者之間有的需要用結構助詞“的”,有的不需要,有的可要可不要?!暗摹笔嵌ㄕZ的標志。在英語語法中,定語有許多的運用,需要遵循很多相關規(guī)律。
狀語(adverbial)是句子的重要修飾成分。狀語是謂語里的另一個附加成分,它附加在謂語中心語的前面,從情況、時間、處所、方式、條件、對象、肯定、否定、范圍和程度等方面對謂語中心進行修飾或限制。在不同的語言中“狀語”有不同的作用。中文狀語是動詞或形容詞前面的連帶成分,用來修飾、限制動詞或形容詞,表示動作的狀態(tài)、方式、時間、處所或程度等;德語狀語修飾動詞、形容詞、副詞或整個句子;英語狀語修飾動詞、形容詞、副詞等的句子成分。狀語與定語相同的地方是,都是前者附加成分;不同的地方是,它是謂語里的附加成分,而定語是主語或賓語里的附加成分。從句子的層次上看,狀語是在第二個層次和第三個層次里的成分,有時甚至是更低層次的成分。
名詞(Nouns,簡稱n.),是詞類的一種,屬于實詞,名詞表示人、事物、地點或抽象概念的名稱。
代詞(Pronoun)是代替名詞或一句話的一種詞類。大多數(shù)代詞具有名詞和形容詞的功能。英語中的代詞,按其意義、特征及在句中的作用分為:人稱代詞、物主代詞、指示代詞、反身代詞、相互代詞、疑問代詞、關系代詞、連接代詞和不定代詞九種。
數(shù)詞(Numeral),表示數(shù)量或順序的詞叫做數(shù)詞。數(shù)詞分為兩大類,即基數(shù)詞和序數(shù)詞?;鶖?shù)詞表示數(shù)量,如:one,two,three,four……;序數(shù)詞表示順序,如:first,second,third,fourth……序數(shù)詞前一般要加the 冠詞(Article)是一種虛詞,在句子中不重讀,本身不能獨立使用,只能放在名詞前幫助說明名詞所指的人或事物,它是英語詞性中最小的一類,只有三個,一種是不定冠詞(Indefinite Article),一種是定冠詞(Definite Article)。此外也有些特定場合不用冠詞,即通常所稱的零冠詞(Zero Article)。其中冠詞簡稱“art.”
介詞(preposition 簡寫prep.)又稱作前置詞,表示名詞、代詞等與句中其他詞的關系,在句中不能單獨作句子成分。介詞后面一般有名詞、代詞或相當于名詞的其他詞類、短語或從句作它的賓語,表示與其他成分的關系。介詞和它的賓語構成介詞詞組,在句中作狀語,表語,補語或介詞賓語。介詞可以分為時間介詞、地點介詞、方式介詞、原因介詞、數(shù)量介詞和其他介詞。介詞一般用于名詞或者代詞前面,表示該詞與句中其他成分的關系。介詞后面的名詞或代詞稱為介詞賓語(如果是人稱代詞,則要用賓格)。介詞和介詞賓語合在一起構成介詞短語。
形容詞(Adjective),很多語言中均有的主要詞類中的一種。形容詞主要用來描寫或修飾名詞或代詞,表示人或事物的性質(zhì)、狀態(tài)、特征、或?qū)傩?,常用作定語,也可作表語、補語或狀語。
副詞(Adverb)是指在句子中表示行為或狀態(tài)特征的詞,用以修飾動詞、形容詞、其他副詞或全句,表示時間、地點、程度、方式等概念。副詞可分為:時間和頻率副詞、地點副詞、方式副詞、程度副詞、疑問副詞、連接副詞、關系副詞、表順序的副詞、常用于完成時的副詞。
連詞是用來連接詞與詞、詞組與詞組或句子與句子、表示某種邏輯關系的虛詞。連詞可以表并列、承接、轉(zhuǎn)折、因果、選擇、假設、比較、讓步等關系。并列連詞(coordinating conjunction)主要是用來表示并列關系、轉(zhuǎn)折關系、選擇關系、因果推理關系等。連詞用于引導從句以形成句子的一部分或修飾句子的構成要素,從屬連詞是連詞的一種,用來引導名詞性從句和狀語從句。