第一篇：關(guān)于國(guó)外留學(xué)的英語(yǔ)訪談模式演講稿

Presentation(開(kāi)場(chǎng)：)A: For a long time, contradictions between children and parents are emerging in an endless stream.Maybe about just a trivial matter, maybe about a big decision made by family member.but they may reflect the common problem which has been bothering people a lot.Find problems in life and help you solve them, I’m Jennifer, welcome to the grogram.Before we start our topic, let’s watch two videos first, Mary, a girl who is studying abroad and her father will tell us the contradiction between them.B: As a father, to be honest, it’s a big decision for us to send our child to go abroad.Actually, the cost of it isn't chicken feed for ordinary families, just like us.But finally, we did that.Children in young to another environment to live, to work, to study is a very good thing.Even if China there are some things you can do, but in a country groups to better.Because they can accept to different culture, and take the diploma, which will play an important role in the future.Sadly, my child did not answer the expectations, she pay much attention to pleasure in places of entertainment.Reading in the library seems like a torture to her.And it wasn’t a surprise for me that she got such poor grades last semester.But that hurt me deeply.We want she can change her attitude as early as possible, and treasure the chance that not all the people can get rather than waste it.A: Then the second one.B: hello.I’m Mary.Above all, I must say that I’m not a willful child but that doesn’t mean I have no definite views of my own.I agree to the idea that studying abroad is a great chance to improve abilities.This is where our opinions diverge from each other.As far as I’m concerned, abilities which I have mentioned just now should never contain only study.I mean grades are not the signs for growth, just for school work.My parents are always thinking I have paid little attention to my study, but since I was in abroad, I have been learning, not just from books, but also from everything surrounding me.(Hey!Girls!Keep the noise down, ok? I can’t hear myself!)Going abroad gives me frequent access to different cultures.I go to bars, dancing hall, gym, sauna, but I don’t think I have done something wrong.There’s no reason to pass up the opportunity of experiencing a new life.I make the most of time in the class and reviewing the lesson the teacher speak after class.Why I have to pay all my attention to school work and focus too much on the things I can also do in domestic.（情景過(guò)后）

A: After watching the videos, I’m sure everyone has got today’s topic, the keyword—studying abroad.As for this, we have invited the famous expert to talk with us.Let’s welcome Mr.Michele A: Hello, Mr.Michele B: Hello, miss Pan.A: In recent years, studying abroad has flourished.Thousands of scholars and students have gone to foreign countries to study.Many people are sparing no effort in applying for going abroad.Could you please make a preliminary analysis of the course of this phenomenon, Mr.Michel?

B: Yes, in fact, some people prefer to go with the stream.In most parents’ eyes, the most important is students receive foreign advanced education;this can be in the Chinese university in the world rankings see out.A: The domestic famous in the world rankings and not very high.Yeah? B: Right.Studying abroad can exercise the student's independent thinking and problem solving ability, this in the later work is very important;Can also broaden our horizons, and enhance the knowledge;Enhance the ability to relate to others;Own the ability of money;If can play some odd jobs, to oneself is a big help.Sending children abroad makes so many benefits, so why not?

A: As studying abroad becomes ordinary, many problems are beginning surface.Just like the contradiction from the father and son.They concentrated on a different aspect of studying abroad.So, how do you think?

B: Actually, it’s difficult to judge who is right and who is wrong.Superficially, even both of them are right.A: And they both have legitimate reasons.B：Yes, but whatever you say, there is no doubt that study is the most important, because that’s you fundamental purpose, right? A: Yes, the primary reason.B: But we should also remember study is not only the process of learning the advanced culture, and the will of the people is to exercise.Taking degree is just the one reason;it would never be the only one.Study abroad experience not only let the sea life experience, rich receives the advanced idea;update the way of thinking, harvest the great spiritual wealth, and to bring the sea to the rich material wealth and great sense of achievement.Those are the greatest harvests.A: So, that means students should make good use of time to balance study and daily life.Is that a big problem?

B: I’m sorry, but I have to say” yes”.To tell the truth, it’s not easy for students to arrange time in domestic, and when you in abroad, it even becomes much more difficult.A: Yes, because new experiences and new ways of life will make influence on you decision.But we all know Mr.Michal has a lot of knowledge about this, and it is not easy to meet with you, so would you please give us some advices of using or allocating time in abroad? B: That’s my pleasure.At first I want to say, your harvests and you time are the greatest wealth in life.As time goes by, your time becomes less, but you harvests are almost invariable, which means you are wasting time.And you can’t use the time of having meals or sleeping to study, what you need to do is make best use of available time which you never pay attention to before.A: So that’s what we should focus on before we arrange our limited time, and now how about giving us some specific suggestion about how to make use of time?

B: First, know how much time you have spent and spent on what.You can choose one week to write down what you did every 30 minutes, and sort them out, like reading, chatting, participating in activities and so on.Then see where you spent too much time on.If you want make progress, you should make a change.Secondly, learn to use short time and died time。

A: Died time? Is that mean the time you have to spend whether you like or not?

B: Yes.When you are waiting a bus or waiting in row, waking, you can read newspaper or a book;remember the words and so on.And then you will find there is so much time you have wasted before.A: Yeah, I agree to that.A few days ago, I had a business trip with my friends, they asked me why I could reply all the e-mails in time because I stayed with them all the day, and they were very surprised.In fact, when they were chatting, wondering or sleeping in the bus or airplane, I was using my computer to send e-mails.B: Yes.you can find time if you want no matter how busy you are, you can arrange the short time ahead and do what you have decided when you are free.Thirdly, list all the things you need to do in every morning, and then decide the three most important things, then do them in order.Many students who study abroad say they don't have time to study.Put it another way, study isn’t graded in you list.A professor has done an experiment.he but stones ,sands into a glass jar, then asked his students whether the jar was full。

A：He put stones and sands as many as he can, right? So no thing can be put into it think.B：Students gave the same answer that you just gave me.But the professor said “no” ,he put the whole bottle of water into it and asked” is it full now?” this tell us there will never be no time, it all depends on how you arrange and use them.A: Just like in China, we say that time is like the water in the sponge, which can be got for the asking.After that, let’s focus on another thing which is also important, the efficiency.B: Yes, that is what I want to say then.There is a principle, called 80% and 20%.Someone make the best use of time, 20% of pay will exchange for 80 %of returns.On the contrary, 80% of pay can only get 20% of returns back.time is limited, make your energies dedicated to the most necessary or difficult thing.although people have already said it many times, I also want to stress that getting up and going to bed early is really important.And these are some details students studying abroad should pay attention to.(結(jié)尾)A: studying abroad is a great chance.If you have, catch the opportunity of experiencing a new life.And try to make good use of time, which will make your life meaningful and successful.Thanks for your coming today, Mr.Michele

And I hope our talk will help some of viewers.And see you next time!

End

第二篇：國(guó)外留學(xué)的利弊

advantages of studying abroad: 出國(guó)留學(xué)的優(yōu)勢(shì)

1)To practise the ability of independence and solving problems alone on the students who study abroad.出國(guó)的留學(xué)生能夠鍛煉獨(dú)立自主和獨(dú)自解決問(wèn)題的能力

2)The abroad students can learn how to allocate their time better.國(guó)外留學(xué)生能夠?qū)W習(xí)如何更好地分配他們的時(shí)間 3)To broaden their horizons 開(kāi)闊視野和見(jiàn)識(shí)

4)To improve the ability of adapting themselves to a totally new environment and experience cultural differences.提高適應(yīng)全新環(huán)境的能力并有機(jī)會(huì)體驗(yàn)文化差異

5)To be accessible to the advanced teaching methods and better educational systems.可以得到更先進(jìn)的教學(xué)方法和更好的教育體系

6)To improve their ability of learning or mastering a second language(or even a third language)提高學(xué)習(xí)第二門(mén)語(yǔ)言的能力或?qū)⑵湔莆盏哪芰Γㄉ踔潦堑谌T(mén)語(yǔ)言）7)Have a better chance to find a job abroad to improve practical ability.在國(guó)外找到工作的機(jī)會(huì)更大,從而可以使實(shí)踐能力得到提高 Disadvantages of studying abroad: 出國(guó)留學(xué)的劣勢(shì) 1)Long time being apart from their families may cause several mental problems or even illnesses.長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的與家人分離有可能導(dǎo)致心理上的一些問(wèn)題,甚至疾病

2)Too young to accept or adapt to a new environment after going abroad.年齡太小以至于出國(guó)后不能接受或適應(yīng)新的環(huán)境 3)The students abroad who have weak self-control may give in to some certain kinds of bad temptations so that they spend much less time and effort on their major goal-study 自制力差的出國(guó)留學(xué)生有可能會(huì)經(jīng)不住一些不良誘惑從而大大減少了他們?cè)趯W(xué)習(xí)上花的功夫和時(shí)間.4)Sometimes they are possible to be discriminated or abandoned by the foreign students.有時(shí)他們有可能被國(guó)外學(xué)生歧視或孤立.5)More and more students begin to choose to go abroad for a further education recently so that the competition among all the abroad students can be tremendous.如今越來(lái)越多的學(xué)生開(kāi)始選擇出國(guó)留學(xué)這條道路來(lái)獲取更高的教育以至于國(guó)外留學(xué)生（海歸）之間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)非常激烈.6)Generally speaking,the students who study abroad spend much more money than the students who study internally.So the economic burdens of the abroad students'families are much heavier than the students who stay in their own countries.通常來(lái)講,國(guó)外留學(xué)生比國(guó)內(nèi)的學(xué)生花費(fèi)多很多,所以導(dǎo)致留學(xué)生家庭的經(jīng)濟(jì)負(fù)擔(dān)要比在國(guó)內(nèi)學(xué)習(xí)的學(xué)生的家庭重很多

第三篇：國(guó)外留學(xué)的優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Studying Abroad

In the US, the number of university students who study abroad increased dynamically.154,168 American college students studied abroad from 2000 to 2001 compared to 48,483 students from 1985 to 1986(Rooney 4).The more students study abroad, the more organizations have to work flexible.“The university has tried to track the changing interests of its students and the increasingly global nature of its curriculum by setting up programs in countries that did not attract as much interest a generation ago”(Rooney 2).A decade ago, the only destinations of studying abroad were in Western Europe, but there are many places for students to study abroad all over the world now(Rooney 2).Why students want to study abroad? For the reason, they can experience many amazing things.Studying abroad is not only to participate in classes at university but also to stay in different cultures and languages.To know other cultures is interesting, because bad manners in a country are sometimes normal things in the other.If you can speak more languages, we can talk to many people.Nowadays, it is very important to communicate with people who are from other countries because of businesses and to understand other cultures.This experience will positively affect one’s future.Furthermore, ways of thinking and knowledge will be wide and flexible.Therefore, studying abroad has many benefits.However, most students who desire to study abroad tend to think that they can experience only good things.This thinking relate to pamphlets because they only say good things.A studying abroad pamphlet says, “Learn a language, broaden your perspective, explore your identity, challenge yourself, increase your self-confidence and decision making skills, re-evaluate your priorities, values or goals, and discover a new or family cultural heritage”.If students read this, they will definitely feel like studying abroad, but they have to know opposite side.Besides, the most important thing to remember is why they go overseas.The purpose of studying abroad is, of course, to study.Some foreign students die because of accidents or committing suicide.International students experience not only good things but also many bad situations.However, bad things are rarely showed in public.Actually, a Japanese student was killed in Australia last year, but we did not hear any information after a few days of the first news.Students commit suicide rather than die by accidents.We meet with bad experiences because of the gap of cultures and languages, or we just do not suit the country.We cannot predict until we go to the country and stay.In addition, these bad experiences affect our study.Moreover, the worse situations are, the more we feel homesick.Consequently, everything makes us frustrated.People who want to study abroad have to know both good and bad sides.There are mainly three advantages of studying abroad, which are to be able to learn foreign language, experience fun things, and study much harder than doing in their own countries.On the other hand, three disadvantages are predicaments of communicating with people, getting used to a different culture, and tendency to be with people who are from same country.One of the most beneficial things of studying abroad is to be able to learn foreign languages from daily life.To speak more than two languages is necessity now because we have many chances to talk to people who are from overseas by business and even daily life.Most companies require us whether we can speak another language or not today.It is not unusual that people can speak more than 2 languages fluently any more.It means that borders of each county are getting low, and more people go out from their own countries recently than a decade ago.“We think language proficiency is one of the best things that can come out of study abroad”(Rooney 2).As she mentions, studying abroad equals to learn foreign language.Naturally foreign students can learn another language.The more they improve their language skills, the more they can enjoy their lives and make many friends who are native speakers.What do you expect when you travel abroad? You will expect different experiences from your culture.Of course, you can feel difference, but if you really want to experience different culture, you have to stay there.Otherwise you will not understand the culture in depth.Another advantage of studying abroad is that you can experience many interesting things.For example, there are different religions in

different countries.Mostly, East Asian countries are Buddhism, Middle Asian is Islam, and Christianity is the one of the biggest religions in the world.There are many unique or mixed religions all over the world.If students go to these certain places, they will experience different religious and traditional events.It is also very important to understand other cultures and people.They might feel weird, strange, or even sad, and annoyed, but these feelings help their thoughts wide and flexible because there is no right or wrong culture.My friend, Satoko Kogure, talked about her opinions of studying abroad.“I’m enjoying studying abroad in the US.I met a lot of people, and I could get different opinions and thoughts from them.I sometimes feel tired of this society and culture, but many people encourage me.What makes me really happy is that people try to understand me and they are interested in my culture.I like talking about cultures with people who have different cultures”(Kogure).She appeals to her emotions and characters.She mentions what she got and felt something warm from this country and people.In addition, she said that she was discriminated by American students at university.However, people who discriminated her recovered her.They had not considered her situation when they understood what foreign people feel about staying other countries.Finally, she appealed that, “What we have to do when we communicate with foreigners is not to be ethnocentrism.Everyone is also different even if they are from same country.Thus, we cannot say that this ethnic group is right and others are wrong”(Kogure).There are no bad things to know other cultures.The third advantage is to study much harder.Local students can understand what the teacher talks about during the class, whereas international students have a difficulty of following classes because of the gap of language, so we spend much more time for studying than students who are native speakers.Moreover, international students pay tuition twice as local students pay.It helps us study harder.Therefore, we have to study hard to get good scores and not to waste money.Actually, many foreign students get good grades and scholarships.Moreover, if we do not have a strong will about study, we cannot gain anything from this experience, and even we cannot live in another country.Hence, we are able to have confidence to try something new when

we study harder and harder.On the other hand, however, students who want to study abroad should not forget that they would also experience sad, hard, and bad things.One of the disadvantages is students are always facing difficulty of language.In classes, students sometimes do not know what the teachers talk about, they do not know what to do, and they miss very important information.Besides, they hesitate to ask what the other students are doing.Because of that, people seem to think that international students cannot speak the language at all so that people sometimes misunderstand or even ignore them.Actually, most international students learn the languages before studying abroad, but the native speakers’ speaking speed is totally different from the speed that foreign students learn in their own countries.Moreover, every language has difficult pronunciations.Language teachers can understand what foreigners say because the teachers have already gotten used to listen to foreigners’ speaking.But it is a little bit hard for general people to understand it.Thus, foreign students are disappointed to their language skills.Another problem of communicating with people who speak different languages is there are many words that have same meanings or similar meanings, or even a word has several meanings.Taking exams is hard for international people.First of all we have to understand exactly what the teachers ask about.Even we use dictionaries during the exams, dictionaries make us more confuse.Consequently, it takes more time to finish than local students.It is very interesting to know other cultures, but it is hard to live in another culture.We do feel different and uncomfortable living in different countries.There is a proverb, which is “When in Rome do as the Romans do”.This is true.If you behave as if you were in your country, you will be scorned because what you do might be bad manner or taboo in the country.But we cannot imitate everything local people do, and we sometimes cannot respect what they do.These differences make students annoy and frustrate.In addition, international students are sometimes discriminated because of their race and ethnic groups.Especially, discrimination against Arab people became severe after September 11th 2001.This is an article, which titled, “So, where are you

from”, written by Kristina Lane.This is about the situation of Middle East university students studying in United States of America after the accident happened.Actually, they are in the very difficult situation.They are dealt with in the same way as suspects.Many Arab students were arrested or detained as suspects of the terrorism just because they are from Arabic countries(Lane 5).Even if they were born in the US, and have US citizenships, they are still discriminated because of their race.Unfortunately, my Indian friend was attacked by Americans.We do not know why it happened, but he said that it was because of his race.The author mentions that, “I view it as a clear message that this country does not want Arab students to be in the country”(Lane 2).She appeals emotions, which is what Arab students feel now, and how some Americans feel to them.Not only Arab students but also people from all over the world have been dealt with American government strictly.For example, it is difficult to enter the US now and to get any kinds of visa.We have to be checked more than before at the airports.Even we can enter the US luckily;we have to submit many certificates to the government.Our all data is inputted into the computer.If you had a serious problem in another country, who would you ask to help? You would ask to people who are from same country.You could tell them exactly and they could understand why you are worried.You would better to find someone whom you can trust in another country.However, it is not good to be with someone who is from same country all the time.Once international students find someone who is from same country, they seem to be together anytime.When they feel homesick, they can encourage each other, and it is comfortable to be the people.However, as a result, they tend to restrict ourselves into the small group, and lose the chance to know the more diverse community.It does not make sense because we came to study another language and make many friends who are native speakers.This is just waste of money.In these advantages and disadvantages, there are similarities.In the case of language, if students try speaking a language to people who are the native speakers, they will improve their language skills.However, if they stick to only same ethnic

group, of course, to study abroad does not mean anything.It depends on person’s will whether studying abroad become their benefits or not.As the same as language, what they experience and how they take things will decide worth of studying abroad.Good experiences make them confident, and they will think that studying abroad is worth doing.On the other hand, even if they experience bad things, they will learn something from the experiences, and these episodes will help them think wide and flexible.Either this experience becomes advantage or disadvantage depends on students’ will and endeavor.Nobody can help them, but everyone can encourage them if they try hard.I wondered why I decided to study abroad.When I decided to go to England, I just wanted to learn English.I thought if it spoke English fluently, it could be advantage to get a job.I did not think anything more.However, after staying in England, I realized what I was interested in.I was interested in other cultures, customs, and behave.I was amazed that there were so many unique and unbelievable things all over the world.That is why I decided to study Anthropology in English.Besides, I am interested in Native Americans, too.Nowadays studying abroad programs are very well organized.For example, the program is length and strength;we can choose curriculums, majors, and specializations, “Students body diversity-total size, geographic and cultural representations, professional backgrounds”, “Faculty and program diversity, international diversity of the faculty, and international scope of the curriculum”, and so on(“Guide” 9).We do not have to worry anything about complicated systems in another country.Therefore, my situation at present is perfect for me.However, I experienced many things, which were not only good things but many bad things that were because of cultural differences and language difficulty.A bad experience makes me uncomfortable still now.But if I had not experienced it, my thought would not be wide and flexible.As I said, I also have thousands of good memories.Hence, I would like many students to know that studying abroad has both advantages and disadvantages, but they can make it good way.After considering these things, I want them to study abroad.They will definitely gain something from this experience.

第四篇：國(guó)外教學(xué)模式簡(jiǎn)介

國(guó)內(nèi)外教學(xué)模式簡(jiǎn)介

一、教學(xué)模式的歷史與發(fā)展

教學(xué)模式是教學(xué)活動(dòng)的基本結(jié)構(gòu)，每個(gè)教師在教學(xué)工作中都在自覺(jué)不自覺(jué)地按照一定的教學(xué)模式進(jìn)行教學(xué)，只不過(guò)這里有一個(gè)你采取的存在一個(gè)是否科學(xué)合理的問(wèn)題。了解教學(xué)模式的歷史發(fā)展有助于人們借鑒傳統(tǒng)和對(duì)當(dāng)代各種新教學(xué)模式的理解，有助于人們把握教學(xué)模式的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)。

㈠教學(xué)模式的演變

系統(tǒng)完整的教學(xué)模式是從近代教育學(xué)形成獨(dú)立體系開(kāi)始的，“教學(xué)模式”這一概念與理論在20世紀(jì)50年代以后才出現(xiàn)。不過(guò)在中外教學(xué)實(shí)踐和教學(xué)思想中，很早就有了教學(xué)模式的雛形。

古代教學(xué)的典型模式就是傳授式，其結(jié)構(gòu)是“講—聽(tīng)—讀—記—練”。其特點(diǎn)是教師灌輸知識(shí)，學(xué)生被動(dòng)機(jī)械地接受知識(shí)，書(shū)中文字與教師的講解幾乎完全一致，學(xué)生對(duì)答與書(shū)本或教師的講解一致，學(xué)生是靠機(jī)械的重復(fù)進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)。

到了17世紀(jì)，隨著學(xué)校教學(xué)中自然科學(xué)內(nèi)容和直觀教學(xué)法的引入，班級(jí)授課制度的實(shí)施，夸美紐斯提出應(yīng)當(dāng)把講解、質(zhì)疑、問(wèn)答、練習(xí)統(tǒng)一于課堂教學(xué)中，并把觀察等直觀活動(dòng)納入教學(xué)活動(dòng)體系之中，首次提出了以“感知—記憶—理解—判斷”為程序結(jié)構(gòu)的教學(xué)模式。

19世紀(jì)是一個(gè)科學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)興旺繁榮的時(shí)期。赫爾巴特的理論在相當(dāng)?shù)某潭壬戏从沉水?dāng)時(shí)科學(xué)發(fā)展的趨勢(shì)。他從統(tǒng)覺(jué)論出發(fā)，研究人的心理活動(dòng)，認(rèn)為學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)的過(guò)程中，只有當(dāng)新經(jīng)驗(yàn)已經(jīng)構(gòu)成心理的統(tǒng)覺(jué)團(tuán)中概念發(fā)生聯(lián)系時(shí)，才能真正掌握知識(shí)。所以教師的任務(wù)就是選擇正確的材料，以適當(dāng)?shù)某绦蛱崾緦W(xué)生，形成他們的學(xué)習(xí)背景或稱(chēng)統(tǒng)覺(jué)團(tuán)。從這一理論出發(fā)，他提出了“明了—聯(lián)合—系統(tǒng)—方法”的四階段教學(xué)模式。以后他的學(xué)生萊因又將其改造為“預(yù)備—提示—聯(lián)合—總結(jié)—應(yīng)用”的五階段教學(xué)模式。

以上這些教學(xué)模式都有一個(gè)共性，它們都忽視了學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)中的主體性，片面強(qiáng)調(diào)灌輸方式，在不同程度上壓抑和阻礙了學(xué)生的個(gè)性發(fā)展。所以在19世紀(jì)20年代，隨著資本主義大工業(yè)的發(fā)展，強(qiáng)調(diào)個(gè)性發(fā)展的思想的普遍深入與流行，以赫爾巴特為代表的傳統(tǒng)的教學(xué)模式受到了挑戰(zhàn)，應(yīng)運(yùn)而生的杜威的實(shí)用主義的教育理論得到了社會(huì)的推崇，同時(shí)也促進(jìn)了教學(xué)模式向前推進(jìn)了一步。

杜威提出了“以?xún)和癁橹行摹钡摹白鲋袑W(xué)”為基礎(chǔ)的實(shí)用主義教學(xué)模式。這一模式的基本程序是“創(chuàng)設(shè)情境—確定問(wèn)題—占有資料—提出假設(shè)—檢驗(yàn)假設(shè)”。這種教學(xué)模式打破了以往教學(xué)模式單一化的傾向，彌補(bǔ)了赫爾巴特教學(xué)模式的不足，強(qiáng)調(diào)學(xué)生的主體作用。強(qiáng)調(diào)活動(dòng)教學(xué)，促進(jìn)學(xué)生發(fā)現(xiàn)探索的技能，獲得探究問(wèn)題和解決問(wèn)題的能力，開(kāi)辟了現(xiàn)代教學(xué)模式的新路。

當(dāng)然，實(shí)用主義教學(xué)模式也有其缺陷。它把教學(xué)過(guò)程和科學(xué)研究過(guò)程等同起來(lái)，貶低了教師在教學(xué)過(guò)程中的指導(dǎo)作用，片面強(qiáng)調(diào)直接經(jīng)驗(yàn)的重要性，忽視知識(shí)系統(tǒng)性的學(xué)習(xí)，影響了教學(xué)質(zhì)量。因此在20世紀(jì)50年代受到了社會(huì)的強(qiáng)烈批評(píng)。

20世紀(jì)50年代以來(lái)，隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展，教育面臨著新的科技革命的挑戰(zhàn)，促進(jìn)人們利用新的理論和技術(shù)去研究學(xué)校教育和教學(xué)問(wèn)題?，F(xiàn)代心理學(xué)和思維科學(xué)對(duì)人腦活動(dòng)機(jī)制的揭示，發(fā)生認(rèn)識(shí)論對(duì)個(gè)體認(rèn)識(shí)過(guò)程的概括，認(rèn)知心理學(xué)對(duì)人腦接受和選擇信息活動(dòng)是研究，特別是系統(tǒng)論、控制論、信息加工理論等的產(chǎn)生，對(duì)教學(xué)實(shí)踐產(chǎn)生了深刻的影響，也給教學(xué)模式提出了許多新的課題。因此這一階段在教育領(lǐng)域出現(xiàn)了許多的教學(xué)思想和理論，與此同時(shí)也產(chǎn)生了許多新的教學(xué)模式。

㈡教學(xué)模式的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)

1．從單一教學(xué)模式向多樣化教學(xué)模式發(fā)展

自從赫爾巴特提出“四段論”教學(xué)模式以來(lái)，經(jīng)過(guò)其學(xué)生的實(shí)踐和發(fā)展逐漸以“傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)模式”的名稱(chēng)成為20世紀(jì)教學(xué)模式的主導(dǎo)。以后杜威打著反傳統(tǒng)的旗號(hào)，提出了實(shí)用主義教學(xué)模式，20世紀(jì)50年代以來(lái)一直在“傳統(tǒng)”與“反傳統(tǒng)”之間來(lái)回?cái)[動(dòng)。50年代以后，由于新的教學(xué)思想層出不窮，再加上新的科學(xué)技術(shù)革命使教學(xué)產(chǎn)生了很大的變化，教學(xué)模式出現(xiàn)了“百花齊放、百家爭(zhēng)鳴”的繁榮局面。據(jù)喬伊斯和韋爾1980年的統(tǒng)計(jì)，現(xiàn)在教學(xué)模式有23種之多，其中我國(guó)提出的教學(xué)模式就有10多種。

2．由歸納型向演繹型教學(xué)模式發(fā)展

歸納型教學(xué)模式重視從經(jīng)驗(yàn)中總結(jié)、歸納，它的起點(diǎn)是經(jīng)驗(yàn)，形成思維的過(guò)程是歸納。演繹型教學(xué)模式指的是從一種科學(xué)理論假設(shè)出發(fā)，推演出一種教學(xué)模式，然后用嚴(yán)密的實(shí)驗(yàn)來(lái)驗(yàn)證其效用。它的起點(diǎn)是理論假設(shè)，形成思維的過(guò)程是演繹。歸納型教學(xué)模式來(lái)自于教學(xué)實(shí)踐的總結(jié)，不免有些不確定性，有些地方還不能自圓其說(shuō)。而演繹型教學(xué)模式有一定的理論基礎(chǔ)，能夠自圓其說(shuō)，有自己完備的體系。

3．由以“教”為主向重“學(xué)”為主的教學(xué)模式發(fā)展

傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)模式都是從教師如何去教這個(gè)角度來(lái)進(jìn)行闡述，忽視了學(xué)生如何學(xué)這個(gè)問(wèn)題。杜威的“反傳統(tǒng)”教學(xué)模式，使人們認(rèn)識(shí)到學(xué)生應(yīng)當(dāng)是學(xué)習(xí)的主體，由此開(kāi)始了以“學(xué)”為主的教學(xué)模式的研究。現(xiàn)代教學(xué)模式的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)是重視教學(xué)活動(dòng)中學(xué)生的主體性，重視學(xué)生對(duì)教學(xué)的參與，根據(jù)教學(xué)的需要合理設(shè)計(jì)“教”與“學(xué)”的活動(dòng)。

4．教學(xué)模式的日益現(xiàn)代化

在當(dāng)代教學(xué)模式的研究中，越來(lái)越重視引進(jìn)現(xiàn)代科學(xué)技術(shù)的心理論、新成果。有些教學(xué)模式已經(jīng)開(kāi)始注意利用電腦等先進(jìn)的科學(xué)技術(shù)的成果，教學(xué)條件的科學(xué)含量越來(lái)越高，充分利用可提供的教學(xué)條件設(shè)計(jì)教學(xué)模式。

二、國(guó)內(nèi)外各種教學(xué)模式簡(jiǎn)介

教學(xué)模式是教學(xué)理論的具體化，是教學(xué)實(shí)踐的概括化的形式和系統(tǒng)，具有多樣性和可操作性，因此教師對(duì)教學(xué)模式的選擇和運(yùn)用是有一定的要求，教學(xué)模式必須要與教學(xué)目標(biāo)相契合，要考慮實(shí)際的教學(xué)條件針對(duì)不同的教學(xué)內(nèi)容來(lái)選擇教學(xué)模式，當(dāng)然首先還是要了解有哪些教學(xué)模式，它們的特點(diǎn)是什么。

㈠傳遞----接受式

該教學(xué)模式源于赫爾巴特的四段教學(xué)法，后來(lái)由前蘇聯(lián)凱洛夫等人進(jìn)行改造傳入我國(guó)。在我國(guó)廣為流行，很多教師在教學(xué)中自覺(jué)不自覺(jué)地都用這種方法教學(xué)。該模式以傳授系統(tǒng)知識(shí)、培養(yǎng)基本技能為目標(biāo)。其著眼點(diǎn)在于充分挖掘人的記憶力、推理能力與間接經(jīng)驗(yàn)在掌握知識(shí)方面的作用，使學(xué)生比較快速有效地掌握更多的信息量。該模式強(qiáng)調(diào)教師的指導(dǎo)作用，認(rèn)為知識(shí)是教師到學(xué)生的一種單向傳遞的作用，非常注重教師的權(quán)威性。

1．理論基礎(chǔ)：根據(jù)行為心理學(xué)的原理設(shè)計(jì)，尤其受斯金納操作性條件反射的訓(xùn)練心理學(xué)的影響，強(qiáng)調(diào)控制學(xué)習(xí)者的行為達(dá)到預(yù)定的目標(biāo)。認(rèn)為只要通過(guò)聯(lián)系----反饋----強(qiáng)化，這樣反復(fù)的循環(huán)過(guò)程就可以塑造有效的行為目標(biāo)。

2．教學(xué)基本程序

該模式的基本教學(xué)程序是：復(fù)習(xí)舊課—激發(fā)學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)—講授新課—鞏固練習(xí)—檢查評(píng)價(jià)—間隔性復(fù)習(xí)。

復(fù)習(xí)舊課是為了強(qiáng)化記憶、加深理解、加強(qiáng)知識(shí)之間的相互聯(lián)系和知識(shí)進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)整理。激發(fā)學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)是根據(jù)新課的內(nèi)容，設(shè)置一定情境和引入活動(dòng)，激發(fā)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)興趣。講授新課是教學(xué)的核心，在這個(gè)過(guò)程中主要以教師的講授和指導(dǎo)為主，學(xué)生一般要遵守紀(jì)律，跟著教師的教學(xué)節(jié)奏，按部就班地完成教師布置給他們的任務(wù)。鞏固練習(xí)是學(xué)生在課堂上對(duì)新學(xué)的知識(shí)進(jìn)行運(yùn)用和練習(xí)解決問(wèn)題的過(guò)程。檢查評(píng)價(jià)是通過(guò)學(xué)生的課堂和家庭作業(yè)來(lái)檢查學(xué)生對(duì)新知識(shí)的掌握情況。間隔性復(fù)習(xí)是為了強(qiáng)化記憶和加深理解。

3．教學(xué)原則：教師要根據(jù)學(xué)生的知識(shí)結(jié)構(gòu)的認(rèn)知水平對(duì)教學(xué)內(nèi)容進(jìn)行加工整理，力求使得所傳授的知識(shí)與學(xué)生原有的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)相聯(lián)系。充分發(fā)揮教師的主導(dǎo)作用，教師在傳授知識(shí)的時(shí)候需要很高的語(yǔ)言表達(dá)能力，同時(shí)要對(duì)學(xué)生在掌握知識(shí)時(shí)候常遇到的問(wèn)題有所經(jīng)驗(yàn)與覺(jué)察。

4．輔助系統(tǒng)：課本、黑板、粉筆、掛圖、模型、投影儀等。

5．教學(xué)效果

優(yōu)點(diǎn)：學(xué)生能在短時(shí)間內(nèi)接受大量的信息，能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的紀(jì)律性，能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的抽象思維能力。缺點(diǎn)：學(xué)生對(duì)接受的信息很難真正地理解，培養(yǎng)單一化、模式化的人格，不利于創(chuàng)新性、分析性學(xué)生的發(fā)展，不利于培養(yǎng)的學(xué)生創(chuàng)新思維和解決實(shí)際問(wèn)題的能力。

6．在運(yùn)用這種模式時(shí)的建議：在介紹講解性的內(nèi)容上運(yùn)用比較有效，當(dāng)期望學(xué)生在短時(shí)間掌握一定的知識(shí)去應(yīng)試時(shí)比較可行，教師不可在任何教學(xué)內(nèi)容上都運(yùn)用這種模式，長(zhǎng)此以往必然造成一種“滿(mǎn)堂灌”的教學(xué)模式，非常不利于學(xué)生的全面發(fā)展，從而培養(yǎng)出一大批沒(méi)有思想與主見(jiàn)的高分低能者。

㈡自學(xué)──輔導(dǎo)式

自學(xué)輔導(dǎo)式的教學(xué)模式是在教師的指導(dǎo)下自己獨(dú)立進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)的模式。這種教學(xué)模式能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的獨(dú)立思考能力，在教學(xué)實(shí)踐中也有很多教師在運(yùn)用它。

1．理論基礎(chǔ)：從人本主義出發(fā)，注意發(fā)揮學(xué)生的主體性，以培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)能力為目標(biāo)。這種教學(xué)模式基于先讓學(xué)生獨(dú)立學(xué)習(xí)，然后根據(jù)學(xué)生的具體情況教師進(jìn)行指導(dǎo)。它承認(rèn)學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中試錯(cuò)的價(jià)值，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生獨(dú)立思考和學(xué)會(huì)學(xué)習(xí)的能力。

2．教學(xué)基本程序

自學(xué)輔導(dǎo)式的教學(xué)程序是：自學(xué)—討論—啟發(fā)—總結(jié)—練習(xí)鞏固。

教師在教學(xué)中根據(jù)學(xué)生的最近發(fā)展區(qū)，布置一些有關(guān)新教學(xué)內(nèi)容的學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)組織學(xué)生自學(xué)，在自學(xué)之后讓學(xué)生之間交流討論，發(fā)現(xiàn)他們所遇到的困難，然后教師根據(jù)這些情況對(duì)學(xué)生進(jìn)行點(diǎn)撥和啟發(fā)，總結(jié)出規(guī)律，再組織學(xué)生進(jìn)行練習(xí)鞏固。

3．教學(xué)原則：自學(xué)內(nèi)容難度適宜，教師在教學(xué)過(guò)程中要適時(shí)點(diǎn)撥，先進(jìn)行自主學(xué)習(xí)，后教師進(jìn)行指導(dǎo)概括和總結(jié)。

4．輔助系統(tǒng)：要提供必要的學(xué)習(xí)材料和學(xué)習(xí)的輔助設(shè)施，給學(xué)生自學(xué)提供有力的支持。

5．教學(xué)效果

優(yōu)點(diǎn)：能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生分析問(wèn)題、解決問(wèn)題的能力；有利于教師因材施教；能發(fā)揮學(xué)生的自主性和創(chuàng)造性；有利于培養(yǎng)學(xué)生相互合作的精神。缺點(diǎn)：學(xué)生如果對(duì)自學(xué)內(nèi)容不感興趣，可能在課堂上一無(wú)所獲；需要較長(zhǎng)的時(shí)間；需要教師非常敏銳地觀察學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)情況，必要時(shí)進(jìn)行啟發(fā)和調(diào)動(dòng)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)熱情，針對(duì)不同學(xué)生進(jìn)行講解和教學(xué)，所以很難在大班教學(xué)中開(kāi)展。

6．實(shí)施建議：最好選擇難度適時(shí)學(xué)生比較感興趣的內(nèi)容進(jìn)行自學(xué)，教師要有很高的組織能力和業(yè)務(wù)水平，講師避免講解而是多啟發(fā)。

㈢探究式教學(xué)

探究式教學(xué)以問(wèn)題解決為中心的，注重學(xué)生的獨(dú)立活動(dòng)，著眼于學(xué)生的思維能力的培養(yǎng)。

1．理論基礎(chǔ)：依據(jù)皮亞杰和布魯納的建構(gòu)主義的理論，注重學(xué)生的前認(rèn)知，注重體驗(yàn)式教學(xué)，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的探究和思維能力。

2．基本程序

教學(xué)的基本程序是：?jiǎn)栴}—假設(shè)—推理—驗(yàn)證──總結(jié)提高。

首先創(chuàng)設(shè)一定的問(wèn)題情境提出問(wèn)題，然后組織學(xué)生對(duì)問(wèn)題進(jìn)行猜想和做假設(shè)性的解釋?zhuān)僭O(shè)計(jì)實(shí)驗(yàn)進(jìn)行驗(yàn)證，總后總結(jié)規(guī)律。

3．教學(xué)原則：建立一個(gè)民主寬容的教學(xué)環(huán)境，充分發(fā)揮學(xué)生的思維能力，教師要掌握學(xué)生的前認(rèn)知特點(diǎn)實(shí)施一定的教學(xué)策略。

4．輔助系統(tǒng)：需要一定的供學(xué)生探究學(xué)習(xí)的設(shè)備和相關(guān)資料。

5．教學(xué)效果

優(yōu)點(diǎn)：能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)創(chuàng)新能力和思維能力，能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的民主與合作的精神，能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生自主學(xué)習(xí)的能力。缺點(diǎn)：一般只能在小班進(jìn)行，需要較好的教學(xué)支持系統(tǒng)，教學(xué)需要的時(shí)間比較長(zhǎng)。

6．實(shí)施建議：在探究性教學(xué)中教師一定要尊重學(xué)生的主體性，創(chuàng)設(shè)一個(gè)寬容民主平等的教學(xué)環(huán)境，教師要對(duì)那些打破常規(guī)的學(xué)生予以一定的鼓勵(lì)，不要輕易地對(duì)學(xué)生說(shuō)對(duì)或錯(cuò)，教師要以引導(dǎo)為主切不可輕易告知學(xué)生探究的結(jié)果。

㈣概念獲得模式

該模式的目標(biāo)是使學(xué)習(xí)者通過(guò)體驗(yàn)所學(xué)概念的形成過(guò)程來(lái)培養(yǎng)他們的思維能力。該模式主要反映了認(rèn)知心理學(xué)的觀點(diǎn)，強(qiáng)調(diào)學(xué)習(xí)是認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)的組織與重組的觀點(diǎn)。

1．理論基礎(chǔ)：布魯納、古德諾和奧斯汀的思維研究理論。他們認(rèn)為分類(lèi)是把不同的事物當(dāng)作相等看待，是將周?chē)氖澜邕M(jìn)行簡(jiǎn)化和系統(tǒng)化的手段，從而建立一定的概念來(lái)理解紛繁復(fù)雜的世界。布魯納認(rèn)為所謂的概念是根據(jù)觀察進(jìn)行分類(lèi)而形成的思想或抽象化。在概念形成的過(guò)程中非常注重事物之中的一些相似成分，而忽略那些不同的地方。在界定概念的時(shí)候需要五個(gè)要素：名稱(chēng)、定義、屬性、例子以及與其他概念的相互關(guān)系。

2．基本程序：概念獲得模式共包含這些步驟：教師選擇和界定一個(gè)概念----教師確定概念的屬性----教師準(zhǔn)備選擇肯定和否定的例子----將學(xué)生導(dǎo)入概念化過(guò)程----呈現(xiàn)例子----學(xué)生概括并定義----提供更多的例子----進(jìn)一步研討并形成正確概念----概念的運(yùn)用與拓展。

3．教學(xué)原則：幫助學(xué)生有效地習(xí)得概念是學(xué)校教育的基本任務(wù)之一。概念獲得模式是采取“歸納—演繹”的思維形式。首先通過(guò)一些例子讓學(xué)生發(fā)現(xiàn)概念一些共同屬性，掌握概念區(qū)別于其他概念的本質(zhì)特征。學(xué)生在獲得概念后還需要進(jìn)行概念的理解，即引導(dǎo)學(xué)生從概念的內(nèi)涵、外延、屬、種、差別等方面去理解概念。為了強(qiáng)化學(xué)生對(duì)概念的理解，還應(yīng)該把與概念相關(guān)的或相似的概念、邏輯相關(guān)概念、相對(duì)應(yīng)的概念等等進(jìn)行辨析。學(xué)習(xí)的目的在于運(yùn)用，在運(yùn)用的過(guò)程中我們可以發(fā)現(xiàn)學(xué)生對(duì)概念的掌握程度，可以及時(shí)地采取補(bǔ)救措施。

4．輔助系統(tǒng)：需要大量正反例子，課前教師需要精心的準(zhǔn)備。

5．教學(xué)效果：能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的歸納和演繹能力，能夠形成比較清晰的概念，能夠培養(yǎng)學(xué)生嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)倪壿嬐评砟芰Α?/p>

6．實(shí)施建議：針對(duì)概念性很強(qiáng)的內(nèi)容實(shí)施教學(xué)，課前教師要對(duì)概念的內(nèi)涵與外延要做很好的梳理。

㈤巴特勒的自主學(xué)習(xí)模式

20世紀(jì)70年代美國(guó)教育心理學(xué)家巴特勒提出教學(xué)的7要素，并提出“七段”教學(xué)論，在國(guó)際上影響很大。

1．理論基礎(chǔ)：它的主要理論依據(jù)是信息加工理論。

2．教學(xué)程序

基本教學(xué)程序是：設(shè)置情境----激發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)----組織教學(xué)----應(yīng)用新知----檢測(cè)評(píng)價(jià)----鞏固練習(xí)----拓展與遷移。

他的教學(xué)七步驟中的情境是指學(xué)習(xí)的內(nèi)外部的各種情況，內(nèi)部情況是學(xué)生的認(rèn)知特點(diǎn)，外部情況是指學(xué)習(xí)環(huán)境，它的組成要因素有：個(gè)別差異、元認(rèn)知、環(huán)境因子。動(dòng)機(jī)是學(xué)習(xí)新知識(shí)的各種誘因，它的主要構(gòu)成要素有：情緒感受、注意、區(qū)分、意向。組織是將新知識(shí)與舊知識(shí)相互關(guān)聯(lián)起來(lái)，它的主要構(gòu)成要素有：相互聯(lián)系、聯(lián)想、構(gòu)思、建立模型。應(yīng)用是對(duì)新知識(shí)的初步嘗試，它的構(gòu)成要素有：參與、嘗試、體驗(yàn)、結(jié)果。評(píng)價(jià)是對(duì)新知識(shí)初步嘗試使用之后的評(píng)定，它的組成要素有：告知、比較、賦予價(jià)值、選擇。重復(fù)是練習(xí)與鞏固的過(guò)程，它的主要組成要素有：強(qiáng)化、練習(xí)、形成習(xí)慣、常規(guī)、記憶、遺忘。拓展是把新知識(shí)遷移到其他情境中去，它的構(gòu)成要素有延伸、遷移、轉(zhuǎn)換、系統(tǒng)、綜合。

3．教學(xué)原則：巴特勒從信息加工理論出發(fā)，非常注重元認(rèn)知的調(diào)節(jié)，利用學(xué)習(xí)策略對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)進(jìn)行加工，最后生成學(xué)習(xí)結(jié)果。教師在利用這種模式的時(shí)候，要時(shí)常提醒學(xué)生進(jìn)行反思自己的學(xué)習(xí)行為。要考慮各種步驟的組成要素，根據(jù)不同情況有所側(cè)重。

4．輔助系統(tǒng)：一般的課堂環(huán)境，掌握學(xué)習(xí)策略的教師。

5．教學(xué)效果

這是一個(gè)比較普適性的教學(xué)模式，根據(jù)不同發(fā)教學(xué)內(nèi)容它可以轉(zhuǎn)化為不同的教學(xué)法，只要教師靈活駕御就能達(dá)到他想要的教學(xué)效果。

6．實(shí)施建議

教師應(yīng)該是一位研究型的教師，具有一定是教育學(xué)和心理學(xué)的知識(shí)，掌握元認(rèn)知策略，就可以靈活運(yùn)用這種教學(xué)模式。

㈥拋錨式教學(xué)

這種教學(xué)要求建立在有感染力的真實(shí)事件或真實(shí)問(wèn)題的基礎(chǔ)上。確定這類(lèi)真實(shí)事件或問(wèn)題被形象地比喻為“拋錨”，因?yàn)橐坏┻@類(lèi)事件或問(wèn)題被確定了，整個(gè)教學(xué)內(nèi)容和教學(xué)進(jìn)程也就被確定了(就像輪船被錨固定一樣)。

1．理論基礎(chǔ)：它的理論基礎(chǔ)是建構(gòu)主義。建構(gòu)主義認(rèn)為，學(xué)習(xí)者要想完成對(duì)所學(xué)知識(shí)的意義建構(gòu)，即達(dá)到對(duì)該知識(shí)所反映事物的性質(zhì)、規(guī)律以及該事物與其它事物之間聯(lián)系的深刻理解，最好的辦法是讓學(xué)習(xí)者到現(xiàn)實(shí)世界的真實(shí)環(huán)境中去感受、去體驗(yàn)(即通過(guò)獲取直接經(jīng)驗(yàn)來(lái)學(xué)習(xí))，而不是僅僅聆聽(tīng)別人(例如教師)關(guān)于這種經(jīng)驗(yàn)的介紹和講解。由于拋錨式教學(xué)要以真實(shí)事例或問(wèn)題為基礎(chǔ)(作“錨”)，所以有時(shí)也被稱(chēng)為“實(shí)例式教學(xué)”或“基于問(wèn)題的教學(xué)”或“情境性教學(xué)”。

2．基本程序：拋錨式教學(xué)由這樣幾個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)組成：

⑴創(chuàng)設(shè)情境----使學(xué)習(xí)能在和現(xiàn)實(shí)情況基本一致或相類(lèi)似的情境中發(fā)生。

⑵確定問(wèn)題----在上述情境下，選擇出與當(dāng)前學(xué)習(xí)主題密切相關(guān)的真實(shí)性事件或問(wèn)題作為學(xué)習(xí)的中心內(nèi)容。選出的事件或問(wèn)題就是“錨”，這一環(huán)節(jié)的作用就是“拋錨”。

⑶自主學(xué)習(xí)----不是由教師直接告訴學(xué)生應(yīng)當(dāng)如何去解決面臨的問(wèn)題，而是由教師向?qū)W生提供解決該問(wèn)題的有關(guān)線索，并特別注意發(fā)展學(xué)生的“自主學(xué)習(xí)”能力。

⑷協(xié)作學(xué)習(xí)----討論、交流，通過(guò)不同觀點(diǎn)的交鋒，補(bǔ)充、修正、加深每個(gè)學(xué)生對(duì)當(dāng)前問(wèn)題的理解。

⑸效果評(píng)價(jià)----由于拋錨式教學(xué)的學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程就是解決問(wèn)題的過(guò)程，由該過(guò)程可以直接反映出學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)效果。因此對(duì)這種教學(xué)效果的評(píng)價(jià)不需要進(jìn)行獨(dú)立于教學(xué)過(guò)程的專(zhuān)門(mén)測(cè)驗(yàn)，只需在學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中隨時(shí)觀察并記錄學(xué)生的表現(xiàn)即可。

3．教學(xué)原則：情境設(shè)置與產(chǎn)生問(wèn)題一致，問(wèn)題難易適中要具有一定的真實(shí)性，在教學(xué)中要充分發(fā)揮學(xué)生的主體性。

4．輔助系統(tǒng)：巧設(shè)情境，合作學(xué)習(xí)。

5．教學(xué)效果：能培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的創(chuàng)新能力、解決問(wèn)題能力、獨(dú)立思考能力、合作能力等。

6．實(shí)施建議：創(chuàng)設(shè)情境適時(shí)拋出問(wèn)題，注意情境感染與熏陶作用。

㈦范例教學(xué)模式

范例教學(xué)模式比較適合原理、規(guī)律性的知識(shí)。是中學(xué)思想政治課教學(xué)最基礎(chǔ)的內(nèi)容之一。他是美國(guó)教育心理學(xué)家M·瓦根舍因提出來(lái)的。

1．理論基礎(chǔ)：遵循人的認(rèn)知規(guī)律：從個(gè)別到一般，從具體到抽象的過(guò)程。在教學(xué)中一般從一些范例分析入手感知原理與規(guī)律，并逐步提煉進(jìn)行歸納總結(jié)，再進(jìn)行遷移整合。

2．基本程序

范例教學(xué)的基本過(guò)程是：闡明“個(gè)”案→范例性闡明“類(lèi)”案→范例性地掌握規(guī)律原理→掌握規(guī)律原理的方法論意義→規(guī)律原理運(yùn)用訓(xùn)練。

“范例教學(xué)”主張選取蘊(yùn)含本質(zhì)因素、根本因素、基礎(chǔ)因素的典型案例，通過(guò)對(duì)范例的研究，使學(xué)生從個(gè)別到一般、從具體到抽象、從認(rèn)識(shí)到實(shí)踐理解、掌握帶有普遍性的規(guī)律、原理的模式。所謂范例性地闡明“個(gè)”案，指用典型事實(shí)和現(xiàn)象為例說(shuō)明事物的本質(zhì)特征；所謂范例性闡明“類(lèi)”案，是指用許多在本質(zhì)上與“個(gè)”案一致的事實(shí)和現(xiàn)象來(lái)闡明事物的本質(zhì)特征；范例性掌握規(guī)律原理是指從大量的“類(lèi)”案中總結(jié)出規(guī)律和原理，在總結(jié)歸納的過(guò)程中，要注意對(duì)規(guī)律或原理的表述要準(zhǔn)確，對(duì)規(guī)律原理的名稱(chēng)要清楚；掌握規(guī)律原理的目的和意義在于運(yùn)用，因而教師要讓學(xué)生掌握規(guī)律、原理的方法論意義；為了了解學(xué)生對(duì)規(guī)律和原理的掌握程度，從而獲得反饋信息，規(guī)律原理的運(yùn)用訓(xùn)練是教學(xué)必不可少的環(huán)節(jié)。

3．教育原則

要遵循這個(gè)基本順序：從個(gè)別入手，歸納成類(lèi)，再?gòu)念?lèi)入手，提煉本質(zhì)特征，最后上升到規(guī)律與原理。

4．輔助系統(tǒng)：選取不同的帶有典型性的范例。

5．教學(xué)效果：有助于培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的分析能力，有助于學(xué)生理解規(guī)律和原理。

6．實(shí)施建議：比較適合社會(huì)科學(xué)中的一些原理和規(guī)律教學(xué)，范例一定有一定的代表性，最好能激發(fā)學(xué)生的興趣。

㈧現(xiàn)象分析模式

1．理論基礎(chǔ)：它主要基于建構(gòu)主義的認(rèn)知理論，非常注意學(xué)生利用自己的先前經(jīng)驗(yàn)對(duì)問(wèn)題進(jìn)行解釋。

2．基本程序：現(xiàn)象分析模式的基本教學(xué)程序是：出示現(xiàn)象→解釋現(xiàn)象的形成原因→現(xiàn)象的結(jié)果分析→解決方法分析。在教學(xué)中，某種現(xiàn)象往往是以材料的形式出現(xiàn)的，學(xué)生要能通過(guò)現(xiàn)象揭示其背后的本質(zhì)。

3．教育原則：現(xiàn)象能夠反映本質(zhì)規(guī)律，創(chuàng)設(shè)民主環(huán)境，充分發(fā)揮學(xué)生的主體性，讓他們進(jìn)行解釋說(shuō)明。

4．輔助系統(tǒng)：真實(shí)的現(xiàn)象感受，最好有音像輔助設(shè)備。

5．教學(xué)效果：培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的分析能力、綜合能力。

6．實(shí)施建議：教師要調(diào)動(dòng)學(xué)生的思維，讓他們?nèi)グl(fā)現(xiàn)現(xiàn)象背后的規(guī)律；選取的現(xiàn)象要具有一定的典型性，能揭示背后的規(guī)律。

㈨加涅模式

1．理論基礎(chǔ)

依據(jù)信息加工理論，加涅認(rèn)為學(xué)習(xí)的條件分為內(nèi)部條件和外部條件，內(nèi)部條件又進(jìn)一步分為基本先決條件和支持性的先決條件。支持性的先決條件在學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中起輔助作用，但是沒(méi)有這些條件學(xué)習(xí)也可以發(fā)生，而如果缺少基本先決條件則是不行的。不同的學(xué)習(xí)類(lèi)別需要不同的學(xué)習(xí)條件，并能產(chǎn)生五種類(lèi)型的學(xué)習(xí)結(jié)果：言語(yǔ)信息、智力技能、認(rèn)知策略、動(dòng)作技能、態(tài)度。言語(yǔ)信息包括名稱(chēng)、符號(hào)、事實(shí)和原則。為了使言語(yǔ)信息的學(xué)習(xí)得以發(fā)生，言語(yǔ)信息的內(nèi)容對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)者必須是有意義的?？疾檠哉Z(yǔ)信息是否掌握，必須對(duì)一些事實(shí)進(jìn)行提問(wèn)。

智慧技能，包括辨別、概念、規(guī)則、和高級(jí)規(guī)則。智慧技能的學(xué)習(xí)是通過(guò)呈現(xiàn)許多規(guī)則和例子以指導(dǎo)學(xué)習(xí)者找到正確的答案?？梢酝ㄟ^(guò)要求學(xué)習(xí)者解決特定的問(wèn)題來(lái)考查學(xué)習(xí)結(jié)果。認(rèn)知策略，對(duì)這種技能的教學(xué)方法是演示或說(shuō)明策略后，學(xué)習(xí)者練習(xí)，一旦學(xué)生熟悉了一個(gè)問(wèn)題，新的問(wèn)題要呈現(xiàn)，以幫助學(xué)生將策略遷移，或者評(píng)價(jià)學(xué)生對(duì)策略的掌握。動(dòng)作技能，反復(fù)練習(xí)對(duì)這種技能的掌握是關(guān)鍵?？梢酝ㄟ^(guò)完成任務(wù)的時(shí)間或者精確性來(lái)測(cè)試對(duì)動(dòng)作技能的掌握。態(tài)度，強(qiáng)化相依原理在態(tài)度學(xué)習(xí)中起主要作用。

加涅的學(xué)習(xí)層級(jí)論主要適用于智慧技能的學(xué)習(xí)。學(xué)習(xí)層級(jí)論，也稱(chēng)累積學(xué)習(xí)理論，其基本觀點(diǎn)是：學(xué)習(xí)任何新的智慧技能都需要某種先前的學(xué)習(xí)，學(xué)習(xí)是累積性的。按照復(fù)雜性程度的不同，由簡(jiǎn)單到復(fù)雜，加涅將智慧技能分為八個(gè)層次：信號(hào)學(xué)習(xí)、刺激－反應(yīng)學(xué)習(xí)、連鎖學(xué)習(xí)、言語(yǔ)聯(lián)想、辨別學(xué)習(xí)、概念學(xué)習(xí)、規(guī)則學(xué)習(xí)和高級(jí)規(guī)則學(xué)習(xí)。其中前四類(lèi)學(xué)習(xí)是學(xué)習(xí)的基礎(chǔ)形式，總稱(chēng)聯(lián)想學(xué)習(xí)。學(xué)校教育更關(guān)注的是后面四類(lèi)的學(xué)習(xí)。

加涅把人的學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程等同于電腦對(duì)信息的加工處理，在他的學(xué)習(xí)理論中要點(diǎn)是：注意、選擇性知覺(jué)、復(fù)誦、語(yǔ)義編碼、提取、反應(yīng)組織、反饋。

2．基本程序

按照電腦加工信息的步驟（環(huán)境---接受器----登記----編碼----反應(yīng)器執(zhí)行監(jiān)控----效應(yīng)器----環(huán)境），他提出九步教學(xué)法：

⑴引起注意

⑵告知目標(biāo)

⑶刺激回憶先決條件

⑷呈現(xiàn)刺激材料

⑸提供學(xué)習(xí)指導(dǎo)

⑹引發(fā)業(yè)績(jī)

⑺提供業(yè)績(jī)正確程度反饋

⑻評(píng)價(jià)

⑼增強(qiáng)保持與遷移

加涅認(rèn)為學(xué)習(xí)這九個(gè)階段和分為三個(gè)部分，即準(zhǔn)備、操作和遷移三個(gè)部分。

準(zhǔn)備包括接收、預(yù)期、提取到工作記憶中。對(duì)應(yīng)的教學(xué)事件是引起注意、告知目標(biāo)、刺激回憶先前的知識(shí)。操作包括選擇性知覺(jué)、語(yǔ)義編碼、反應(yīng)、強(qiáng)化。對(duì)應(yīng)的教學(xué)事件是呈現(xiàn)刺激、提供學(xué)習(xí)指導(dǎo)、引出行為、提供反饋。學(xué)習(xí)遷移包括提取和強(qiáng)化、提取并一般化。對(duì)應(yīng)的教學(xué)事件是評(píng)價(jià)行為、促進(jìn)保持與遷移。

㈩?yuàn)W蘇貝爾模式

奧蘇貝爾是認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)理論的具體化的實(shí)用者。他通俗地認(rèn)為認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)就是書(shū)本知識(shí)在學(xué)生頭腦中地再現(xiàn)形式，是有意義學(xué)習(xí)的結(jié)果和條件。他著重強(qiáng)調(diào)了概括性強(qiáng)、清晰、牢固、具有可辨別性和可利用性的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)在學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中的作用，并把建立學(xué)習(xí)者對(duì)教材的清晰、牢固、認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)作為教學(xué)的主要任務(wù)。奧蘇貝爾的有意義學(xué)習(xí)理論著重強(qiáng)調(diào)了認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)的地位，圍繞著認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)提出的上位學(xué)習(xí)、下位學(xué)習(xí)、相關(guān)類(lèi)屬學(xué)習(xí)、并列結(jié)合學(xué)習(xí)和創(chuàng)造學(xué)習(xí)等幾種學(xué)習(xí)類(lèi)型，為新舊知識(shí)是如何組織的提供了一條較有說(shuō)服力的解釋。自他之后，認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)理論才真正引起人們的重視并為人們廣泛理解。

1．理論基礎(chǔ)──“有意義接受學(xué)習(xí)”理論

美國(guó)著名教育心理學(xué)家?jiàn)W蘇貝爾在對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)類(lèi)型做深入研究的基礎(chǔ)上，?將“學(xué)習(xí)”?按照其效果劃分為“有意義學(xué)習(xí)”與“機(jī)械學(xué)習(xí)”兩種類(lèi)型。所謂有意義學(xué)習(xí)，?其實(shí)質(zhì)是指：“符號(hào)表示的觀念，以非任意的方式和在實(shí)質(zhì)上（而不是字面上）?同學(xué)習(xí)者已經(jīng)知道的內(nèi)容聯(lián)系在一起。所謂非任意的和實(shí)質(zhì)上的聯(lián)系是指這些觀念和學(xué)習(xí)者原有認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)中的某一方面（如一個(gè)表象、?一個(gè)已經(jīng)有意義的符號(hào)、?一個(gè)概念或一個(gè)命題）有聯(lián)系?！睋Q句話說(shuō)，要想實(shí)現(xiàn)有意義的學(xué)習(xí)真正習(xí)得知識(shí)的意義，?即希望通過(guò)學(xué)習(xí)獲得對(duì)知識(shí)所反映事物的性質(zhì)規(guī)律及事物之間關(guān)聯(lián)的認(rèn)識(shí)，?關(guān)鍵是要在當(dāng)前所學(xué)的新概念、新知識(shí)（即“符號(hào)表示的觀念”?）與學(xué)習(xí)者原有認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)中的某個(gè)方面（表象、概念或命題）之間建立起非任意的實(shí)質(zhì)性聯(lián)系。?只要能建立起這種聯(lián)系就是有意義的學(xué)習(xí)，否則就必然是死記硬背的機(jī)械學(xué)習(xí)。?奧蘇貝爾認(rèn)為，能否建立起新舊知識(shí)之間的這種聯(lián)系，?是影響學(xué)習(xí)的唯一的最重要因素，是教育心理學(xué)中最基本、最核心的一條原理。?正如他的代表性論著“教育心理學(xué)一種認(rèn)知觀點(diǎn)”一書(shū)的扉頁(yè)中用特大號(hào)字所表述的：?“假如讓我把全部教育心理學(xué)僅僅歸結(jié)為一條原理的話，?那么，我將一言以蔽之曰：影響學(xué)習(xí)的唯一最重要因素就是學(xué)習(xí)者已經(jīng)知道了什么。要探明這一點(diǎn)，并應(yīng)據(jù)此進(jìn)行教學(xué)”。

奧蘇貝爾指出，?要想實(shí)現(xiàn)有意義學(xué)習(xí)可以有兩種不同的途徑或方式：接受學(xué)習(xí)和發(fā)現(xiàn)學(xué)習(xí)。?接受學(xué)習(xí)的基本特點(diǎn)是：“所學(xué)知識(shí)的全部?jī)?nèi)容都是以確定的方式被（教師）?傳遞給學(xué)習(xí)者。學(xué)習(xí)課題并不涉及學(xué)生方面的任何獨(dú)立的發(fā)現(xiàn)。學(xué)習(xí)者只需要把呈現(xiàn)出來(lái)的材料（無(wú)意義音節(jié)或配對(duì)形容詞；一首詩(shī)或幾何定理）加以?xún)?nèi)化或組織，以便在將來(lái)某個(gè)時(shí)候可以利用它或把它再現(xiàn)出來(lái)?！卑l(fā)現(xiàn)學(xué)習(xí)的基本特點(diǎn)則是：?“要學(xué)的主要內(nèi)容不是（由教師）傳遞的，而是在從意義上被納入學(xué)生的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)以前必須由學(xué)習(xí)者自己去發(fā)現(xiàn)出來(lái)。?”奧蘇貝爾還強(qiáng)調(diào)指出，?如果根據(jù)學(xué)習(xí)引起的能力變化來(lái)區(qū)分學(xué)習(xí)類(lèi)型（能否實(shí)現(xiàn)有意義學(xué)習(xí)是引起能力發(fā)展變化的關(guān)鍵），即根據(jù)用何種方式來(lái)引起能力變化(也就是用何種方式來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)有意義學(xué)習(xí))，那么，就只能區(qū)分出“接受學(xué)習(xí)”與“發(fā)現(xiàn)學(xué)習(xí)”?兩種，而所有其他的學(xué)習(xí)類(lèi)型皆可并入到這兩大類(lèi)型之中。他認(rèn)為目前學(xué)術(shù)界對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)類(lèi)型的眾多分類(lèi)（如“辨別學(xué)習(xí)”?、“概念學(xué)習(xí)”、“嘗試錯(cuò)誤學(xué)習(xí)”?、“條件反應(yīng)學(xué)習(xí)”、“配對(duì)聯(lián)想學(xué)習(xí)”??等等）實(shí)際上都是“沒(méi)有按照這些學(xué)習(xí)類(lèi)型所引起的能力變化來(lái)區(qū)分學(xué)習(xí)”?的結(jié)果。

2．“先行組織者”教學(xué)策略

奧蘇貝爾不僅正確地指出通過(guò)“發(fā)現(xiàn)學(xué)習(xí)”?和“接受學(xué)習(xí)”均可實(shí)現(xiàn)有意義學(xué)習(xí)，?而且還對(duì)如何在這兩種教學(xué)方式下具體實(shí)現(xiàn)有意義學(xué)習(xí)的教學(xué)策略進(jìn)行了研究，?特別是對(duì)“傳遞—接受”教學(xué)方式下的教學(xué)策略作了更為深入的探索，?并取得了成為教學(xué)論領(lǐng)域一座豐碑的出色成果──“先行組織者”教學(xué)策略。?這是在分析與操縱三種認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)變量（即原有認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)的可利用性、可分辨性和穩(wěn)固性等三個(gè)變量）?基礎(chǔ)上而實(shí)施的一種教學(xué)策略，由于它具有認(rèn)知學(xué)習(xí)理論作基礎(chǔ)又有很強(qiáng)的可操作性，?自?shī)W蘇貝爾于1978年提出以來(lái)，其影響日益擴(kuò)大，目前，它已成為實(shí)現(xiàn)“有意義接受學(xué)習(xí)”的最有代表性、最具影響力、也是最見(jiàn)實(shí)際效果的教學(xué)策略之一。

3．動(dòng)機(jī)理論

奧蘇貝爾不僅在對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程的認(rèn)知條件、?認(rèn)知因素進(jìn)行深入研究的基礎(chǔ)上提出了“有意義接受學(xué)習(xí)”?理論和“先行組織者”教學(xué)策略，而且他還注意到影響學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程的另一重要因素即情感因素的作用，?并在這方面提出了獨(dú)到的見(jiàn)解（在當(dāng)代眾多教育心理學(xué)家中，?能重視情感因素的作用并對(duì)此進(jìn)行認(rèn)真研究的并不多見(jiàn)），這些見(jiàn)解可歸納如下：

⑴他認(rèn)為，情感因素對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)的影響主要是通過(guò)動(dòng)機(jī)在以下三個(gè)方面起作用：

①動(dòng)機(jī)可以影響有意義學(xué)習(xí)的發(fā)生由于動(dòng)機(jī)并不參與建立新舊概念、新舊知識(shí)之間的聯(lián)系，?所以并不能直接影響有意義學(xué)習(xí)的發(fā)生，但是動(dòng)機(jī)卻能通過(guò)使學(xué)習(xí)者在“集中注意”?、“加強(qiáng)努力”、“學(xué)習(xí)持久性”和“挫折忍受力”等方面發(fā)揮出更大潛能而加強(qiáng)新舊知識(shí)的相互作用（起催化劑作用）?，從而有效地促進(jìn)有意義的學(xué)習(xí)。

②動(dòng)機(jī)可以影響習(xí)得意義的保持由于動(dòng)機(jī)并不參與建立新舊知識(shí)之間的聯(lián)系和新舊知識(shí)的相互作用，?所以也不能直接影響習(xí)得意義的保持，但是保持總是要通過(guò)復(fù)習(xí)環(huán)節(jié)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)，?而在復(fù)習(xí)過(guò)程中動(dòng)機(jī)仍可通過(guò)使學(xué)習(xí)者在“集中注意”?、“加強(qiáng)努力”、和“持久性”等方面發(fā)揮出更大潛能來(lái)提高新獲得意義的清晰性和鞏固性，從而有效地促進(jìn)保持。

③動(dòng)機(jī)可以影響對(duì)知識(shí)的提?。ɑ貞洠﹦?dòng)機(jī)過(guò)強(qiáng)，可能產(chǎn)生抑制作用，使本來(lái)可以提取的知識(shí)提取不了（回憶不起來(lái)）?，考試時(shí)由于心理緊張，動(dòng)機(jī)過(guò)強(qiáng)，?影響正常水平發(fā)揮就是一個(gè)例子；反之，有時(shí)動(dòng)機(jī)過(guò)弱，不能調(diào)動(dòng)起學(xué)習(xí)者神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的全部潛力，也會(huì)減弱對(duì)已有知識(shí)的提取。

⑵他認(rèn)為，動(dòng)機(jī)是由三種內(nèi)驅(qū)力組成的，由于動(dòng)機(jī)是驅(qū)使人們行動(dòng)的內(nèi)部力量，?所以心理學(xué)家常把動(dòng)機(jī)和內(nèi)驅(qū)力視為同義詞。?奧蘇貝爾認(rèn)為通常所說(shuō)的動(dòng)機(jī)是由“認(rèn)知內(nèi)驅(qū)力”、“自我提高內(nèi)驅(qū)力”和“附屬內(nèi)驅(qū)力”等三種成分組成的。認(rèn)知內(nèi)驅(qū)力是指要求獲得知識(shí)、?了解周?chē)澜?、闡明問(wèn)題和解決問(wèn)題的欲望與動(dòng)機(jī)，?與通常所說(shuō)的好奇心、求知欲大致同義。這種內(nèi)驅(qū)力是從求知活動(dòng)本身得到滿(mǎn)足，?所以是一種內(nèi)在的學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)。由于有意義學(xué)習(xí)的結(jié)果就是對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)者的一種激勵(lì)，?所以?shī)W蘇貝爾認(rèn)為，這是“有意義學(xué)習(xí)中的一種最重要的動(dòng)機(jī)”?。例如，兒童生來(lái)就有好奇心，他們?cè)绞遣粩嗵剿髦車(chē)澜纾私庵車(chē)澜纾?就越是從中得到滿(mǎn)足。這種滿(mǎn)足感（作為一種“激勵(lì)”）又會(huì)進(jìn)一步強(qiáng)化他們的求知欲，即增強(qiáng)他們學(xué)習(xí)的內(nèi)驅(qū)力。自我提高內(nèi)驅(qū)力是指兒童希望通過(guò)獲得好成績(jī)來(lái)提高自己在家庭和學(xué)校中地位的學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)。?隨著年齡增長(zhǎng)，兒童自我意識(shí)增強(qiáng)，他們希望在家庭和學(xué)校集體中受到尊重。?這種愿望也可以推動(dòng)兒童努力學(xué)習(xí)，爭(zhēng)取好成績(jī)，以贏得與其成績(jī)相當(dāng)?shù)牡匚弧?自我提高內(nèi)驅(qū)力強(qiáng)的學(xué)習(xí)者，所追求的不是知識(shí)本身，而是知識(shí)之外的地位滿(mǎn)足（受人敬重、有地位），所以這是一種外在的學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)。附屬內(nèi)驅(qū)力是指通過(guò)順從、?聽(tīng)話從父母和老師那里得到認(rèn)可，從而獲得派生地位的一種動(dòng)機(jī)。?這種動(dòng)機(jī)也不是追求知識(shí)本身，而是追求知識(shí)之外的自尊滿(mǎn)足（家長(zhǎng)和老師認(rèn)可），所以也是一種外在的學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)。

上述三種不同成分的動(dòng)機(jī)對(duì)每個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)都可能具有，?但三種成分所占的不同比例，?則依年齡、性別、文化、社會(huì)地位和人格特征等因素而定。在童年時(shí)期，?附屬內(nèi)驅(qū)力是獲得良好學(xué)業(yè)成績(jī)的主要?jiǎng)訖C(jī)；童年晚期和少年期，附屬內(nèi)驅(qū)力降低，?而且從追求家長(zhǎng)認(rèn)可轉(zhuǎn)向同齡伙伴的認(rèn)可；到了青年期和成人，自我提高內(nèi)驅(qū)力則逐漸成為動(dòng)機(jī)的主要成分。前面強(qiáng)調(diào)了內(nèi)在動(dòng)機(jī)（認(rèn)知內(nèi)驅(qū)力）的重要性，?但決不應(yīng)由此貶低外部動(dòng)機(jī)（特別是自我提高內(nèi)驅(qū)力）的作用。在個(gè)人的學(xué)術(shù)生涯和職業(yè)生涯中自我提高內(nèi)驅(qū)力是一種可以長(zhǎng)期起作用的強(qiáng)大動(dòng)機(jī)。?這是因?yàn)?，與其他動(dòng)機(jī)相比，這種動(dòng)機(jī)包含更為強(qiáng)烈的情感因素既有對(duì)成功和隨之而來(lái)的聲譽(yù)鵲起的期盼、渴望與激動(dòng)，又有對(duì)失敗和隨之而來(lái)的地位、自尊喪失的焦慮、不安與恐懼。

由上面關(guān)于“動(dòng)機(jī)理論”（包括動(dòng)機(jī)成分的組成與動(dòng)機(jī)的作用等兩個(gè)方面）的介紹可以看出，?奧蘇貝爾確實(shí)對(duì)情感因素在認(rèn)知過(guò)程中的作用與影響作了較深入的研究。?如果我們?cè)诮虒W(xué)設(shè)計(jì)或在課件腳本設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)程中能根據(jù)學(xué)習(xí)者的不同年齡特征，?有意識(shí)地幫助學(xué)習(xí)者逐步形成與不斷強(qiáng)化上述三種動(dòng)機(jī)并在教學(xué)過(guò)程的不同階段（例如在有意義學(xué)習(xí)發(fā)生、?習(xí)得意義保持及知識(shí)提取等階段）恰當(dāng)?shù)乩眠@些動(dòng)機(jī)，?那么，由于學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中認(rèn)知因素與情感因素能得到較好的配合，所以定將取得更為良好的教學(xué)效果。

4．基本程序：提出先行組織者----逐步分化----綜合貫通。

（十一）合作學(xué)習(xí)模式

它是一種通過(guò)小組形式組織學(xué)生進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)的一種策略。小組取得的成績(jī)與個(gè)體的表現(xiàn)是緊密聯(lián)系的。約翰遜(D.W.Johnson，1989)認(rèn)為合作式學(xué)習(xí)必須具備五大要素：①個(gè)體積極的相互依靠，②個(gè)體有直接的交流，③個(gè)體必須都掌握給小組的材料，④個(gè)體具備協(xié)作技巧，⑤群體策略。合作式學(xué)習(xí)有利于發(fā)展學(xué)生個(gè)體思維能力和動(dòng)作技能，增強(qiáng)學(xué)生之間的溝通能力和包容能力，還能培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的團(tuán)隊(duì)精神，提高學(xué)生的學(xué)業(yè)成績(jī)。

課堂里的合作有四點(diǎn)不足之處：首先，如果學(xué)得慢的學(xué)生需要學(xué)得快的學(xué)生的幫助，那么對(duì)于學(xué)得快的學(xué)生來(lái)說(shuō)，在一定程度上就得放慢學(xué)習(xí)進(jìn)度，影響自身發(fā)展。其次，能力強(qiáng)的學(xué)生有可能支配能力差或沉默寡言的學(xué)生，使后者更加退縮，前者反而更加不動(dòng)腦筋。第三，合作容易忽視個(gè)別差異，影響對(duì)合作感到不自然的學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)進(jìn)步。最后，小組的成就過(guò)多依靠個(gè)體的成就，一旦有個(gè)體因?yàn)槟芰Σ蛔慊虿桓信d趣，則會(huì)導(dǎo)致合作失敗。

（十二）發(fā)現(xiàn)式學(xué)習(xí)模式

發(fā)現(xiàn)式學(xué)習(xí)是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生探索知識(shí)、發(fā)現(xiàn)知識(shí)為主要目標(biāo)的一種教學(xué)模式。這種模式最根本的地方在于讓學(xué)生像科學(xué)家的發(fā)現(xiàn)一樣來(lái)體驗(yàn)知識(shí)產(chǎn)生的過(guò)程。布魯納(J.S.Bruner)認(rèn)為發(fā)現(xiàn)式教學(xué)法有四個(gè)優(yōu)點(diǎn)：

1．提高學(xué)生對(duì)知識(shí)的保持。

2．教學(xué)中提供了便于學(xué)生解決問(wèn)題的信息，可增加學(xué)生的智慧潛能。

3．通過(guò)發(fā)現(xiàn)可以激勵(lì)學(xué)生的內(nèi)在動(dòng)機(jī)，引發(fā)其對(duì)知識(shí)的興趣。

4．學(xué)生獲得了解決問(wèn)題的技能。

根據(jù)許多心理學(xué)家對(duì)這種教學(xué)模式的研究，它更適合于低年級(jí)的教學(xué)，而且在課堂上運(yùn)用太費(fèi)時(shí)間，又難以掌握。

另外還有研討教學(xué)模式、基于前概念的探究教學(xué)模式等，由于篇幅所限這里不再一一介紹。

教學(xué)模式是從教學(xué)的整體出發(fā)，根據(jù)教學(xué)的規(guī)律原則而歸納提煉出的包括教學(xué)形式和方法在內(nèi)的具有典型性、穩(wěn)定性、易學(xué)性的教學(xué)樣式。簡(jiǎn)潔地說(shuō)就是在一定教學(xué)理論指導(dǎo)下，以簡(jiǎn)化形式表示的關(guān)于教學(xué)活動(dòng)的基本程序或框架。

教學(xué)模式包含著一定的教學(xué)思想以及在此教學(xué)思想指導(dǎo)下的課程設(shè)計(jì)、教學(xué)原則、師生活動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)、方式、手段等。在一種教育模式中可以集中多種教學(xué)方法。任何模式都不是僵死的教條，而是既穩(wěn)定有發(fā)展變化的程序框架。

第五篇：國(guó)外農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)化模式

國(guó)外農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)化模式

國(guó)外農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)化是伴隨著工業(yè)化和城鎮(zhèn)化逐步形成的。在農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)化的浪潮中，各國(guó)的發(fā)展模式多種多樣，北美、歐洲和一些發(fā)展中國(guó)家的經(jīng)濟(jì)作物、畜牧、水產(chǎn)、林業(yè)等產(chǎn)業(yè)，都普遍推行了農(nóng)、工、商一體化的經(jīng)營(yíng)體制，有的已實(shí)行跨國(guó)經(jīng)營(yíng)，俄羅斯和東歐國(guó)家也紛紛出現(xiàn)了“農(nóng)、工、商綜合體”之類(lèi)的模式。綜合起來(lái)主要有以下幾種：

1.合作社模式

合作社模式主要有農(nóng)牧業(yè)生產(chǎn)合作、生產(chǎn)資料供應(yīng)合作、產(chǎn)品加工銷(xiāo)售合作、經(jīng)營(yíng)管理和技術(shù)信息咨詢(xún)合作以及信貸保險(xiǎn)合作等。這種模式在歐洲較普遍，大多是中、小農(nóng)戶(hù)自愿聯(lián)合集體加工或銷(xiāo)售，社務(wù)由全體社員協(xié)商，一人一票，民主議決，其收入一般是在扣留必要的公共積累后，按社員投入多少進(jìn)行分配。在合作社鞏固和發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)上，各地合作社又自愿按產(chǎn)業(yè)聯(lián)合，逐步組成從地方到中央的聯(lián)社。例如，芬蘭25600個(gè)奶牛戶(hù)（占全國(guó)80％），組成47個(gè)乳制品合作社，經(jīng)營(yíng)牛奶的加工和銷(xiāo)售。經(jīng)過(guò)資產(chǎn)重組，以股份制形式組成全國(guó)聯(lián)社性質(zhì)的公司，產(chǎn)品多達(dá)1400種，加工量占全國(guó)的77％，年?duì)I業(yè)額已達(dá)18億美元之多，企業(yè)資本迅速擴(kuò)張，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力大大增強(qiáng)；美國(guó)家庭農(nóng)場(chǎng)一般都參加幾個(gè)不同性質(zhì)的合作社，平均每個(gè)農(nóng)場(chǎng)參加2個(gè)合作社；在德國(guó)，幾乎所有的農(nóng)民都參加1～3個(gè)合作社，各種農(nóng)民合作組織的最高聯(lián)合機(jī)構(gòu)是設(shè)在波恩的德國(guó)賴(lài)夫艾森合作聯(lián)社，它代表農(nóng)民在經(jīng)濟(jì)、法律、稅收政策等方面的利益，負(fù)責(zé)咨詢(xún)并設(shè)立合作組織基金，保持與政府及國(guó)內(nèi)外農(nóng)民合作組織的聯(lián)系。

2.專(zhuān)業(yè)協(xié)會(huì)模式

這是一種以農(nóng)民為主體自愿組成的社會(huì)團(tuán)體，把分散的農(nóng)場(chǎng)或農(nóng)戶(hù)通過(guò)市場(chǎng)開(kāi)拓和技術(shù)、信息服務(wù)等環(huán)節(jié)聯(lián)結(jié)起來(lái)，形成利益結(jié)合、互相依賴(lài)的社會(huì)化生產(chǎn)和銷(xiāo)售服務(wù)體系。如日本的農(nóng)業(yè)協(xié)同組合（簡(jiǎn)稱(chēng)農(nóng)協(xié)），是以農(nóng)民為主要成員，共同出資建立的農(nóng)民自我服務(wù)組織，其組織系統(tǒng)包括區(qū)、縣、中央三級(jí)，業(yè)務(wù)范圍包括信貸、購(gòu)買(mǎi)、銷(xiāo)售和生產(chǎn)指導(dǎo)等，日本農(nóng)協(xié)批發(fā)的農(nóng)畜產(chǎn)品占批發(fā)總量的60％以上。澳大利亞設(shè)有全國(guó)羊毛協(xié)會(huì)、羊毛銷(xiāo)售經(jīng)紀(jì)人協(xié)會(huì)、羊毛出售商協(xié)會(huì)和羊毛加工者協(xié)會(huì)，分別代表羊毛生產(chǎn)者、經(jīng)紀(jì)人、銷(xiāo)售商和加工商的利益開(kāi)展

業(yè)務(wù)。這四方面的代表共同組成澳大利亞羊毛交易所，經(jīng)營(yíng)全澳90％以上的羊毛銷(xiāo)售。交易所在全國(guó)設(shè)立8個(gè)銷(xiāo)售中心，每個(gè)銷(xiāo)售中心是一大型的室內(nèi)市場(chǎng)，陳列著各種展箱、樣品以及質(zhì)量鑒定書(shū)和價(jià)格標(biāo)簽，買(mǎi)主與經(jīng)紀(jì)人簽訂購(gòu)買(mǎi)合同，一般經(jīng)紀(jì)人收到羊毛后兩周內(nèi)將其賣(mài)掉，收取貨款。

3.企業(yè)集團(tuán)模式

這是國(guó)際國(guó)內(nèi)資本向農(nóng)業(yè)傾斜而形成的綜合或?qū)I(yè)的企業(yè)集團(tuán)。如意大利的全國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)合作社聯(lián)合會(huì)菲亞特集團(tuán)、皮雷利集團(tuán)所經(jīng)營(yíng)的大型農(nóng)場(chǎng)和公司以及水果收購(gòu)、分級(jí)、貯存、保鮮、加工和銷(xiāo)售的產(chǎn)、供、銷(xiāo)一體化的綜合企業(yè)。企業(yè)集團(tuán)向農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)者提供財(cái)政、物資和技術(shù)援助，參與農(nóng)場(chǎng)（農(nóng)戶(hù)）的經(jīng)營(yíng)管理，并根據(jù)市場(chǎng)情況對(duì)農(nóng)畜產(chǎn)品的品種、數(shù)量、質(zhì)量、供貨時(shí)間等提出嚴(yán)格要求，農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)者必須按合同的約定進(jìn)行大批量的、均衡的、標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化和高質(zhì)量的生產(chǎn)，不能滿(mǎn)足合同要求的農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)者將被淘汰。近年來(lái)，跨國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)企業(yè)集團(tuán)迅速崛起，它們?cè)诩娌⒂嘘P(guān)食品加工企業(yè)之后，成為世界性的跨國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)集團(tuán)。如可口可樂(lè)公司，1990年收買(mǎi)了與食品加工有關(guān)的銷(xiāo)售額達(dá)39億美元的華垂斯食品公司，一躍成為世界屈指可數(shù)的跨國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)綜合企業(yè)。

4.其他模式

韓國(guó)的農(nóng)協(xié)和產(chǎn)、學(xué)、管、研一體化模式。20世紀(jì)60年代以來(lái)，韓國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)在本國(guó)發(fā)展現(xiàn)代農(nóng)業(yè)中一直起著舉足輕重的支撐作用，它的主要任務(wù)是圍繞發(fā)展農(nóng)業(yè)和農(nóng)村社區(qū)福利，開(kāi)展資金存貸，生產(chǎn)要素購(gòu)買(mǎi)，農(nóng)產(chǎn)品倉(cāng)儲(chǔ)、運(yùn)輸、加工、營(yíng)銷(xiāo)、保險(xiǎn)，以及與農(nóng)業(yè)有關(guān)的研究、出版和教育等支持性活動(dòng)，深受農(nóng)民的歡迎。泰國(guó)的“農(nóng)業(yè)工業(yè)化”戰(zhàn)略與“政府＋公司＋銀行＋農(nóng)戶(hù)”模式，使農(nóng)業(yè)從單純的原料供給者上升為制造業(yè)的參與者，使產(chǎn)品加工業(yè)成為泰國(guó)出口業(yè)的支柱，使農(nóng)業(yè)和工業(yè)的關(guān)系進(jìn)入一個(gè)誰(shuí)也離不開(kāi)誰(shuí)的新階段，使國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)保持了持續(xù)快速發(fā)展的勢(shì)頭。前蘇聯(lián)的農(nóng)業(yè)跨單位合作和農(nóng)工一體化等等。

國(guó)外在農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)化經(jīng)營(yíng)中，不管采取哪種模式，都是立足農(nóng)業(yè)，發(fā)展農(nóng)業(yè)一體化，以農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)結(jié)構(gòu)的轉(zhuǎn)變推進(jìn)一體化的發(fā)展，在一體化結(jié)構(gòu)中加強(qiáng)農(nóng)業(yè)社會(huì)化服務(wù)和政府積極采取措施，扶持一體化的發(fā)展。