第一篇：長安大學畢業(yè)設計英文翻譯《Influence of Air Void Distribution on the Moisture》

畢業(yè)設計（論文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 裝 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 訂 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 線 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 空隙率分布對水分的影響

描述和表征瀝青混合料 制備瀝青混合試件

實驗室使用的瀝青混合試件使用PG76-22瀝青結合料制造（馬林，科珀斯克里斯蒂，得克薩斯州）和經破碎的河道砂石骨料。試件的制備采用兩種不同的級配，在旋轉壓實儀里面的兩個壓實角，從頂部和底部修剪，以便產生不同的空隙率分布。圖1中提出的，在這項研究中所使用的兩個級配有12.5mm的最大粒徑。表1包括兩個級配的混合特性。

旋轉壓實儀用于壓實大小為直徑為150mm和高度為165mm的圓柱形試件。如表2詳細所訴，壓實角為1.25°和2.5°的預備試件屬于A級配，而只有一個角度1.25°被用于預備B級配的試件。這些試件是空心的和小幅裁切頂部和底部的尺寸為直徑100mm，高150mm?？障堵实陌俜致视蓪嶒炇覂仁褂谜婵彰芏葴y定儀系統(tǒng)測量所獲得（IntroTek公司，北卡羅來納州羅利）（美國試驗材料學會，2006a）。

預制12種級配類型的試件，以及其中一半使用過程中的含水量影響稍后會詳述。因此，對于表2中列出的每種混合類型，其中三次重復試件有效。正如將在后面討論的，試件被進一步在不同的位置裁切（在表2中的標記中心以及傾斜）直到最終高度為100mm。在這些較小試件中使用滲透性測量和機械測試。

滲透性測量

畢業(yè)設計（論文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 裝 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 訂 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 線 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 滲透性是孔隙介質的一個屬性，涉及其傳輸和排水能力。常水頭法被用來測量A級配和B級配混合試件的滲透率（美國材料與試驗協(xié)會 2006年b）。在測試期間，每個試件用橡膠膜包裹，然后放置在三軸滲透管中，其中的水被用于施加34.5 kPa的橫向圍壓。然后，通過試件將壓力施加到誘導水流中，即使在相對較高的水平，例如施加的壓力高達275.8kPa，也沒有水的流動。

畢業(yè)設計（論文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 裝 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 訂 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 線 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 上可以得到不同的圖像，從而能夠描述試件的整體。在掃描瀝青混合料試件前，用直徑為100mm的混凝土芯來校準，因為它的X射線衰減性能類似與被分析的瀝青混合料試件。標準試件，也被稱為楔形，通常用于糾正的X射線硬化和環(huán)形偽影的影響（凱查姆和卡爾森2001年）。使用512頻道的探測器其垂直間距為1mm來捕捉圖像。圖像水平分辨率為0.2mm/ piXel。

圖像處理

使用Image-Pro Plus軟件（Media Cybernetics公司，貝塞斯達，馬里蘭州）的IPBasic功能來開發(fā)的宏是用來處理和分析圖像的（Al-Omari等.2002年）。宏加載的圖像及將它們轉換為黑色和白色的基礎上的用戶輸入的閾值介于0到255，它表示該圖像中的級配等級。如果測得是級配強度低于指定的閾值，被賦的值為0（黑色），如果它高于指定的閾值，它被就會賦予一個值為255（白）。把原始圖像轉換成黑白構圖，其中黑色代表空隙，白色代表骨料和瀝青粘結劑。合適的閾值是對應的宏輸出的平均空隙率得到的（％AV），使用下面的公式計算，就可以用真空密度測定儀系統(tǒng)得到實驗室里測定的空隙率：

其中P =的圖像總數；（AV）=圖像i的空隙面積；AT=橫截面的圖像區(qū)域。

連通性分析

畢業(yè)設計（論文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 裝 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 訂 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 線 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ X光CT圖像也被用來研究空隙率的連通性。臨界值的圖像被轉換成二進制文本文件，所形成的圖像的每個像素是由一個數字值的矩陣轉換組成的。如果像素表示無效，相應的二進制文件中的數是零，并且如果它表示有效，相應的數字是一。將這些二進制文件公式輸入翻譯器（康柏電腦公司，休斯頓）以建立算法。該算法首先單獨處理每個二進制文件，并掃描每一個數值，當它遇到一個零，它會檢查八個附近的號碼，如果有更多的零，它們會被組合在一起作為相同無效的部分。一旦每個單獨的圖像被進行分析，該算法進行分析的垂直的連接，從圖像堆棧中的頂部移到底部。對于每一個確定無效對象，它會檢查下一個圖像中的相同位置和八個附近的號碼到該位置。如果有另一個零在其他地方，空隙被認為是連接在豎直方向上。相同的過程再來一次，時間是從圖像堆棧中的底部開始，考慮到的任何空氣中的路徑的曲折度。

該算法的輸出文件用Image-Pro Plus軟件將它們轉換成圖像文件處理。由此產生的圖像顯示連接路徑存在或空白影像如果沒有連接空隙就會被識別為試件中的空隙。兩個A級配和B試件的連通性分析輸出產生的空白圖像，這意味著所分析的試件中沒有連續(xù)空隙可檢測到的。這一發(fā)現(xiàn)支持了在上一節(jié)中所討論的試件的磁導率的不足。

空隙率分布

IPBasic宏計算空隙率百分比每幅圖像用公式1計算，平均孔隙半徑如下：

這里：Mi=圖像上每一個空隙數

初始空隙率分析使用的12個混合A級配試件，其直徑為100mm，高為150mm，分別使

畢業(yè)設計（論文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 裝 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 訂 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 線 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 用兩個不同的壓實角制備。圖像分析表明，所有這些試件的空隙率分布百分比、空隙率、空隙率半徑，其隨深度變化的變化是相似的。因此，決定通過微調試件不同的部位的頂部和底部，增加A級配試件之間的差異。決定微調的位置時，應考慮兩個主要因素。首先是有一組試件使用均勻的空隙率分布，另一組用在該領域的中心中觀察到的相似分布，用較大的孔隙表面百分比（Tashman等人，2002年）。

畢業(yè)設計（論文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 裝 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 訂 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 線 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 每組各屬于不同類型的混合試件被用來描述空隙率分布的平均值。圖2表示了的平均空隙率隨深度變化，圖3表示了為四種類型的混合料的平均孔隙半徑隨深度變化。在圖4中，空氣孔隙率之間的關系，提出每個圖像中的平均空隙率半徑，其中顯示的范圍，包括每種混合物類型空隙率和空隙率半徑?；旌狭螧2的孔隙率具有較高的半徑范圍（從0.76mm-0.97mm），而混合料A1有最小的范圍，包括百分比和半徑（分別從4.6-7.1％和從0.67-0.77mm）。混合料B1和B2通過對比孔隙率（4.9-8.8％相對于4.8-8.2％），混合料B2的有較大的空隙半徑（0.65-0.85mm相對于0.76mm-0.97mm），如

圖

和

4。

畢業(yè)設計（論文）

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濕度調節(jié)

半數的試件各級配類型和裁剪條件經受水分調節(jié)過程中使用壓實瀝青混合料的抗潮濕誘發(fā)的損害測試的標準方法（美國國有公路運輸管理員協(xié)會，2002）。MC是水分調節(jié)的縮寫，混合料類型的標注如表2所示。根據標準，試件進行真空飽和應達到一定程度，使得飽和度在70％和80％之間。真空飽和試件至指定的飽和度由所需的時間量來確定，在不同的試驗試件進行多次測試通過施加局部真空在650和700 mm汞柱之間。試驗表明A級配試件，其直徑為100mm和150mm的高度，2分鐘的真空飽和時間是足以使試件達到所需的飽和度。對于B級配試件的尺寸為100mm的直徑和高度，真空飽和時間需要35秒，使試件達到指定的飽和程度。

第二篇：采礦工程本科畢業(yè)設計英文翻譯

Use of Mineral Coal for Sorption Sewage Treatment

A.V.Mozolkova Russian University of People’s Friendship.Moscow, Russia E.V.Chekushina Russian University of People’s Friendship.Moscow, Russia A.A.Kaminskaya Russian University of People’s Friendship.Moscow, Russia

Treatment of mining, industrial, household and other sewage is an actual problem for many mining and processing enterprises.Coal-mining industry is not an exception.Usually, at coal enterprises, treatment of mine sewage before it is dumped consists in settling and subsequent filtering.Many pollutants are not removed from the sewage by this method.Hence, dumped water frequently does not satisfy sanitary requirements regarding the permissible content of oil products, dissolved substances and other parameters.For additional cleaning of sewage it is possible to use sorption methods.By these methods water is cleaned of oil products, heavy metals, a number of organic substances and other polluting substances, depending on the used sorbent properties.Both natural and artificial materials can be used as sorbents.Constraint for wide use of sorption methods of sewage treatment in the coal industry is high cost of the majority of sorbents.A number of technologies for obtaining inexpensive and good quality sorbents from coal minerals have been developed.These sorbents can be manufactured directly in coal mines which has additional advantage of reducing transport costs.The processes sorbents may be recycled or burnt.Apart from that production and sale of sorbents can serve the coal-mining enterprises as an additional source of income.One of the most widespread sorbents is activated coal.Quality activated coals are carbon sorbents, having an internal specific surface of more than 500㎡/g, and characterized by iodine adsorption(iodine value)of more than500mg/g.mineral coal, peat and wood can serve as raw materials for activated coal production.Traditional production techniques of activated coal include two basic stages of thermal processing of the initial carbon-containing raw material-carbonization and activation, done in different devices.Both stages are energy-consuming and ecologically dangerous, which explains the high cost of activated coal, received through this technology(1200-4000 dollars/MT).Carbonization is the elimination of volatile substances by heating up to the temperature of 600-900℃, because with volatile components there are basically formed the oxygen and hydrogen, and increase carbon content in initial raw material.Carbonization is done in mining or rotating furnaces with utilization of external form-holder, as a rule, waste gases with temperatures of 600℃ and higher.Activation means increasing the volume and pore surfaces of carbonized material at heterogeneous reaction.The most used reagent is water vapour with the temperature of 900℃ and higher, and the process takes 15-20 hours.Both stages are energy consuming and pose threat to environment.For one tonne of activated coal from 2 up to 4 tonnes of specific fuel like crude oil and natural gas are consumed.From 1000 up to 1500 m3 of processed gasses with high content of SOx(1-2 g/ m3), H2S(200-250mg/ m3), resinous substances(10-40mg/ m3), phenols(50-70mg/ m3), carbon oxides(up to 5%)and also other substances which are carcinogenic and mutagenic are formed and released into the atmosphere during both stages.High-energy consumption and environmental danger, which requires large investments in nature protection activities, result in the high cost of quality-activated coal.Another group of carbon sorbents, which was widespread in the 80’s, consists of inexpensive carbon sorbents used in nature protection technologies and industry.Such sorbents are produced by a one-phase technology, without additional activation.Their adsorption activity is not high(iodine value less than 300mg/g)but the cost is low(250-700 USD/MT).because the price of these sorbents is comparable to the cost of their regeneration, they are used only once and are burnt after saturation.The leaders in the production of such sorbents are Rheinbraun AG(Germany, 200 thousand MT per year)and Australian Char Ltd(Australia, 150 thousand MT per year), which produce brown coal semi-coke used for treatment of wastewater and smoke.In Russia research work in this direction is conducted, but only test works have been done so far, although the quality of carbon sorbents obtained from Kansk-Achinsk coals did not concede to production from Rheinbraun AG and Australian Char.One of the directions of utilization of semi-coke from Kansk-Achinsk coals, production of which was planed at Krasnoyarsc thermal power station 2(device ETX-175), was its utilization as carbon sorbent.The reason for production of inexpensive carbon sorbents by one-phase technologies being not developed in Russia is the absence of demand for this product.This production is basically used for cleaning of sewage, however there is no effective ecological service in Russia, and the penal sanctions of the environmental protection legislation are so insignificant that industrial enterprises do not have ant motivation to invest in nature protection.In1992-1994 the employees from Joint-Stock Company “Carbonica-F”(at that time Open Company “Sibtermo”)have developed a new method of production of carbon sorbents, which considerably from all known technologies.During the research of dynamic effects in a layer evaporator the regime conditions were defined under which the effect of “thermal wave” could be observed in the device.Using this effect, the authors created a layer evaporator in which volatile components of coal were exposed to gasification(incomplete oxidation), and the degree of carbon conversion was adjusted by the mode of injection feed.By changing the regime parameters it was possible to conduct the process as fuel gasification(with only ashes remaining in the end)without any residue, and also as gasification of volatile components of coal, thus receiving so-called semi-coke containing solid coal.From one tonne of Kansk-Achinsk coal with calorific content of 3600-3800 kcal/kg can be produced about 0.33 tonnes of semi-coke with calorific content up to 7000 kcal/kg(as anthracite)and up to 1700 m3 of combustible gas with calorific content of 800-900 kcalJm3, suitable for use as an energy source.Technological process of Joint-Stock Company “Carbonika-F” has a large number of advantages in comparison to the already known methods of obtaining activated coal and semi-coke

1.Simplicity of hardware.One-phase process.The stages of drying, pyrolysis, thermal decomposition of volatile substances and semi-coke cooling are incorporated in one device.The device is auto-metric;it means that external heat-carrier for coal heating is not used.2.Ecological safety.In the technology of Joint-Stock Company “Carbonica-F” all hydrocarbons, including resinous substances, are broken down and gasified inside the device during the formation of combustible gas containing only CO, H2, CO2, N2, H20, H2S and insignificant quantity CH4.Sludge, pyroligneous waters, phenols and other harmful impurities are not formed in this process.3.Because the speed of gas filtration from a layer reactor is low(0,02-0,03 m/s in comparison to 0,5-2,5 m/s for mine furnaces), the process is less dependent on fractional composition of coal, hydraulic resistance of the layer and allows to process fine-grained coals.4.As a result of low speed of filtration the phenomenon of carrying out of fly ashes from the layer does not occur, because the device works as a granular filter.Combustible gas is moved in user-boiler or can move to the gas turbine without preliminary cleaning.The volume of SOx, NOx, CO contained in waste gases is lower than that produced when obtaining equivalent quantity of heat by burning coal.Combustible gas without prior cleaning can be used to produce electric and/or thermal power or as an energy carrier for thermal processes.5.Unlike the already existing technologies, in the given process there is no dump（排空孔）of gaseous heat-carrier(氣體熱載體)into the atmosphere and consequently（因此）the construction of other additional gas purification systems（更多的天然氣凈化系統(tǒng)工程）and catalytic burning of carbon oxide(CO)（催化燃燒的碳氧化物）is not required.與現(xiàn)有的技術不同，在以上給出的過程呢個中，沒有氣體熱載體排放的到空中的排空孔，因此，更多的天然氣凈化系統(tǒng)和催化燃燒的碳氧化物的工程是不必要的。

Test of the solid residue(semi-coke)have revealed, that this material is characterized by large specific surface(more than 500㎡/g)and high adsorption activity(iodine value 500mg/g and higher), and because of these parameter does not concede to quality-activated coal.經過試驗的固體殘渣（半焦）表明：這種材料的特點是表面積大（大于五百平方米）并且有很強的吸附性（碘值是500毫克每克甚至更高）而且因為這些參數并不退讓與高質量的活性炭。

The product received with the technology of Joint-Stock Company “Carbonica-F” is certificated as activated coal ABG(active, brown coal of gasification), for it there were developed technical conditions TU 6-00209591-443-95.The characteristics of ABG activated coal produced from the coal of 62 mark from “Berezovsky-1” opencast colliery.獲得技術聯(lián)合股份公司“Carbonica-F認證的產品被認證為ABG類活性炭（就是具有活性的棕色的氣化煤）為此，在此基礎上又發(fā)展了TU 6-00209591-443-95技術條件。ABG活性炭的特點來自于出產它的來自”Berezovsky-1“露天煤礦的62號煤。

High specific surface and adsorption activity of ABG coal is explained by the fact that both gasification of coal volatile components, and activation of carbon-containing solid residue of gaseous products occur in the device simultaneously.Because gasification products contain up to 20%n of hydrogen whose molecules are smaller than the ones of water vapour, and hence their permeability in pores of semi-coke is higher, activation(heterogeneous reaction)is done not only with vapor, but also with hydrogen, which practically is not present in the traditional technologies.Thus, carbonization stages and activation are combined in one device.氣化煤揮發(fā)性成分和激活含碳固體殘留氣體產品同時在裝置上發(fā)生的事實就解釋了ABG煤的高比表面積和強大的吸附特性。因為氣化產品包含了20%以上的氫，而這些氫分子比那些水蒸汽要小一些，因此他們在半焦氣孔的滲透率就高一些，激活（異構反應）就完成了，不僅與蒸汽，還與氫，而這些實際上是傳統(tǒng)技術中不存在的。因此，碳化階段和激活是在同一裝置中同步進行的（相結合的）。

Other positive effect of application of this method of coal processing is that in ”thermal wave“ mode the products of thermal decomposition which contain very toxic resinous substances(coal tar pitch used in experimental medicine for the inoculation of cancer in experiments on mice, brown coal is more toxic), passing through a hot layer of semi-coke(500-700℃)are completely broken down into two and three-nuclei gases H2O, CO2, CO, H2.Measurements done at the working production plant of Joint-Stock Company ”Carbonica-F“ have shown that the gas does not contain hydrocarbons of lines above methane, and also carcinogens, including benzo(a)pirene.其他應用到這種方法的積極效果是在“熱波”模式中產品的熱分解含有劇毒物質的樹脂（煤瀝青用于實驗醫(yī)學的接種癌癥的實驗小鼠，褐色碳毒性更強。）經過一個半焦的熱層（500到700攝氏度）完全分解成雙核或三核氣體：水，二氧化碳，一氧化碳，氫氣。測量工作在”Carbonica-F“聯(lián)合股份公司的工作生產廠完成，這表明了這種氣體不僅包含了碳氫化合物甲烷以上的行，也包含了致癌物質，包括：

Cooling of the activated coal from 550 up to 70℃ before discharging is carried out by compulsory circulation of gaseous heat-carrier(waste gases)through a layer of the product and further through shell-and-tube heat exchanger in which water used in closed circuit is also provided.Total process efficiency reaches 95% due to the high degree of utilization, which is associated with utilizing the thermal energy.在把活性炭從高于550攝氏度冷卻到70攝氏度的過程以前，Departing waste gases do not undergo any cleaning;there are even no cyclones.Nevertheless, the content of harmful mixtures(NOx 150 mg/m3, SOx 50 mg/m3, ash less than 10 mg/m3)is essentially lower than the established norms and parameters of working boiler and thermal power stations, even those equipped with modern multistage systems of gas purification including electro filters.This is explained by a insignificant ablation of ash from devices, sorption of sulfur compounds in activated corner, and also focus temperature from the user-boiler is lower than 1600℃-“threshold（” 閾值）temperature at which begins the formation of nitrogen oxides due to the oxidation of nitrogen from the air.汽車尾氣不經過任何清理，也沒有分離器。然而，有害混合物的含量（NOx 150 mg/m3, SOx 50 mg/m3,含灰塵少于10 mg/m3)實質上比規(guī)定和工作鍋爐和熱電站的參數都要低。甚至是那些配備了現(xiàn)代化多級系統(tǒng)的氣體凈化過濾器。這是用來自儀器燃燒產生的毫無意義的灰塵來解釋的，硫磺混合物的吸附作用在激活的一角進行，并且也把用戶鍋爐法制溫度低于1600℃作為重點，而這個溫度是空氣中的氧化氮形成氮氧化物的開始。

The technology of Joint-Stock Company ”Carbonica-F“ can be used for any not conglomerating coals.”Carbonica-F“聯(lián)合股份公司的技術可以被用在任意的非聚合煤上。

Similar sorbents or slightly conceding in quality to activated coal are formed by semi-coking of unconglomerated coal.Semi-coke received by using the technology developed and patented at Joint-Stock Company ”Carbonika-F“ is characterised by large specific surface(above 500 m2/g)and high adsorption activity(iodine value 500 mglg and more), and with these parameters does not concede in quality to activated coal.The production of this sorbent is ecologically safe.The producon by-product-combustible gas can be burnt in boilers of thermal power station.類似的吸附劑或是質量稍微差一點的活性炭油由聚合碳的半焦形成。半焦被使用該技術發(fā)展和專利的”Carbonika-F"聯(lián)合股份公司使用，特點是表面積大（大于500平方米/ g），和高吸附活性（碘值500 mglg等）而且這些參數不會影響到活性炭的質量。生產這些吸附劑是具有生態(tài)安全性的。產品的副產品會在熱電站的鍋爐里被燃燒。

Some mineral coals(called mesoporous)have internal pores accessible to water, having the size 3.5-4 manometers(mesopores), forming active surface, sized 50-120 m2/g(unlike all other natural coals with surface of 0.5-1 m2/g).These coals can be used as sorbents without additional activation.They clear water of undissolved and dissolved mineral oil, deep dispersing mixtures, iron, phenol, ions of heavy metals, ammonia, nitrates, benzo(a)pirene and so forth.Sorbent MIU-S received from poorly metamorphosed mesopore coal can be used for 3-7 years with periodic regeneration.Alkali regeneration solution is removed from the fitter without other additional neutralization, because in alkali and acid medium MIU-S presents buffer properties, neutralizing these media.一些礦產煤（叫做孔）有內部吸水孔，面積在50-120 m2/g（不像其他自然界的煤表面積是0.5-1 m2/g）。這些煤無需激活就可以被用作吸附劑。他們可以清理不溶水和融化的礦物油，深層分散混合物，鐵，酚，重金屬離子，氨，硝酸鹽，苯等等。MIU-S吸附劑來自劣質變形孔煤，可以在定期更改新的情況下用3-7年。堿再生解決方案從管工上移除而沒有其他而外的失效，因為酸和堿的中介MIU-S存在緩沖性能，能夠中和這些媒介。

Specific porous structure of mesopore coals assures sorption extraction of dissolved mineral oil products with concentration lower than 1 mg/l, and thus is not always reachable even with activated coals.具有特殊滲透結構的孔酶能夠吸附提取溶解濃度低于1毫克/升的礦物油產品，因此并非總是能獲得活性炭。

Using MIU-S filters in drinking water supply systems made the stability of their work in conditions of continuous exploitation evident, maintaining the properties of sorbents at null and sub-zero temperatures and absence of biomass formation.使用MIU-S filters在飲水供應系統(tǒng)中使用MIU-S filters可以使系統(tǒng)工作具有穩(wěn)定性?？梢詾閮π铋_采創(chuàng)造條件，保證吸附劑在零度或是零下溫度條件下都可以持續(xù)進行且沒有生物的形成。

Besides the abovementioned technologies, sorbents can be obtained from material coal by its briquetting and activation.Raw mineral for briquettes can be coals of any rank.除了上述提到的技術，吸附劑可以從礦物煤中通過成型和活化獲得。制作煤球的礦物原料可以是任何一種煤。Thus , sorbents suitable for additional cleaning of sewage are possible to be produced from mineral coals by special processing, and sometimes directly.Production of own sorbents may solve the problem of additional cleaning of sewage in coal enterprises.Mesopore coals can be used as sorbents without additional processing;the other coals need additional activation.The studied sorbents can be used for cleaning sewage water from mineral oil products, organic substances and metal ions.因此，適合附加清洗下水道里的)污物的吸附劑可以通過特殊處理從礦物煤中得到，并且有時候是可以直接得到的，不需要特殊處理。制作自己的吸附劑可以解決煤炭企業(yè)附加清洗污水的問題。有孔煤不經過額外的處理就可以直接被用作吸附劑；其他的煤需要額外的處理才行。吸附劑的研究能被用于礦物油產品，有機物質和金屬離子的污水處理中。

REFERENCES Kovaleva LB., Matvienko N.G., Solovyeva E.A., Tarnopolskaya M.G.: The Application of Natural Mineral Coal in the Technology of Sewage Treatment from Mineral Oil.World n Mining Ecology.Works of the Congress 1999, pg.310-315.2.Congress o For the preparation of the article have been used materials from the site 004km.cn.ru, www.miu-sorb.ru

第三篇：安徽理工大學畢業(yè)設計英文翻譯

安徽理工大學

自動化專業(yè)本科畢業(yè)設計英文翻譯

學院(部)：電氣與信息工程學院 專業(yè)班級： 自動化0 班 學生姓名： x x x 指導教師： 講師

年 月 日 Implementation of Fuzzy-PID in Smart Car Control

Abstract—An unmanued smart car control system and the fuzzy-PID control algorithm are produced.A design scheme of fuzzy-PID controller is put forward.The simulation analysis from matlab indicated that the dynamic performance of fuzzy-PID control algorithm is better than that of usual PID.Experimental result of smart car show that it can follow the black guide line well and fast-stable complete running the whole trip.Keywords — fuzzy-PID;smart car;fuzzy controller;fuzzy control 1 Introduction In recent years, many countries are developing unmanned vehicle technology.This gives birth to many new theories and applied technology.Reference[1] presents the theory of turn ahead which uses real-time monitoring speed to change the turn-in point dynamically, then it implements the control strategy to achieve a perfect characteristics of steering.Reference[2] uses edge detection algorithm to extract track information and adopt P control.Reference[3] proposes a efficient, good anti-jamming and adaptive image processing dynamic algorithm which effectively solves the out of track caused by the changes of ambient light and track.Reference[4] reconstructs spatial relationships of track and calibrates camera using nonlinear optimization, then it can measure lateral deviation accurately.The above improve vehicle performance in one way but they are all lack of characteristics of car movement and based on lots of experiments.A fuzzy-PID control algorithm and a design scheme of fuzzy-PID controller are put forward in this paper.At last, the experimental result is given out to prove the validity of fuzzy-PID.2 Hardware system design To implement the design of fuzzy-PID algorithm, it’s necessary to design a hardware system of smart car.Smart car would have a smart control unite which contain detection of guide line, steering angle value, speed value and so on.See details in Fig.1.1

Fig.1 The functional block diagram of smart car 3 Basic principle of fuzzy-PID It’s difficult for usual PID control algorithm to achieve the best effect.Because, the parameters Kp, Ki, Kd can’t adjust to different object or different state of the same object.Fuzzy control is based on fuzzy set and fuzzy logic.Without precise mathematical model it can determine the size of controlled variable according the rule table organized by experience.In general, fuzzy control input variables are based on system error E and error change EC, which is similar to PD control.Such control might have a good dynamic characteristic, but the static performance is not satisfactory.Combining fuzzy control and PID control, this would make a system have both flexibility-adaptablity of fuzzy control and high accuracy of PID control.Fig.2 shows the structure diagram of fuzzy-PID control system, in which fuzzy controller is responsible for selecting a different PID parameter to improve the local performance thus increasing over all performance.2 Design of fuzzy-PID controller Speed drive motor controller design is similar to the following example for steering gear controller design.Fuzzy controller consists of fuzzification, fuzzy-inference and defuzzification, which are based on the knowledge base.[6] Controller input error and error change, output the parameters Kp,Ki,Kd.Suppose the fuzzy set for E is{NB,NM,NS,NO,PO,PS，PM,PB};the fuzzy set for EC、Kp、Ki and Kd is{NB,NM,NS,ZO,PS,PM,PB}.The linguistic meanings are: NB = negative big, NM = negative middle, NS = negative small, NO = negative zero, ZO = zero, PO = positive zero, PS = positive small, PM = positive middle, PB = positive big.So the membership function curves of fuzzy variables E、EC、Kp、Ki and Kd are shown in the Fig.3-Fig.7: 3

It’s necessary to establish rule table after finishing fuzzification.According the description of rule table, 56 fuzzy conditional statements can be summed, which look like If(E is PB)and(EC is PB)then(Kp is PB)(Ki is ZO)(Kd is PB).See details in Tab.1-Tab.3.Then, the last step is defuzzification and making a lookup table.During fuzzy control, the lookup table would be embed into the program.Suppose input value is fixed, the corresponding output value would be found in the table.Actually, this would save much computing time, and the control would become simply.Analysis of experimental results

Experiment used the steering gear model.The simulation circuit were shown in Fig.2.The usual PID and fuzzy PID algorithm were all simulinked in the Matlab.Responding curves obtained were shown in Fig.8 and Fig.9.The experimental result show that compared with the usual PID, the responding time of fuzzy-PID algorithm is shorter without over swing.The system dynamic performance is improved significantly.6 Conclusion and outlook This paper provided a design scheme for controlling a smart car, which is proved practically and superlatively though experiments.Unmanned smart car is due to the development of computer technology, pattern recognition and intelligent control technique.Many countries and research groups are doing research in the area.But it’s a complicated system, which involves a number of technologies.So the development of each technology is important, for it would become the bottleneck of the development of smart car.Stepper motor Stepper motor is the electric pulse signals into angular displacement or linear displacement of the open-loop stepper motor control element pieces.In the case of 8 non-overloaded, the motor speed, stop position depends only on the pulse frequency and pulse number, regardless of load changes, when the driver receives a step pulse signal, it will drive a stepper motor to Set the direction of rotation of a fixed angle, called the “step angle”, which the angle of rotation is fixed step by step operation.Number of pulses can be controlled by controlling the angular displacement, so as to achieve accurate positioning purposes;the same time by controlling the pulse frequency to control the motor rotation speed and acceleration, to achieve speed control purposes.1 Work Induction motor is a stepper motor, does it work is the use of electronic circuits, the DC power supply into a time-sharing, multi-phase timing control current, this current stepper motor power supply, the stepper motor to work properly , The drive is sharing power supply for the stepper motor, the polyphase timing controller.Although the stepper motor has been widely used, but the stepper motor does not like a normal DC motor, AC motor in the conventional use.It must be double-ring pulse signal;power driver circuit composed of the control system can be used.Therefore, it is not easy with a good stepping motor, which involves mechanical, electrical, electronics and computers, and much other specialized knowledge.As the stepper motor actuators, electromechanical integration, one of the key products, widely used in a variety of automatic control systems.With the development of microelectronics and computer technology, increasing demand for stepper motor has applications in all areas of the national economy.2 Categories Now more commonly used include the reaction of step motor stepper motor(VR), permanent magnet stepper motor(PM), hybrid stepper motors(HB)and single-phase stepper motor.3 Permanent magnet stepper motor Permanent magnet stepper motor is generally two-phase, torque, and smaller, usually 7.5 degree step angle or 15 degrees;Permanent magnet stepper motor output torque, dynamic performance, but a large step angle.4 Reaction Stepper Motor

Reaction is generally three-phase stepping motor can achieve high torque output, step angle of 1.5 degrees is generally, but the noise and vibration are large.Reaction by the stepper motor rotor magnetic circuit made of soft magnetic materials, a number of the stator phase excitation winding, the use of permeability changes in torque.Step Motor simple structure, low production costs, step angle is small;but the dynamic performance is poor.Hybrid Stepping Motor Hybrid Step Motor combines reactive, permanent magnet stepper motors of both, it's a small step angle, contribute a large, dynamic performance, is currently the highest performance stepper motor.It is also sometimes referred to as Permanent Magnet Induction Stepping Motor.It consists of two phases and the five-phase: the general two-phase step angle of 1.8 degrees and the general five-phase step angle 0.72 degrees.The most widely used Stepper Motor.Stepper motor drive for energy saving 6 Three-phase stepper motor drive special features: ? 180% low torque output, low frequency characteristics of a good run ? Maximum output frequency 600Hz, high-speed motor control ? full range of detection of protection(over voltage, under voltage, overload)instantaneous power failure restart ? acceleration, deceleration, such as dynamic change in the stall protection function to prevent ? Electrical dynamic parameters of automatic recognition function to ensure stability and accuracy of the system ? quick response and high-speed shutdown ? abundant and flexible input and output interface and control, versatility ? use of SMT production and three full-mount anti-paint treatment process, product stability and high ? full range of Siemens IGBT power devices using the latest, to ensure the quality of high-quality 7 Basic principles Usually for the permanent magnet rotor motor, when current flows through the stator windings, the stator windings produce a magnetic field vector.The magnetic field will lead to a rotor angle of the magnetic field makes the direction of a rotor and the stator's magnetic field direction.When the stator magnetic field vector rotating at an angle.As the rotor magnetic field is also transferred from another perspective.An electrical pulse for each input, the motor turning a point forward.It is the angular displacement of the output and input the number of pulses proportional to speed and pulse frequency is proportional to.Power to change the order of winding, the motor will reverse.Therefore, the number of available control pulse, frequency and power the motor windings of each phase in order to control the stepper motor rotation.8 Induction Stepping Motor 8-1 features: Induction, compared with the traditional reactive, structural reinforced with a permanent magnet rotor, in order to provide the working point of soft magnetic materials, and the stator excitation magnetic field changes only need to provide to provide the operating point of the consumption of magnetic materials energy, so the motor efficiency, current, low heat.Due to the presence of permanent magnets, the motor has a strong EMF, the damping effect of its own good, it is relatively stable during operation, low noise, low frequency vibration.Induction can be seen as somewhat low-speed synchronous motor.A four-phase motor can be used for four-phase operation, but also can be used for two-phase operation.(Must be bipolar voltage drive), while the motor is not so reactive.For example: four phase, eight-phase operation(A-AB-B-BC-C-CD-D-DA-A)can use two-phase eight-shot run.Not difficult to find the conditions for C =, D =.a two-phase motor's internal winding consistent with the four-phase motors, small power motors are generally directly connected to the second phase, the power of larger motor, in order to facilitate the use and flexible to change the dynamic characteristics of the motor, its external connections often lead to eight(four-phase), so that when used either as a four-phase motors used, can be used for two-phase motor winding in series or parallel.8-2 classification：Induction motors can be divided in phases: two-phase motor, three phase motor, four-phase motor, five-phase motor.The frame size(motor diameter)can be divided into: 42BYG(BYG the Induction Stepping motor code), 57BYG, 86BYG, 110BYG,(international standard), and like 70BYG, 90BYG, 130BYG and so are the national standards.8-3 the stepper motor phase number of static indicators of terms: very differently on the N, S the number of magnetic field excitation coil.Common m said.Beat number: complete the necessary cyclical changes in a magnetic field pulses or conducting state with n said, or that turned a pitch angle of the motor pulses needed to four-phase motor, for example, a four-phase four-shot operation mode that AB-BC-CD-DA-AB, shot eight four-phase operation mode that A-AB-B-BC-C-CD-D-DA-A.Step angle: corresponds to a pulse signal, the angular displacement of the rotor turned with θ said.θ = 360 degrees(the rotor teeth number of J * run shot), the conventional two, four-phase, the rotor teeth 50 tooth motor as an example.Four step run-time step angle θ = 360 ° /(50 * 4)= 1.8 degrees(commonly called the whole step), eight-shot running step angle θ = 360 ° /(50 * 8)= 0.9 degrees(commonly known as half step.)Location torque: the motor is not energized in the state, its locked rotor torque(as well as by the magnetic field profile of harmonics caused by mechanical error)static torque: the motor under the rated static electricity, the motor without rotation, the motor shaft locking torque.The motor torque is a measure of volume(geometry)standards, and drive voltage and drive power, etc.has nothing to do.Although the static torque is proportional to the electromagnetic magnetizing ampere turns, and fixed air gap between the rotor teeth on, but over-use of reduced air gap, increase the excitation ampere-turns to increase the static torque is not desirable, this will cause the motor heating and mechanical noise.12 智能小車控制中模糊-PID控制的實現(xiàn)

摘要：本文設計了一個自動智能小車控制系統(tǒng)和模糊-PID控制算法。提出了一個設計模糊PID控制器的方案。通過matlab的仿真分析表明,模糊-PID控制算法的性能比一般的PID控制更好。智能小車的試驗結果表明它會隨黑色的引導線快速并且穩(wěn)定的走完整個行程。關鍵詞：模糊PID；智能小車；模糊控制器；模糊控制。

1．簡介

近年來,許多國家正在研制無人駕駛的車輛技術。產生了許多新的理論和應用技術。文獻[1]中提出了一個采用實時檢測速度從而準確、動態(tài)改變小車轉向的理論，從而實現(xiàn)轉向完美特性的控制策略。文獻[2]中采用邊緣檢測算法來提取道路信息，并采用了比例控制。文獻[3]提出了一種有效、具有良好抗干擾性的、適應性強的動態(tài)圖像處理算法。這種算法有效的解決了由環(huán)境光線變化以及軌道變化所引起的小車偏離軌道現(xiàn)象。文獻[4]利用非線性最優(yōu)化重建了軌道和攝像調整間的空間關系，從而使它能夠精確的測量出橫向偏差。上述方案都從某種意義上改善了小車的性能，但他們都缺少以小車運動和大量實驗為基礎的小車的特性。這篇文章中提出了一個模糊控制算法以及模糊PID控制器的設計方法。在本文最后,給出了實驗結果來證明模糊PID算法的有效性。

2．硬件系統(tǒng)設計

要實現(xiàn)模糊PID控制算法的設計，有必要設計一個智能小車硬件系統(tǒng)。智能小車應該有由道路檢測，轉角檢測，速度檢測等構成的智能控制單元。詳見圖1。

圖1 智能小車原理框圖 3．模糊PID控制的基本原則

用一般的PID控制算法來獲得最好的響應是不容易的。因為參數Kp、Ki、Kd不適應于不同的對象，或者同一個對象的不同狀態(tài)。模糊控制是以模糊集合和模糊邏輯為機車的。不需要精確的數學模型，它可以由用經驗建立起來的規(guī)則表來確定控制變量的大小。一般來說，模糊控制的輸入變量基于系統(tǒng)的誤差E和系統(tǒng)的誤差變化量Ec。這和比例－微分控制相似。這樣的控制可能可以獲得較好的動態(tài)性能，但獲得的靜態(tài)性能不能讓人滿意。

將模糊控制于PID控制結合起來，這就會使系統(tǒng)即具有模糊控制所具有的靈活的適應特性，又具有PID控制的所具有的較高的精確度。圖2給出了模糊PID控制系統(tǒng)的結構圖，其中模糊控制器的作用是選擇不同的PID參數來改善局部響應，進而改善整體的響應。

圖2 模糊PID控制仿真框圖

4．模糊PID控制器的設計

速度驅動電機控制器的設計和下面給出的轉向機構控制器設計是相似的。模糊控制器由模糊化、模糊推理、去模糊化組成，這些都是以知識庫為基礎的?？刂破鬏斎霝檎`差及誤差變化量，輸出為參數Kp、Ki、Kd。

假設誤差E的模糊集合為{NB NM NS NO PO PS PM PB};誤差變化量Ec、參數Kp、Ki、Kd的模糊集合為{NB NM NS ZO PS PM PB}。他們表示的意義為：NB=負大、NM=負中、NS=負小、NO=負零、ZO=零、PO=正零、PS=正小、PM=正中、PB=正大。得到模 糊變量E、EC、Kp、Ki、Kd的隸屬度函數曲線如圖3至圖7所示：

圖3 Kp隸屬函數響應曲線

圖4 Ki隸屬函數響應曲線

圖5 Kd隸屬函數響應曲線

圖6 E隸屬函數響應曲線

圖7 Ec隸屬函數響應曲線

在模糊化完成后需要建立規(guī)則表，根據規(guī)則表的描述，可以總結出56個模糊條件語句，形式例如：如果(E 是 PB)并且(Ec 是 PB)那么(Kp 是 PB)(Ki 是 ZO)(Kd是 PB)。詳見表1—表3。

最后一個步驟是去模糊化和建立查詢表。在模糊控制中查詢表應該嵌入到程序中。假設輸入的值是固定的那么可以在表中查出相應的輸出值。實際上，這可以節(jié)省許多計算時間并使控制簡化。

表1 Kp規(guī)則表

表2 Ki規(guī)則表

表3 Kd規(guī)則表

5．實驗結果分析

圖8 PID控制響應曲線

圖9 模糊PID控制響應曲線

實驗利用了轉向機構模型，它的仿真回路已經由圖2給出。我們已經用MATLAB仿真出了一般PID控制算法和模糊PID控制算法，獲得的響應曲線如圖

8、圖9所示。

實驗結果表明，同一般得PID控制相比模糊控制的響應時間要短且沒有超調的。系統(tǒng)的動態(tài)性能有了重大的提高。

6．總結和展望

這篇文章給出了一個控制智能小車的設計方案，并且通過實驗從實際上很好的驗證了這個方案。

無人駕駛智能小車是以計算機技術、模式識別以及智能控制技術的發(fā)展為基礎的。許多國家和機構都在做這一方面的研究，但它是一個復雜的系統(tǒng)，它包含了許多方面的技術，所以任何一個技術的發(fā)展都是重要的，這可能成為智能車發(fā)展的瓶頸。

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步進電機

步進電機是將電脈沖信號轉變?yōu)榻俏灰苹蚓€位移的開環(huán)控制元步進電機件。在非超載的情況下，電機的轉速、停止的位置只取決于脈沖信號的頻率和脈沖數，而不受負載變化的影響，當步進驅動器接收到一個脈沖信號，它就驅動步進電機按設定的方 向轉動一個固定的角度，稱為“步距角”，它的旋轉是以固定的角度一步一步運行的?？梢酝ㄟ^控制脈沖個數來控制角位移量，從而達到準確定位的目的；同時可以通過控制脈沖頻率來控制電機轉動的速度和加速度，從而達到調速的目的。工作原理

步進電機是一種感應電機，它的工作原理是利用電子電路，將直流電變成分時供電的，多相時序控制電流，用這種電流為步進電機供電，步進電機才能正常工作，驅動器就是為步進電機分時供電的，多相時序控制器

雖然步進電機已被廣泛地應用，但步進電機并不能象普通的直流電機，交流電機在常規(guī)下使用。它必須由雙環(huán)形脈沖信號、功率驅動電路等組成控制系統(tǒng)方可使用。因此用好步進電機卻非易事，它涉及到機械、電機、電子及計算機等許多專業(yè)知識。步進電機作為執(zhí)行元件，是機電一體化的關鍵產品之一, 廣泛應用在各種自動化控制系統(tǒng)中。隨著微電子和計算機技術的發(fā)展，步進電機的需求量與日俱增，在各個國民經濟領域都有應用。分類

現(xiàn)在比較常用的步進電機包括反應式步進電機（VR）、永磁式步進電機（PM）、混合式步進電機（HB）和單相式步進電機等。永磁式步進電機

永磁式步進電機一般為兩相，轉矩和體積較小，步進角一般為7.5度 或15度； 永磁式步進電動機輸出力矩大，動態(tài)性能好，但步距角大。反應式步進電機

反應式步進電機一般為三相，可實現(xiàn)大轉矩輸出，步進角一般為1.5度，但噪聲和振動都很大。反應式步進電機的轉子磁路由軟磁材料制成，定子上有多相勵磁繞組，利用磁導的變化產生轉矩。

反應式步進電動機結構簡單，生產成本低，步距角?。坏珓討B(tài)性能差。混合式步進電機

混合式步進電動機綜合了反應式、永磁式步進電動機兩者的優(yōu)點，它的步距角小，出力大，動態(tài)性能好，是目前性能最高的步進電動機。它有時也稱作永磁感應子式步進電動機。它又分為兩相和五相：兩相步進角一般為1.8度而五相步進角一般為 0.72度。這種步進電機的應用最為廣泛。變頻器對步進電機的節(jié)能改造 三相步進電機專用變頻器特點：

■低頻轉矩輸出180%，低頻運行特性良好 ■輸出頻率最大600Hz，可控制高速電機

■全方位的偵測保護功能(過壓、欠壓、過載)瞬間停電再起動

■加速、減速、動轉中失速防止等保護功能

■電機動態(tài)參數自動識別功能，保證系統(tǒng)的穩(wěn)定性和精確性 ■高速停機時響應快

■豐富靈活的輸入、輸出接口和控制方式，通用性強 ■采用SMT全貼裝生產及三防漆處理工藝，產品穩(wěn)定度高 ■全系列采用最新西門子IGBT功率器件，確保品質的高質量 基本原理

通常電機的轉子為永磁體，當電流流過定子繞組時，定子繞組產生一矢量磁場。該磁場會帶動轉子旋轉一角度，使得轉子的一對磁場方向與定子的磁場方向一致。當定子的矢量磁場旋轉一個角度。轉子也隨著該磁場轉一個角度。每輸入一個電脈沖，電動機轉動一個角度前進一步。它輸出的角位移與輸入的脈沖數成正比、轉速與脈沖頻率成正比。改變繞組通電的順序，電機就會反轉。所以可用控制脈沖數量、頻率及電動機各相繞組的通電順序來控制步進電機的轉動。感應子式步進電機

1、特點： 感應子式與傳統(tǒng)的反應式相比，結構上轉子加有永磁體，以提供軟磁材料的工作點，而定子激磁只需提供變化的磁場而不必提供磁材料工作點的耗能，因此該電機效率高，電流小，發(fā)熱低。因永磁體的存在，該電機具有較強的反電勢，其自身阻尼作用比較好，使其在運轉過程中比較平穩(wěn)、噪音低、低頻振動小。感應子式某種程度上可以看作是低速同步的電機。一個四相電機可以作四相運行，也可以作二相運行。（必須采用雙極電壓驅動），而反應式電機則不能如此。例如：四相，八相運行（A-AB-B-BC-C-CD-D-DA-A）完全可以采用二相八拍運行方式.不難發(fā)現(xiàn)其條件為C=,D=.一個二相電機的內部繞組與四相電機完全一致，小功率電機一般直接接為二相，而功率大一點的電機，為了方便使用，靈活改變電機的動態(tài)特點，往往將其外部接線為八根引線（四相），這樣使用時，既可以作四相電機使用，可以作二相電機繞組串聯(lián)或并聯(lián)使用。

2、分類

感應子式電機以相數可分為：二相電機、三相電機、四相電機、五相電機等。以機座號（電機外徑）可分為：42BYG(BYG為感應子式步進電機代號）、57BYG、86BYG、110BYG、（國際標準），而像70BYG、90BYG、130BYG等均為國內標準。

3、步進電機的靜態(tài)指標術語 相數：

產生不同對極N、S磁場的激磁線圈對數。常用m表示。拍數：完成一個磁場周期性變化所需脈沖數或導電狀態(tài)用n表示，或指電機轉過一個齒距角所需脈沖數，以四相電機為例，有四相四拍運行方式即AB-BC-CD-DA-AB，四相八拍運行方式即 A-AB-B-BC-C-CD-D-DA-A.步距角：對應一個脈沖信號，電機轉子轉過的角位移用θ 20 表示。θ=360度（轉子齒數J*運行拍數），以常規(guī)二、四相，轉子齒為50齒電機為例。四拍運行時步距角為θ=360度/（50*4）=1.8度（俗稱整步），八拍運行時步距角為θ=360度/（50*8）=0.9度（俗稱半步）。定位轉矩：電機在不通電狀態(tài)下，電機轉子自身的鎖定力矩（由磁場齒形的諧波以及機械誤差造成的）靜轉矩：電機在額定靜態(tài)電作用下，電機不作旋轉運動時，電機轉軸的鎖定力矩。此力矩是衡量電機體積（幾何尺寸）的標準，與驅動電壓及驅動電源等無關。雖然靜轉矩與電磁激磁安匝數成正比，與定齒轉子間的氣隙有關，但過分采用減小氣隙，增加激磁安匝來提高靜力矩是不可取的，這樣會造成電機的發(fā)熱及機械噪音。

第四篇：采礦工程畢業(yè)設計英文翻譯

Underground Mining

Most present-day mining in Europe occurs under 2000 to 4000 ft of overburden, as more easily mined coal deposits have been depleted.At this depth most mines are developed as shaft mines.All personnel, material, and coal have to be hoisted trough these shaft.Considering the two factors of hoisting capacity and required length of shaft, a considerable investment is necessary to reach the coal-bearing strata.The requires huge investments.Openings at this depth have to be equipped with costly supports, and periodic reworking and repair is necessary.Mines not only extend horizontally but also vertically through the development of new levels.The life of the mines is thus extend considerably, and surface installations can be amortize over a longer period.The more limited reserves have forced companies into mining less favorable deposits, and European government require that all possible deposits be mined to conserve the nation’s energy resources.These factor and the large percentage of inclined seams and faults make mining very difficult and costly.The population density and the heavy surface buildup cause additional expense in the form of payments for subsidence damage to surface structures.Therefore, backfilling is frequently practiced to reduce subsidence.The close spacing of faults often severely limits the size of a mining section, forcing frequent moves and excessive development work.The thickness of the overburden results in very high ground pressure.This would require extremely large pillars if the room and pillar method was applied.Additionally, support is required for any opening, adding prohibitive costs to a multiple-entry room and pillar operation.As a result, single-entry longwall operations requiring the minimum number of entries and allowing maximum recovery of resources is the mining method almost exclusively practiced.Shaft mines dominate the European coal mining industry.Shafts 20 to 30 ft in diameter, with circular cross section, lined with masonry, concrete, or steel are the dominant means of gaining access to the coal-bearing strata.They are often extended beyond the last mining level to provide for future expansion.As in the Unite States, shafts are developed by drilling, blasting, and excavating or by large-diameter shaft-boring equipment.Shaft boring is more frequently used, particularly on the smaller and shorter subshaft, which connect the different levels but do not extend to the surface.Haulage in the shaft is usually accomplished by hoisting of the filled mine cars on multistage cages or by skips.Pumping of coal slurry is also done in special cases.The complex system of forces and the resulting rock mechanical problems developed by mining activities at different levels result in significant differences between European and US underground development.The rock mechanical interaction of the extraction operations at the various levels require that all deposits be mined as completely as possible.Pillars left after mining create zones of extreme and often unmanageable ground control problem, as well as a high probability of roof bounce.Since the number of entries is kept to a minimum because of cost, no bleeder systems are provided.If retreat mining is practiced, only two entries are advanced in to a new mining area.Panels are laid out as large as possible.The large-panel layout is used as another means of reducing the number of entries.Minded–out panels are sealed off to prevent spontaneous combustion through the removal of oxygen.The main levels, with extensive entry systems, are used for coal, supply, and personnel haulage and for ventilation.They are often spaced with little regard to the position of the coal seams, because the deposits are reached selectively through other means.In the past, 165-or330-ft intervals were selected while increasing ground pressures and development and maintenance increase substantially, requiring large volumes of air for cooling.As a result, entry cross sections at these levels have to be increase.Fig.9.1 German multilevel, multiseam shaft-type coal mine.Underground facilities：

(1)main shaft with skip hoisting;(2)exhaust ventilation shaft with multistage cage;(3)third-level station;(4)blind shaft with cylindrical storage bin;(5)blind shaft with car-hoisting facilities;(6)main entry;(7)main entry;(8)section or panel entry;(9)road heading machine(10)longwall section with plow;(11)longwall section with shearer;(12)longwall section in a steeply pitching seam mined manually with air picks;(13)longwall section in steeply pitching seam with plow;(14)minded-out gob area;(15)ventilation lock;(16)belt conveyor as main haulage;(17)main car haulage;(18)storage bin and skip-loading facilities;(19)supply haulage with a mono-rail;(20)supply haulage with mine cars;(21)monorail system as personnel carrier;(22)worker-trip cars;(23)pump station.Surface facilities:(a)hoisting tower with overhead hoist;(b)shaft building;(c)head frame;(d)main exhaust fan and diffuser;(e)coal preparation plant with loading facilities;(f)coking coal silo;(g)container vehicle for filling of coke ovens;(h)coke oven battery;(i)coke watering car;(k)coke quenching tower;(l)gas tank;(m)water-treatment plant;(n)refuse pile;(o)power plant;(p)cooling tower;(q)water tower;(r)supply storage area;(s)sawmill;(t)training and teaching center.地下采煤

目前，大部分歐洲的煤礦開采都已經達到了2000到4000英尺，主要是因為淺部容易開采的煤層都已經采完。在這個深度的大部分煤層都已經發(fā)展成為要用相關井筒進行開采的地步。所用的人員、材料、煤炭都不得不從井筒采用絞車等提升進行運輸?？紤]到絞車提升容量以及所需要的井筒長度的兩個因素，一個相當大的資金投入對于開采到煤層所處的地層是必需的。這些大范圍的地下巷道或隧道的網絡的開拓和維護費用需要一筆巨大的投資。在這個深度進行開拓不得不裝備一些很昂貴的支架和一些循環(huán)型的改造和返修，這些也都是必要的。

采礦不單單是拓寬水平方向而且通過開拓新的水平來拓寬來延深。所以礦井的服務年限被極大地拓寬，并且地表的安裝設備費用也能夠在很長的一個時期內得以緩沖。

有限的資源儲備迫使公司開采要去開采那些并不是很樂觀的煤層，并且歐洲各國政府要求采出所有可采的煤層以保護國家的能源。這些因素由于大比率的煤線和斷層以至于煤炭的開采非常困難并且價格昂貴。由于人口密度的增長和地表建筑的增加，從而造成地表的沉陷對于建筑物的破壞，以至于增加了額外的成本。因此，采空區(qū)填充是最常用的防治地表沉陷的實踐措施。過小的斷層間距常常嚴重地限制采區(qū)的尺寸，因而不得不頻繁搬家，并造成過大的開拓工程量。

上部覆蓋層的厚度導致了相當大的地層壓力。如果采用房柱式開采方法，就需要留異常巨大的煤柱。另外，任何一個工作面都需要支 架，并且增加了額外的費用對于多種平巷峒室的支撐措施。

地下開采統(tǒng)治著歐洲的煤炭開采工業(yè)。井筒直徑大約20到30英寸，一般采用鋼筋混凝土砌碹的圓形斷面，作為主要的連接巷道連接到含煤地層。他們一般被延深到超過最后一個開采水平來滿足未來的拓展。如在美國，立井是用打眼、放炮和挖掘方法或用大直徑鉆井設備來開鑿的。鉆井時經常被采用的，尤其對于小型的長度較短的連接各個水平但不通往地面的暗井。

井筒中一般采用罐籠中承載礦車或箕斗進行提升。在特殊情況下采用煤泥泵出的形式開采。

這種力的復雜的系統(tǒng)和巖石力學的合成的問題在煤礦開采活動不同的水平在歐洲和美國存在巨大的不同。

在多個水平煤層進行開采時，巖石之間相互力的作用要求盡可能的將煤全部采出。煤礦開采后留下的煤柱形成了一個壓力極高并且相當難以維護的空間，具有很高的發(fā)生頂板巖石突出的可能性。

由于資金成本的問題，巷道入口的數目保持在最小值。沒有回風巷的系統(tǒng)開始形成。如果采用后退式的開采方法，在采煤區(qū)段只有兩個入口。

區(qū)段一般被盡可能的大。大區(qū)段的布置方式其實從另一個角度說就是為了減少入口的數目。開采過后的區(qū)域一般打上封閉，以切斷氧氣的來源從而防止采空區(qū)煤層自燃。

在布置有眾多巷道主要的水平，它被用來運送煤炭、供給以及人員的運輸和通風。他們經?？粘鲆徊糠治恢玫拿褐徊桑驗閮α恳?經達到并通過別的方法進行有選擇性的開采。在過去，165或330英尺的間隔被有選擇的當逐漸增加的礦山壓力和開拓的維護費用迫使增加到660或990英尺。溫度隨著深度的增加也急劇增加，需要大容量的空氣從而達到降溫的目的。以至于這些水平的采區(qū)巷道也就要求增加。

圖9.1 德國多水平、多工作面立井井筒式礦井

地下設備：

(1)箕斗提升主井；

(2)擔負抽出式通風的并配有多層罐籠的副井；(3)第三水平井底車場;(4)帶有圓柱形煤倉的暗井;(5)有礦車提升設備的暗井;(6)主要大巷;(7)主要大巷;(8)采區(qū)或盤區(qū)平巷;(9)掘進機；(10)采用刨煤機的長壁工作面采區(qū);(11)采用采煤機的長壁工作面采區(qū);(12)采用人工風鎬的急傾斜煤層的長壁工作面采區(qū)；(13)采用刨煤機的急傾斜煤層的長壁工作面采區(qū);(14)采空區(qū);(15)風門;(16)膠帶輸送機作為主要運輸設備;(17)主要礦車運輸;(18)煤倉和箕斗裝載峒室設備;(19)材料運輸采用單軌運輸;(20)材料運輸采用礦車運輸;(21)單軌礦車用于人員運輸;(22)人車;(23)泵房及地表設備:(a)帶有高架天輪的提升塔;(b)井筒;(c)井架;(d)主扇和擴散管;(e)有裝載設備的洗選廠;(f)焦炭倉罐;(g)運送焦炭冶煉的運送機;(h)焦炭爐電池;(i)焦炭水車;(k)焦炭冷卻塔;(l)瓦斯容器箱;(m)水處理裝置;(n)矸石堆;(o)動力廠;(p)冷卻塔;(q)水塔;(r)倉儲區(qū)域;(s)鋸木廠;(t)培訓中心.

第五篇：大學課程英文翻譯

BASIC 語言 BASIC Language

BASIC 語言及應用 BASIC Language & Application

C 語言 C Language

C++程序設計 C++ Program Designing

CAD 概論 Introduction to CAD

CAD/CAM CAD/CAM

CET-4 College English Test(Band 4)

CET-6 College English Test(Band 6)

C與UNIX環(huán)境 C Language & Unix Environment

C語言科學計算方法 Scientific Computation Method in C

C語言與生物醫(yī)學信息處理 C Language & Biomedical Information Processing

dBASE Ⅲ 課程設計 Course Exercise in dBASE Ⅲ

Programming Languages

Internet與Intranet技術 Internet and Intranet Technology

PC機原理 Principle of PC

Unix編程環(huán)境 Unix Programming Environment

Unix操作系統(tǒng)分析 Analysis of Unix System

Windows系統(tǒng) Windows Operation System

辦公自動化 Office Automatization

辦公自動化系統(tǒng)畢業(yè)設計 Office Automatization Thesis

辦公自動化系統(tǒng)設計 Office Automatization Design

編譯方法 Compilation Method

編譯方法 Methods of Compiling

編譯技術 Technique of Compiling

編譯原理 Fundamentals of Compiling, Principles of Compiler

編譯原理課程設計 Course Design of Compiling

操作系統(tǒng) Disk Operating System(DOS)

操作系統(tǒng)課程設計 Course Design in Disk Operating System

操作系統(tǒng)與編譯原理 Disk Operating System & Fundamentals of Compiling

操作系統(tǒng)原理 Fundamentals of Disk Operating System, Principles of

Operating System

常微分方程 Ordinary Differential Equations

程序設計 Program Designing

程序設計方法學 Methodology of Programming, Methods of Programming

程序設計及算法語言 Program Designing & Algorithmic Language

程序設計語言 Programming Language 抽象代數 Abstract Algebra

初等數學 Primary Mathematics

大型數據庫原理與高級開發(fā)技術 Principles of Large-Scale Data-Bas e and Advanced

Development Technology

大學物理 College Physics

大學物理實驗 Experiment of College Physics

大學英語 College English

大學語文 College Chinese

代數幾何 Algebraic Geometry

代數幾何Algebraic Geometry

代數曲面 Algebraic Surfaces

代數圖論 Algebraic Graph Theory

代數拓撲 Algebraic Topology

代數學 Algebra

典型計算機分析 Classical Computer Analysis

多層網絡方法 Multi-Layer Network Technology

多復變函數 Analytic Functions of Several Complex Variables

多媒體計算機技術 Multimedia Computer Technology

多媒體技術 Multimedia Technology

多項距陣 Multi-Nominal Matrix

多元統(tǒng)計分析 Multivariable Statistics

法理學 Nomology

法律基礎 Fundamentals of Law

法學概論 An Introduction to Science of Law

法學基礎 Fundamentals of Science of Law

泛函分析 Functional Analysis

泛函分析 Functional Analysis

復變函數 Complex Variables Functions

復變函數與積分變換 Functions of Complex Variables & Integral Transformation

概率論 Probability Theory

概率論與數理統(tǒng)計 Probability Theory & Mathematical Statistics

概率論與隨機過程 Probability Theory & Stochastic Process

概率與統(tǒng)計 Probability & Statistics

高等代數 Advanced Algebra

高等數理方法 Advanced Mathematical Method

高等數學 Advanced Mathematics

高等數值分析 Advanced Numeric Analysis

高級程序設計語言的設計與實現(xiàn) Advanced Programming Language's Design &

Implementation

高級管理信息系統(tǒng) Advanced Management Information Systems

高級計算機體系結構 Advanced Computer Architecture

高級計算機網絡 Advanced Computer Networks

高級計算機網絡與集成技術 Advanced Computer Networks and Integration Technology

高級經濟計量 Advanced Economic Metrology

高級軟件工程 Advanced Software Engineering

高級數據庫 Advanced Database

高級數理邏輯 Advanced Numerical Logic

匯編語言程序設計 Assembly Language Programming

匯編原理 Principles of Assembly

集合論與代數結構 Set Theory & Algebraical Structure

計算方法 Computational Method

計算方法 Computing Method

計算方法與算法語言 Computational Method & Algorithmic Language

計算機導論 Introduction to Computers

計算機導論與實踐 Introduction to Computers & Practice

計算機仿真 Computer Simulation

計算機仿真 Computer Simulation

計算機分析 Computer Analysis

計算機輔助熱力學 Computer Aided Thermodynamics

計算機輔助設計 CAD

計算機輔助設計與仿真 Computer Aided Design & Imitation

計算機輔助語言教學 Computer-Aided Language Teaching

計算機輔助制造 Computer-Aided Manufacturing

計算機概論 Introduction to Computers

計算機概論與上機操作 Introduction to Computers & Practise

計算機匯編語言 Computer Assembly Language

計算機繪圖 Computer Graphics

計算機基礎 Basis of Computer Engineering, Computer Basis

計算機技術研究新進展 Advances in Computer Technology

計算機接口技術 Computer Interface Technology

計算機接口與通訊 Computer Interface & Communication 計算機局域網 Regional Network of Computers

計算機科學研究新進展 Advances in Computer Science

計算機科學中的邏輯學 Logic in Computer Science

計算機控制 Computer Control, Computer Controlling

計算機控制技術 Computer Controlling Technology

計算機控制系統(tǒng) Computer Control System

計算機邏輯設計 Computer Logic Designing

計算機模擬 Computer Imitation

計算機軟件基礎 Basis of Software of Computer

計算機設計自動化 Automation of Computer Design

計算機實踐 Computer Practice

計算機實踐基礎 Basis of Computer Practice

計算機視覺 Computer Vision

計算機數據安全 Computer Data Security

計算機數據庫 Computer Database

計算機算法基礎 Basis of Computer Algorithm

計算機通訊網 Computer Communication Network

計算機圖形顯示 Computer Graphic Demonstration

計算機圖形學 Computer Graphics

計算機外部設備 Computer Peripheral Equipment

計算機網絡 Computer Networks

計算機網絡實驗 Computer Network Experiment

計算機網絡新技術 Modern Computer Network Technologies

計算機維修技術 Computer Repair Technique

計算機文字處理 Computer Language Processing

計算機系統(tǒng)結構 Computer Architecture

計算機系統(tǒng)維修 Computer System Maintain

計算機信息保密與安全 Secrecy and Security of Computer Information

計算機應用技術 Computer Applications Technology

計算機語言處理 Computer Language Processing

計算機原理 Principle of Computer Engineering

計算機原理及應用 Principle & Applications of Computer

計算機原理與BASIC語言 Principle of Computer Engineering & BASIC Language

計算機原理與算法語言 Principles of Computer & Algorithm

計算機在分析化學的應用 Computer Application in Analytical Chemistry

計算機在化學中的應用 Application of Computer in Chemistry

計算機組成原理 Principles of Computer Composition

計算機組成原理課程設計 Principles of Computer Composition Course Design

計算力學 Computational Mechanics

計算力學基礎 Basis of Computational Mechanics

計算流體 Fluid Computation

計算流體力學 Fluid Mechanics Computation

計算微電子學 Computational Microelectronics

計算物理基礎 Basics of Computational Physics 計算物理譜方法 Spectral Method in Computational Physics

計算物理學 Computational Physics

交換代數 Commutative Algebra

L開頭的課程

離散數學 Discrete Mathematics

理論物理 Theoretical Physics

邏輯程序設計與專家系統(tǒng) Logic Programming and Expert Systems

邏輯設計 Logic Design

邏輯學 Logic Theory

馬克思主義原理 Principles of Marxism

馬列(社會學)原著選讀 Selected Readings of Marx's & Lenin's Original Wor

馬列哲學原著選讀 Selected Readings of Marx's & Lenin's Original Wor

馬列主義原理 Principles of Marxism & Leninism

毛澤東思想哲學研究 Research on Mao Zedong's Thinking Philosophy

美學概論 Introduction to Aesthetics

面向對象程序設計 Object-Oriented Programming

面向對象程序設計方法 Design Methods of Object Oriented Program

面向對象的程序設計 Object Oriented Programming

面向對象系統(tǒng)分析與設計 Object-Oriented System Analysis and Design

模糊數學 Fuzzy Mathematics

模糊信息處理技術 Fuzzy Information Processing Technology

模具計算機輔助設計 Computer Aided Design of Models

模擬電路 Analog Circuitry

模擬電子技術 Analog Electronics Technique

模擬電子技術基礎 Basic Analog Electronics

模擬電子技術實驗 Analog Electronics Technique Experiment

模擬電子線路 Analog Electrical Circuitry

模擬集成電路 Analog Integrated Circuitry

模擬集成電路及應用 Analog Integrated Circuit & Application

模式識別 Matrix Recognition

模式識別 Pattern Recognition

模型辨識 Model Distinguish

偏微分方程 Partial Differential Equation

偏微分方程近代方法 The Recent Methods of Partial Differential E quations

偏微分方程數值解 Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equation

普通物理 General Physics

普通物理實驗 Lab of General Physics

軟計算理論及應用 Theory and Application of Soft-Computing

軟件測試技術 Software Testing Technology

軟件工程 Software Engineering

軟件工程基礎 Foundation of Software Engineering

軟件基礎課程設計 Course Design of Software Technique

軟件技術基礎 Basis of Software Technique

軟件開發(fā)工具與環(huán)境 Tools & Environment for Software Developing

軟件質量與測試 Software Quality and Testing

實變函數 Functions of Real Variable

實變函數與泛函分析 Functions of Real Variable & Functional Analysis

實驗分析 Experimental Analysis

輸入輸出設計原理 Principle of Input and Output Designing

數據倉庫技術與聯(lián)機分析處理 Data Warehouse and OLAP

數據處理分析與建模 Data Analysis and Constituting Model

數據結構 Data Structure

數據結構課程設計 Course Design of Data Structure

數據庫dBASE Ⅲ d BASE III

數據庫概論 Introduction to Database

數據庫管理系統(tǒng) Database Management System

數據庫基礎 Basis of Database

數據庫技術 Technique of Database

數據庫技術與應用 Technique & Application of Database

數據庫課程設計 Course Design of Database

數據庫設計與分析 Design & Analysis of Database

數據庫系統(tǒng)原理 Principles of Database System

數據庫應用 Application of Database

數據庫應用基礎 Basic of Database Application

數據庫原理 Principles of Database

數據庫原理及應用 Principle & Application of Database

數控機床 Digit Control Machine Tool

數控技術 Digit Control Technique

數理方程 Mathematical Equations, Mathematics and Physical Equation

數理方程積分變換 Integral Transmission of Mathematical Equation

數理方程與特殊函數 Equations of Mathmatical Physics & Special Functions

數理邏輯 Mathematical Logic

數理統(tǒng)計 Mathematical statistics, Numeral Statistic/Numerical Statistic

數理統(tǒng)計及應用 Mathematical statistics & Application

數量經濟 Quantity Economics

數模與模數轉換 A/D and D/A Conversion 數學物理方法 Method of Mathematical Physics

數值電路 Digital Circuit

數值電路計算方法 Computational Method of Digital Circuit

數值分析 Numerical Analysis

數值計算 Digital Computation

數字測量技術 Digital Measuring Technique

數字測量實驗技術 Experimental Technique of Digital Measuring

數字測試實驗技術 Experimental Technique of Digital Testing

數字電路 Digital Circuit

數字電路及微機原理 Digital Circuit & Computer Principles

數字電路與微機 Digital Circuit & Computer

數字電視 Digital Television

數字電子電路 Fundamental Digital Circuit

數字電子基礎 Fundamental Digital Electionics

數字電子技術 Digital Electronic Technique

數字電子技術基礎 Fundamental Digital Electronic Technique

數字電子技術設計與實驗 Experiment & Design of Digital Electron Technique

數字電子線路 Digital Electrical Circuitry

數字電子與微機原理 Digital Electronics & Principle of Microcomputer

數字仿真 Digital Simulation

數字化測量技術 Digital Measuring Technique

數字技術 Digital Technique

數字控制及微機控制技術 Digital Control & Microcomputer Control Technique

數字邏輯 Digital Logic, Mathematical Logic

數字邏輯課程設計 Course Design of Digital Logic

數字圖象處理 Digital Image Processing

數字系統(tǒng)邏輯設計 Logical Design of Digital System

數字系統(tǒng)設計 Design of Digital System

數字信號處理 Digital Signal Processing

數字語音處理 Digital Voice Processing

算法分析 Algorithm Analysis

算法分析與設計 Analysis and Design of Algorithms

算法設計與分析 Algorithmic Design & Analysis

算法語言 Algorithmic Language

算法語言與計算機操作 Algorithmic Language & Computers Practice

統(tǒng)計 Statistics

統(tǒng)計計算 Experiment of Applied Physics

統(tǒng)計檢查與質量控制 Statistic Check and Quality Control

統(tǒng)計學 Statistics

統(tǒng)計學原理 Principle of Statistics

統(tǒng)計學原理與工業(yè)統(tǒng)計 Principle of Statistics & Industrial Statistics 統(tǒng)計學原理與外貿統(tǒng)計 Principle of Statistics & Business Statistics

統(tǒng)計原理 Statistics

網絡集成與大型數據庫 Computer Network Integrating Technology an d Large-scale

Database

網絡理論與多媒體技術 Multi-media and Network Technology

網絡算法與復雜性 Network Algorithms and Complexity

網絡信息系統(tǒng) Network Information System

網絡原理 Principles of Network

微分方程 Differential Equation

微分方程數值解 Numerical Methods for Differential Equations

微分幾何 Differential Geometry

微積分 Calculus

微型機及應用 Microcomputer & its Application

微型計算機 Microcomputer

微型計算機控制技術 Microcomputer Controling Technique

微型計算機控制技術課程設計 Course Exercise in Microcomputer Principles

微型計算機原理 Principle of Microcomputer

微型計算機原理及應用 Principle & Applications of Microcomputer

微型計算機原理課程設計 Course Exercise in Microcomputer Principles

信息系統(tǒng)設計 Information System Design

信息系統(tǒng)設計與分析 Analysis of Information System & Designing

信息系統(tǒng)與設計分析 Analysis of Information System & Designing

信息系統(tǒng)綜合集成理論及方法 Theory and Methodology of Information n System