第一篇：生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的嘗試與問題分析

生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的嘗試與問題分析

南方醫(yī)科大學(xué)基因工程研究所

曹東林 李凌 彭翼飛

為了適應(yīng)新時(shí)代的要求,貫徹教育部關(guān)于加強(qiáng)高等院校本科教學(xué)工作提高教學(xué)質(zhì)量的若干意見,近年來醫(yī)學(xué)院校開始在醫(yī)學(xué)教育中推行雙語教學(xué),以培養(yǎng)具有較強(qiáng)國際競爭力的高級(jí)醫(yī)學(xué)人才。生物化學(xué)是我校雙語教學(xué)課程之一,在教學(xué)過程中我們積累了一定的經(jīng)驗(yàn),同時(shí)也發(fā)現(xiàn)了許多的不足和問題。1.雙語教學(xué)的內(nèi)涵及目的

雙語教學(xué)(Bilingual Teaching)是指除漢語外,用一門外語多為英語作為課堂主要用語進(jìn)行學(xué)科的教學(xué)，它不僅僅是指學(xué)生聽老師用英語上課,更強(qiáng)調(diào)的是師生之間用英語進(jìn)行課堂教學(xué)的交流和互動(dòng),逐漸培養(yǎng)學(xué)生用外語思考，解決問題的能力。即雙語教學(xué)的最終目標(biāo)是使學(xué)生能同時(shí)使用母語和外語進(jìn)行思維,根據(jù)實(shí)際需要在這兩種語言間進(jìn)行自由切換。它要求用準(zhǔn)確、流利的外語進(jìn)行知識(shí)的講解,但不絕對(duì)排除漢語,以避免由于語言障礙造成學(xué)生對(duì)專業(yè)知識(shí)的理解困難而影響教學(xué)效果。

2.生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的應(yīng)用體會(huì) 2.1 強(qiáng)調(diào)醫(yī)學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的必要性和可行性

開課前花一點(diǎn)時(shí)間來調(diào)查和開一個(gè)較短時(shí)間的動(dòng)員會(huì)，強(qiáng)調(diào)醫(yī)學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的必要性和可行性，對(duì)激發(fā)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)興趣和建立信心大有幫助。世界上權(quán)威的醫(yī)學(xué)期刊、書籍及計(jì)算機(jī)檢索數(shù)據(jù)庫基本上都以英語出版,真正意義上的國際會(huì)議,多以英語進(jìn)行交流，要想緊跟世界醫(yī)學(xué)發(fā)展的步伐，不斷提出科研的新思路，抑或在國際權(quán)威醫(yī)學(xué)期刊上投一篇文章都得熟練運(yùn)用英語及一些語言技巧來表達(dá)你的思想才有可能錄用。醫(yī)學(xué)院校實(shí)行雙語教學(xué)是培養(yǎng)高級(jí)醫(yī)學(xué)人才的需要，也是我國生命科學(xué)盡快與國際接軌的需要。隨著我國對(duì)英語教學(xué)越來越重視,教學(xué)質(zhì)量逐年提高,醫(yī)學(xué)院多數(shù)學(xué)生都具有扎實(shí)的英語基礎(chǔ)、較高的英語讀寫能力,大學(xué)英語四、六級(jí)的通過率已較高，為醫(yī)學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的實(shí)施提供了有利條件。在醫(yī)學(xué)教育中實(shí)施雙語教學(xué),不斷給醫(yī)學(xué)生予英語語言刺激,讓學(xué)生逐漸習(xí)慣用英語思維,從而提高學(xué)生的國際交流能力。2.2注重因材施教，強(qiáng)調(diào)教學(xué)互動(dòng)性

開課前與同學(xué)進(jìn)行充分的交流,獲取了詳細(xì)的反饋信息,制定一個(gè)合適的中英文講授比例,做到因材施教。授課時(shí)要注意時(shí)間效率，隨時(shí)注意學(xué)生的反應(yīng),詢問學(xué)生對(duì)本部分講解是否能較好理解,以便了解學(xué)生的吸收程度,并及時(shí)調(diào)整上課的語速和進(jìn)度。讓學(xué)生及時(shí)對(duì)難懂或不懂之處提問,以決定是否復(fù)述重點(diǎn)內(nèi)容,必要時(shí)重點(diǎn)或難點(diǎn)內(nèi)容可用中文復(fù)講解，但母語的使用要控制在最低限度，而對(duì)于涉及重點(diǎn)或難點(diǎn)內(nèi)容的有關(guān)詞匯及英美人的習(xí)慣用法得反復(fù)講解。亦可結(jié)合本校的教學(xué)目標(biāo)和學(xué)生外語實(shí)際水平,編寫雙語教學(xué)講義和雙語教學(xué)大綱,并提前發(fā)給學(xué)生預(yù)習(xí)。預(yù)習(xí)時(shí)將教材中涉及較難的醫(yī)學(xué)詞匯單獨(dú)標(biāo)識(shí)出來,并加以中文釋義,提前擴(kuò)大學(xué)生醫(yī)學(xué)外語詞匯量。還要專門組織老師編寫了雙語教學(xué)考試命題辦法和考核辦法、英語試卷庫和答題示范等。雙語教學(xué)應(yīng)強(qiáng)調(diào)師生間的互動(dòng),主張教學(xué)環(huán)境、教學(xué)資源等全方位的第二語言的交互,只有當(dāng)英語在醫(yī)學(xué)知識(shí)教學(xué)過程中得到廣泛運(yùn)用和交流,兩種不同的語言能在學(xué)生的思維與交流中自由熟練切換的時(shí)候,我們才可以認(rèn)為雙語教學(xué)獲得了成功。2.3 多樣的教學(xué)手段與靈活的考核相結(jié)合

為了激發(fā)同學(xué)們的興趣，我們對(duì)教學(xué)手段和考核的方式都進(jìn)行了不少的嘗試。首先，選擇的課件均是自己考慮成熟制作的多媒體課件,也有借鑒或直接選用國外已經(jīng)出版的英語醫(yī)學(xué)教學(xué)課件，對(duì)其中的優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)了然于心。其次，利用多樣化的教學(xué)手段如圖片、多媒體、錄像等,盡量把生物化學(xué)中的抽象概念具體化、直觀化、簡單化,以幫助學(xué)生更好地理解生物化學(xué)中的專業(yè)知識(shí)。再次，充分利用網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)，尤其是我校自己的局域網(wǎng),通過FTP或文件共享等方式做到多媒體課件上網(wǎng),方便學(xué)生隨時(shí)查詢,遞交作業(yè)。另外還開設(shè)教學(xué)論壇,公開自己的email地址，方便學(xué)生提出問題和解決問題；至于考核方式也進(jìn)行必要的改革，合理的考核模式是教學(xué)的指揮棒,所以在教學(xué)中應(yīng)根據(jù)雙語教學(xué)的特點(diǎn),不再單純采用傳統(tǒng)的試卷考核,而是采用綜合多次課業(yè)成績、課堂的口語問答及課終閉卷考試來進(jìn)行，避免“一卷定終身”。3.生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的存在的問題 3.1 師資水平直接影響了雙語教學(xué)的推廣

教師的外語水平是決定雙語教學(xué)質(zhì)量的關(guān)鍵因素。雙語教學(xué)要求師資水平很高,不僅要懂得專業(yè)知識(shí),還要掌握外文。又由于醫(yī)學(xué)專業(yè)的特殊性,其專業(yè)詞匯相對(duì)較長較多,記憶難度較大，對(duì)于大多數(shù)專業(yè)課老師來說,生活在漢語環(huán)境里,雖然接觸外語較多,也有一定的聽說讀寫能力,但思維方式仍然是漢語思維,在教學(xué)中很難進(jìn)行中英文自由轉(zhuǎn)換。目前,大部分老師只不過是采用專業(yè)英語名詞代替專業(yè)中文名詞,課堂教學(xué)時(shí)對(duì)外文教材中的內(nèi)容進(jìn)行翻譯、講解為主。3.2 學(xué)生的外語水平和語言環(huán)境也是影響教學(xué)效果不可忽視的因素

學(xué)生英語基礎(chǔ)較差，水平參差不齊。盡管醫(yī)學(xué)院校的大學(xué)生學(xué)了近十年的英語,掌握了相當(dāng)量的公共英語和專業(yè)英語詞匯, 四、六級(jí)通過率不斷上升，也系統(tǒng)地學(xué)習(xí)了語法知識(shí),但仍存在聽不懂,看得慢現(xiàn)象,更無法用外語直接進(jìn)行交流、對(duì)話。另外性格上總是羞于表達(dá)自己，課堂上顯得沉悶了些。我們生活在一個(gè)幾乎完全被漢語包圍的語言環(huán)境里,學(xué)了多年英語,仍然是啞巴英語,這在中國是普遍存在的問題，這很值得深思，更應(yīng)該引起教育主管部門及學(xué)校領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的重視，創(chuàng)造和提供良好的學(xué)習(xí)外語環(huán)境和設(shè)備。

3.3 缺乏優(yōu)秀的雙語教學(xué)教材,疏于教學(xué)信息的管理

雙語教學(xué)最好使用外文原版的教材,然而,目前國際上通用的教材價(jià)格昂貴,一般院校很難承受高額的教材費(fèi)用。故不同教師使用的教材有的是國外原版教材,有的是節(jié)選外文教材,也有的是教師自編的講義,版本和內(nèi)容不統(tǒng)一,教學(xué)隨意性較大。另外,教材難易程度的不同也影響了雙語教學(xué)的實(shí)際效果；而對(duì)教學(xué)信息缺乏有效整理是很多院校存在的普遍問題。對(duì)雙語教學(xué)的課程實(shí)施全面跟蹤,以便及時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)和解決雙語教學(xué)過程中的問題,認(rèn)真聽取學(xué)生意見和建議,重視學(xué)生信息反饋,完善信息網(wǎng)絡(luò)，這對(duì)于穩(wěn)步推進(jìn)雙語課程建設(shè)是非常重要的一環(huán)。然而，遺憾的是很多時(shí)候僅僅是草草收?qǐng)觯笱芰耸?，滿足于完成教學(xué)任務(wù)?？傊?雙語教學(xué)在我國高校尚處于試驗(yàn)和起步階段,我們?nèi)狈Τ墒斓碾p語教學(xué)理論和教學(xué)經(jīng)驗(yàn),需要在教學(xué)中不斷地摸索和總結(jié)。在教學(xué)中出現(xiàn)許多問題和不足是難免的,相信不久的將來,雙語教學(xué)將步入正軌,逐漸形成自己特有的教學(xué)模式。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

[1] 教育部關(guān)于加強(qiáng)高等學(xué)校本科教學(xué)工作提高教學(xué)質(zhì)量的若干意見的通知[S].教育部[2001]4號(hào),2001.[2] 張曉波,陳超,黃國英,等.醫(yī)學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的發(fā)展、模式及策略[Ｊ].醫(yī)學(xué)教育探索,2004,3(4):42～44.[3] 趙翔宇.試析高校雙語教學(xué)的必要性及其存在的問題[J].中國地質(zhì)教育,2005,(3):122-124 [4] 倪銀星,祝之明,陳 靜.芻議醫(yī)學(xué)院校的雙語教學(xué)[J].西北醫(yī)學(xué)教育，2006，（1）：48～50

第二篇：生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)單詞

H1：genetic code

遺傳密碼

triplet code

三聯(lián)體密碼

termination codons / stop codons 終止密碼子 initiation codon / start codon

起始密碼子 degeneracy

簡并性 universality

普遍性 point mutation

點(diǎn)突變 synonym

同義密碼子

wobble base-pairing

擺動(dòng)堿基配對(duì) open reading frame

開放閱讀框 H2:peptidyltRNA site

肽酰-tRNA位

aminoacyl-tRNA site

氨酰-tRNA位 polyribosome

多核糖體

N-formylmethionine

N-甲酰甲硫氨酸 aminoacyl-tRNA binding

氨酰-tRNA結(jié)合 peptide bond formation

肽鍵形成 translocation

轉(zhuǎn)位 elongation factor（EF）延長因子 release factors（RF）釋放因子 H3 monocistronic單順反子

polycistronic多順反子

cap binding protein

帽結(jié)合蛋白

H4 protein targeting

蛋白質(zhì)導(dǎo)向

signal recognition particle(SRP)

信號(hào)識(shí)別顆粒 signal peptidase

信號(hào)肽酶 multiple membrane-spanning protein

多跨膜蛋白

integral membrane protein

內(nèi)在膜蛋白 scavenger pathway

消除途徑 chaperone

分子伴侶retention signal

滯留信號(hào)

mannose

甘露糖

endosome

內(nèi)吞體 matrix

基質(zhì)signal peptide

信號(hào)肽

H5 protein glycosylation

蛋白質(zhì)糖基化

O-linked oligosaccharides

O聯(lián)寡糖 N-linked oligosaccharides

N聯(lián)寡糖 N-acetylgalactosamine(GalNAc)

N-乙酰半乳糖胺 monosaccharide units

單糖單位 pentasaccharide core structure

五糖核心結(jié)構(gòu) dolichol phosphate

長醇磷酸 mannose

甘露糖galactose半乳糖 sialic acid

唾液fucose巖藻糖

I1 genomics

基因組學(xué) transcriptomics轉(zhuǎn)錄組學(xué)

proteomics

蛋白質(zhì)組學(xué)

metabolomics

代謝組學(xué) reverse genetics

反向遺傳學(xué) RNA interference

RNA干擾 transgenic organism

轉(zhuǎn)基因生物

I2 restriction enzyme

限制性核酸內(nèi)切酶 staggered cut

交錯(cuò)切割 cohesive end

粘性末端 blunt end

平端 co-inherited

共遺傳 closely linked

緊密連鎖 autoradiography

放射自顯影

restriction fragment length polymorphisms(RFLP)限制性片段長度多態(tài)性 I3denaturation 變性melting temperature 解鏈溫度 renaturation復(fù)性in situ hybridization 原位雜交 annealing

退火 hybridization

雜交

probe

探針

blotting

印跡 hybrid

雜種

stringency

嚴(yán)緊性 radioactive 放射性 nonradioactive

非放射性

I4 clone

克隆 bacteriophage

噬菌體 plasmid

質(zhì)粒recombinant plasmid 重組質(zhì)粒 transfection 轉(zhuǎn)染vector

載體 screening

篩選 DNA library

DNA文庫

lawn

菌苔 plague

噬菌斑 nitrocellulose membrane 硝酸纖維素膜 colony lift

菌落轉(zhuǎn)移

I5 DNA sequencing

DNA 測序 chemical method

化學(xué)法 chain termination method

鏈終止法

oligonucleotide

寡核苷酸 dideoxynucleotide雙脫氧核苷酸

I6 polymerase chain reaction

聚合酶鏈反應(yīng)

denaturation

變性 annealing

退火 elongation

延伸 quantity PCR

定量PCR

J1 monosaccharide 單糖 disaccharide

雙糖 aldose

醛糖ketose酮糖

pentose

戊糖 hexose

己糖 glucose

葡萄糖galactose半乳糖

mannose

甘露糖 fructose

果糖 reducing sugar 還原糖glycosidic bond

糖苷鍵 epimer差向異構(gòu)體sugar derivative糖衍生物 structure isomer

結(jié)構(gòu)異構(gòu)體 stereoisomer

立體異構(gòu)體

J2 polysaccharide

多糖J3 glycolysis

糖酵解

glycogen

糖原

hexokinase

己糖激酶 starch

淀粉aldolase醛縮酶 oligosaccharide

寡糖mutase變位酶

N-linked oligosaccharide

N-聯(lián)寡糖enolase烯醇化酶 O-linked oligosaccharide

O-聯(lián)寡糖 glycoprotein

糖蛋白 glycolipid

糖脂

J3phosphoglucoisomerase

磷酸葡萄糖異構(gòu)酶 phosphofructokinase

磷酸果糖激酶 triose phosphate isomerase磷酸丙糖異構(gòu)酶 phosphoenolpyruvate磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸

substrate-level phosphorylation 底物水平磷酸化

J4 gluconeogenesis

糖異生

oxaloacetate

草酰乙酸 carboxylation

羧化作用carboxylase

羧化酶 carboxykinase羧激酶citrate

檸檬酸

anaplerotic effect

回補(bǔ)作用malate

蘋果酸 phosphoenolpyruvate（PEP）磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸 phosphoglucoisomerase磷酸葡萄糖異構(gòu)酶

J5pentose phosphate pathway

磷酸戊糖途徑 ribose 5-phosphate

核糖 5-磷酸

glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase葡萄糖6-磷酸脫氫酶 transketolase轉(zhuǎn)酮酶transaldolase轉(zhuǎn)醛酶

J6glycogen

糖原glycogen synthase

糖原合酶

glycogen phosphorylase糖原磷酸化酶glycogen-debranching enzyme 糖原脫支酶 nonreducing end

非還原末端pyrophosphorylase焦磷酸化酶 phosphoglucomutase磷酸葡萄糖變位酶 glycogenin生糖原蛋白

J7 epinephrine

腎上腺素 glucagon

胰高血糖素 blood sugar

血糖 adenylatecyclase腺苷酸環(huán)化酶

protein kinase A

蛋白激酶A calcium

鈣

K1 saturated fatty acids

飽和脂肪酸 unsaturated fatty acids

不飽和脂肪酸 palmitate軟脂酸

stearate

硬脂酸 linoleate亞油酸 linolenate亞麻酸

arachidonate花生四烯酸

prostaglandin

前列腺素

K2 acyl-CoA

脂酰 CoA

carnitine肉毒堿 translocase轉(zhuǎn)位酶 thiolysis硫解

hydration

水合，加水 ketone bodies 酮體

acetoacetate

乙酰乙酸 acetone

丙酮 3-hydroxybutyrate

?-羥丁酸 K3 acyl carrier protein(ACP)

?；d體蛋白 carboxylation

羧化

malonyl CoA

丙二酸單酰CoA acetyl CoA carboxylase

乙酰CoA羧化酶 phosphopantetheine磷酸泛酰巰基乙醇 condensation

縮合 dehydration

脫水 thioesterase硫脂酶 desaturase去飽和酶

K4triacylglycerol

三酰甘油（脂肪）glycerol

甘油

free fatty acid

自由脂肪酸 diacylglycerol二酰甘油

lipase

脂酶 bile salt

膽汁鹽

hormone-sensitive lipase

激素敏感脂酶 K5cholesterol

膽固醇 steroid

類固醇 bile salt

膽汁鹽 HMG CoA reductase羥甲戊二酰CoA還原酶 ricket佝僂病

osteomalacia軟骨癥

第三篇：生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的探討

生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)的探討

【摘 要】“雙語教學(xué)”是21世紀(jì)全球教育改革的重要內(nèi)容之一，在醫(yī)學(xué)院校推行生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)具有多方面的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義。本文從教師、學(xué)生以及教學(xué)方法三個(gè)方面闡述了醫(yī)學(xué)生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)中存在的問題，并就解決辦法提出了建議。

【關(guān)鍵詞】雙語教學(xué) 醫(yī)學(xué)院校 生物化學(xué)

【中圖分類號(hào)】G642.0 【文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼】A 【文章編號(hào)】1674－4810（2011）24－0013－02

“雙語教學(xué)”是21世紀(jì)全球教育改革的重要內(nèi)容之一。從目前的臨床醫(yī)學(xué)和科研工作來看，語言不足已成為國內(nèi)學(xué)者對(duì)外交流的障礙，由于專業(yè)英語語言能力不足，許多優(yōu)秀的科研成果得不到國外同行的認(rèn)可和共享；從教學(xué)角度看，國外醫(yī)學(xué)教材如果經(jīng)過翻譯再在教學(xué)中使用，會(huì)造成學(xué)生獲取新知識(shí)的時(shí)間遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)落后于知識(shí)更新的周期?；谶@些問題的存在，實(shí)施雙語教學(xué)可作為解決此矛盾的一條重要途徑。

作為新興的醫(yī)學(xué)本科院校，我院一直致力于加強(qiáng)學(xué)校的本科教學(xué)工作，提高教學(xué)質(zhì)量，并根據(jù)自身發(fā)展需求以及新時(shí)期對(duì)學(xué)生能力素質(zhì)的要求，不斷摸索好的教育教學(xué)改革方法，其中重要的一項(xiàng)便是實(shí)行雙語教學(xué)。下面就已開設(shè)的生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)中出現(xiàn)的問題及解決方法進(jìn)行探討。

一 雙語教學(xué)的定義

所謂雙語教學(xué)，是指以母語和一門外語兩種語言作為教學(xué)用語的教學(xué)模式。各國各地區(qū)因母語不同而有所區(qū)別，我國雙語教學(xué)的具體定位是漢語和英語，并在此基礎(chǔ)上兼顧其他語種。2002年，教育部高教司在下發(fā)的《普通高等學(xué)校本科教學(xué)水平評(píng)估方案（試行）》中，第一次將雙語教學(xué)的課程定義為采用外文教材并用外語授課的課時(shí)占該課程總課時(shí)的50%以上。

目前，雙語教學(xué)的模式主要有以下三種類型：（1）沉浸式雙語教學(xué)。這種類型的教學(xué)模式要求完全用外語進(jìn)行教學(xué)，母語不用于教學(xué)中，使學(xué)生完全沉浸于弱勢語言中。（2）過渡式雙語教學(xué)。這種類型的教學(xué)模式要求在學(xué)生剛進(jìn)入學(xué)校時(shí)，部分或全部科目使用母語教學(xué)，一段時(shí)間后，逐步轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)槿靠颇渴褂猛庹Z教學(xué)。其最終目的仍然是向沉浸式的教學(xué)模式過渡。（3）保留式雙語教學(xué)。這種類型要求在學(xué)生剛進(jìn)入學(xué)校時(shí)使用母語教學(xué)，以后逐步部分科目使用外語教學(xué)，部分科目仍用母語教學(xué)。由于語言環(huán)境的限制，目前國內(nèi)大多數(shù)院校仍采取保留式雙語教學(xué)，我院也不例外。

二 我院生物化學(xué)教學(xué)推行雙語教學(xué)的必要性

1．醫(yī)學(xué)事業(yè)的不斷發(fā)展迫切需要雙語復(fù)合型人才

高等醫(yī)學(xué)教育是國際公認(rèn)的通用性、可比性較強(qiáng)的專業(yè)教育領(lǐng)域，對(duì)醫(yī)學(xué)工作者的素質(zhì)和能力的要求基本一致，因而高等醫(yī)學(xué)教育也存在很多共通之處。面對(duì)公眾健康問題和越來越嚴(yán)峻的全球疫病防疫形勢，人們逐漸意識(shí)到跨越國界的國際醫(yī)療合作的重要性，對(duì)醫(yī)療從業(yè)人員的知識(shí)、能力結(jié)構(gòu)提出了新的要求。醫(yī)學(xué)作為專業(yè)性極強(qiáng)的學(xué)科，其相關(guān)工作是一般外語人才無法替代的，因此，社會(huì)迫切需要醫(yī)學(xué)院校培養(yǎng)一大批既懂得專業(yè)知識(shí)又具有相當(dāng)外語水平的復(fù)合型醫(yī)學(xué)人才。

2．生物化學(xué)課程的特點(diǎn)要求在教學(xué)過程中使用雙語

在世界范圍內(nèi)對(duì)醫(yī)學(xué)生物化學(xué)進(jìn)行比較后發(fā)現(xiàn)，使用英語進(jìn)行生物化學(xué)的科學(xué)研究、生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)、教學(xué)及教材編寫等都處于領(lǐng)先地位，這對(duì)我國在生物化學(xué)領(lǐng)域中的發(fā)展有一定的借鑒和指導(dǎo)意義。原版教材的引入也可節(jié)省翻譯所消耗的時(shí)間及減少內(nèi)容方面的損失，使學(xué)生及時(shí)地了解到最新的研究進(jìn)展，跟上時(shí)代發(fā)展的腳步。

同時(shí)，英語國家在醫(yī)學(xué)生物化學(xué)領(lǐng)域的學(xué)科發(fā)展、學(xué)術(shù)交流及科研方法等方面處于主流地位，可作為生物化學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)、進(jìn)修及培訓(xùn)的理想國家，這也使得用英語開展生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)具有現(xiàn)實(shí)意義。

三 雙語教學(xué)過程中存在的問題及解決方法

1．教師方面

雙語教學(xué)是提高教學(xué)效果、培養(yǎng)高素質(zhì)人才的有效途徑，而保證這一目標(biāo)實(shí)現(xiàn)的基本條件是承擔(dān)雙語教學(xué)教師的能力。目前在我國一些醫(yī)學(xué)院校中，能使用英語上課的教師非常少，特別是對(duì)于生物化學(xué)這樣一門復(fù)雜難懂的學(xué)科，要讓任課教師用英語清楚地說明四大營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)代謝的過程以及調(diào)控機(jī)制等，確實(shí)有很大難度。雙語教學(xué)對(duì)教師的要求非常之高，不僅專業(yè)知識(shí)要精深，還必須能用熟練、準(zhǔn)確的英語來表達(dá)專業(yè)知識(shí)以及分析專業(yè)術(shù)語和詞匯。既使有些老師在課前做了細(xì)致的準(zhǔn)備，在課堂上能夠把課件上的內(nèi)容流利地講述出來，但遇到與同學(xué)互動(dòng)的環(huán)節(jié)，回答學(xué)生提問時(shí)，由于受到語言的限制，很難用英語應(yīng)對(duì)突發(fā)事件。聘請(qǐng)外教，也必須要求懂得漢語，這樣才有利于理解學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)中可能出現(xiàn)的困難，并及時(shí)解決。

我院是一所新興的本科院校，青年教師所占比例較大，真正能做到雙語教學(xué)的教師少之又少。為了解決這一問題，學(xué)校一方面利用現(xiàn)有師資中聽、說、讀、寫能力較好的教師定期進(jìn)行英語培訓(xùn)，提高英語水平；另一方面充分利用留學(xué)者及國外來訪者，多與他們進(jìn)行交流，了解國際醫(yī)學(xué)領(lǐng)域一些最新的知識(shí)和技術(shù)，為進(jìn)行雙語教學(xué)方面做好充分的準(zhǔn)備。

2．學(xué)生方面

學(xué)生的外語水平也是決定雙語教學(xué)能否順利進(jìn)行的一個(gè)重要因素。生物化學(xué)雙語教學(xué)不僅要求教師有良好的英語能力，也要求學(xué)生有一定的英語基礎(chǔ)，除了公共英語要達(dá)到CET-4以上水平外，還應(yīng)掌握一定量的專業(yè)英語詞匯。但是由于本院學(xué)生的英語水平參差不齊，師生之間的課堂互動(dòng)不如單語教學(xué)，教學(xué)效果低于預(yù)期，不僅造成教師教學(xué)的成就感降低，還使得學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)過程中的思維主動(dòng)性、連貫性、創(chuàng)造性被阻斷，影響對(duì)本門課程的學(xué)習(xí)興趣。因此，學(xué)生的接受能力和教師的授課能力同等重要，只有老師和學(xué)生都具有一定的英語能力，雙語教學(xué)才能做得更好。

學(xué)生課前預(yù)習(xí)對(duì)提高雙語教學(xué)課堂效率非常重要。生物化學(xué)專業(yè)知識(shí)本來就晦澀難懂，若要求學(xué)生用英語思維，并在短暫的課堂時(shí)間內(nèi)完全理解老師用英語傳授的專業(yè)知識(shí)，難度可想而知。單純也將傳統(tǒng)被動(dòng)式的教學(xué)模式應(yīng)用于雙語教學(xué)課堂，勢必收獲甚微，因此學(xué)生必須采取積極主動(dòng)的態(tài)度融入雙語教學(xué)中去，教師也可在課后提出幾個(gè)與下節(jié)課內(nèi)容相關(guān)的問題，讓學(xué)生在尋找答案的過程中做好預(yù)習(xí)準(zhǔn)備。

3．教學(xué)方法

傳統(tǒng)教學(xué)中常用的講授法、演示法、啟發(fā)式等不能適應(yīng)雙語教學(xué)課堂。在教學(xué)方法上，我們應(yīng)著眼于現(xiàn)代化，構(gòu)建集課堂教學(xué)、多媒體教學(xué)、網(wǎng)絡(luò)教學(xué)為一體的多維立體教學(xué)平臺(tái)，充分利用計(jì)算機(jī)輔助教學(xué)手段，制作雙語CAI課件，使之具有雙語性特點(diǎn)，做到關(guān)鍵詞、主要內(nèi)容有英漢對(duì)照，并有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)英文發(fā)音。此外，還可配上適量圖片或小段英文視頻、錄像、實(shí)物演示等，力爭使課堂氣氛活躍，增強(qiáng)學(xué)生的積極性和參與性，從而達(dá)到預(yù)期的教學(xué)目的。

參考文獻(xiàn)

［1］何興祥、劉偉、沈清燕等.醫(yī)學(xué)雙語教學(xué)探析［J］．中華醫(yī)學(xué)教育雜志，2004.（3）：32～33

［2］李萍、夏新娟.大學(xué)雙語教學(xué)探討［J］．重慶交通學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)（社科版），2002.2（3）：77

［3］李俊偉.高等院校專業(yè)課程開展雙語教學(xué)的若干問題分析［J］．中國高等醫(yī)學(xué)教育，2004.3：14～15

［4］初國良、汪華僑、彭映基等．推進(jìn)解剖學(xué)雙語教學(xué) 培養(yǎng)高素質(zhì)醫(yī)學(xué)人才［J］．解剖學(xué)研究，2002.4：313～314

［5］陳晶瑛.高校開展“雙語教學(xué)”的現(xiàn)狀、問題與對(duì)策［J］．經(jīng)濟(jì)師，2005.1：119～120

［6］熊靜、黎宇寧.雙語教學(xué)實(shí)踐初探［J］．咸寧學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)，2005.4：149～150

〔責(zé)任編輯：王以富〕

第四篇：雙語教學(xué)中的生物化學(xué)詞匯

雙語生物化學(xué)詞匯

Glossary of Biochemistry Bilingually

A Absolute configuration（絕對(duì)構(gòu)型）The configuration of four different substituent groups around an asymmetric carbon atom, in relation to u-and i.-glyceraldehyde.Absorption（吸收）: transport of the products of digestion from the intestinal tract into the blood.Acceptor control（受體控制）: The regulation of the rate of respiration by the availability of ADP as phosphate group acceptor.Accessory pigments（輔助色素）: Visible light-absorbing pigments(carotenoids, xanthophyll, and phycobilins藻膽素)in plants and photosynthetic bacteria that complement chlorophylls in trapping energy from sunlight.Acidosis（酸中毒）: A metabolic condition in which the capacity of the body to buffer is diminished;usually accompanied by decreased blood pH.Actin（肌動(dòng)蛋白）: A protein making up the thin filaments（細(xì)絲）of muscle;also an important component of the cytoskeleton of many eukaryotic cells.Activation energy(ΔG*)（活化能）: The amount of energy(in joules)required to convert all the molecules in 1 mole of a reacting substance from the ground state to the transition state.Activator:（活化物、激活劑）(1)A DNA-binding protein that positively regulates the expression of one or more genes;that is, transcription rates increase when an activator is bound to the DNA.(2)A positive modulator of an allosteric enzyme.Active site:（活性部位）The region of an enzyme surface that binds the substrate molecule and catalytically transforms it;also known as the catalytic site.Active transport:（主動(dòng)運(yùn)輸）Energy-requiring transport of a solute across a membrane in the direction of increasing concentration.Activity:（活度）The true thermodynamic activity or potential of a substance, as distinct from its molar concentration.Activity coefficient:（活度系數(shù)）The factor by which the numerical value of the concentration of a solute must be multiplied to give its true thermodynamic activity.Adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate: See cyclic AMP.Adenosine diphosphate: See ADP.Adenosine triphosphate: See ATP.Adipocyte:（脂肪細(xì)胞）An animal cell specialized for the storage of fats(triacylglycerols).Adipose tissue:（脂肪組織）Connective tissue specialized for the storage of large amounts of triacylglycerols.ADP(adenosine diphosphate): A ribonucleoside diphosphate serving as phosphate group acceptor in the cell energy cycle.Aerobe:（需氧生物）An organism that lives in air and uses oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor in respiration.Aerobic: Requiring or occurring in the presence of oxygen.Alcohol fermentation:（乙醇發(fā)酵）The anaerobic conversion of glucose to ethanol via glycolysis.See also fermentation.Aldose:（醛糖）A simple sugar in which the carbonyl carbon atom is an aldehyde;that is, the carbonyl carbon is at one end of the carbon chain.Alkalosis:（堿中毒）A metabolic condition in which the capacity of the body to buffer is diminished;usually accompanied by an increase in blood pH.Allosteric enzyme:（變/別構(gòu)效應(yīng)）A regulatory enzyme, with catalytic activity modulated by the noncovalent binding of a specific metabolite at a site other than the active site.Allosteric protein:（變/別構(gòu)蛋白）A protein(generally with multiple subunits)with multiple ligand-binding sites, such that ligand binding at one site affects ligand binding at another.Allosteric site:（變/別構(gòu)部位）The specific site on the surface of an allosteric enzyme molecule to which the modulator or effector molecule is bound.α helix:（α-螺旋）A helical conformation of a polypeptide chain, usually right-handed, with maximal intrachain hydrogen bonding;one of the most common secondary structures in proteins.Ames test: A simple bacterial test for carcinogens, based on the assumption that carcinogens are mutagens.Amino acid activation:（氨基酸活化）ATP-dependent enzymatic esterification of the carboxyl group of an amino acid to the 3'-hydroxyl group of its corresponding tRNA.Amino acids:（氨基酸）an Amino-substituted carboxylic acids, the building blocks of proteins.Amino-terminal residue:（氨基末端殘基）The only amino acid residue in a polypeptide chain with a free a-amino group;defines the amino terminus of the polypeptide.Aminoacyl-tRNA:（氨酰tRNA）An aminoacyl ester of a tRNA.Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases:（氨酰tRNA合成酶）Enzymes that catalyze synthesis of an aminoacyl-tRNA at the expense of ATP energy.Aminotransferases:（氨基轉(zhuǎn)移酶）Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of amino groups fromα-amino to α-keto acids;also called transaminases.Ammonotelic:（排氨的）Excreting excess nitrogen in the form of ammonia.Amphibolic pathway:（雙向代謝途徑）A metabolic pathway used in both catabolism and anabolism.Amphipathic:（雙親的）Containing both polar and nonpolar domains.Ampholyte:（兩性電解質(zhì)）A substance that can act as either a base or an acid.Amphoteric:（兩性的）Capable of donating and accepting protons, thus able to serve as an acid or a base.Anabolisim:（合成代謝）The phase of intermediary metabolism concerned with the energy-requiring biosynthesis of cell components from smaller precursors.Anaerobe:（厭氧生物）An organism that lives without oxygen.Obligate anaerobes（專性厭氧生物）die when exposed to oxygen.Anaerobic:（厭氧的）Occurring in the absence of air or oxygen.Anaplerotic reaction:（回補(bǔ)反應(yīng)）An enzyme-catalyzed reaction that can replenish the supply of intermediates in the citric acid cycle.Angstrom(?):（唉）A unit of length(10-8cm)used to indicate molecular dimensions.Anhydride:（酸酐）The product, of the condensation of two carboxyl or phosphate groups in which the elements of water are eliminated to form a compound with the general structure R—X—0—X—R, where X is either carbon or phosphorus.Anion-exchange resin:（陰離子交換樹脂）A polymeric resin with fixed cationic groups;used in the chromatographic separation of anions.Anomers:（異頭物、端基異構(gòu)體）Two stereoisomers of a given sugar that differ only in the configuration about the carbonyl(anomeric)carbon atom.Antibiotic:（抗生素）One of many different organic compounds that are formed and secreted by various species of microorganisms and plants, are toxic to other species, and presumably have a defensive function.Antibody:（抗體）A defense protein synthesized by the immune system of vertebrates.See also immunoglobulin.Anticodon:（反密碼子）A specific sequence of three nucleotides in a tRNA, complementary to a codon for an amino acid in an mRNA.Antigen:（抗原）A molecule capable of eliciting the synthesis of a specific antibody in vertebrates.Antiparallel:（反平行）Describing two linear polymers that are opposite in polarity or orientation.Antiport:（反向轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)）Cotransport of two solutes across a membrane in opposite directions.Apoenzyme:（酶蛋白）The protein portion of an enzyme, exclusive of any organic or inorganic cofactors or prosthetic groups that might be required for catalytic activity.Apolipoprotein:（脫輔基脂蛋白）The protein component of a lipoprotein.Apoprotein:（脫輔基蛋白）The protein portion of a protein, exclusive of any organic or inorganic cofactors or prosthetic groups that might be required for activity.Apoptosis:（細(xì)胞凋亡）(app'-a-toe'-sis)Programmed cell death, in which a cell brings about its own death and lysis, signaled from outside or programmed in its genes, by systematically degrading its own macromolecules.Arrestin:（抑制蛋白）A family of proteins that bind to the phosphorylated carboxyl-terminal region of serpentine receptors, preventing their interactions with G proteins and thereby terminating the signal through those receptors.Asymmetric carbon atom:（不對(duì)稱碳原子）A carbon atom that is covalently bonded to four different groups and thus may exist in two different tetrahedral configurations.ATP(adenosine triphosphate): A ribonucleoside 5'-triphosphate functioning as a phosphate group donor in the cell energy cycle;carries chemical energy between metabolic pathways by serving as a shared intermediate coupling endergonic and exergonic reactions.ATP synthase:（ATP合酶）An enzyme complex that forms ATP from ADP and phosphate during oxidative phosphorylation in the inner mitochondrial membrane or the bacterial plasma membrane, and during photophosphorylation in chloroplasts.ATPase:（ATP酶）An enzyme that hydrolyzes ATP to yield ADP and phosphate;usually coupled to some process requiring energy.Attenuator:（弱化子）An RNA sequence involved in regulating the expression of certain genes;functions as a transcription terminator.Autotroph:（自養(yǎng)生物）An organism that can synthesize its own complex molecules from very simple carbon and nitrogen sources, such as carbon dioxide and ammonia.Auxin:（植物生長素）A plant growth hormone.Auxotrophic mutant(auxotroph):（營養(yǎng)缺陷突變體）A mutant organism defective in the synthesis of a given biomolecule, which must therefore be supplied for the organism's growth.Avogadro's number: The number of molecules in a gram molecular weight(a mole)of any compound(6.02 × 1023).B Back-mutation:（回復(fù)突變）A mutation that causes a mutant gene to regain its wild-type base sequence.Bacteriophage(phage):（噬菌體）A virus capable of replicating in a bacterial cell.Basal metabolic rate:（基礎(chǔ)代謝率）The rate of oxygen consumption by an animal's body at complete rest, long after a meal.Base pair:（堿基對(duì)）Two nucleotides in nucleic acid chains that are paired by hydrogen bonding of their bases;for example, A with T or U, and G with C.β conformation:（β構(gòu)象）、An extended, zigzag arrangement of a polypeptide chain;a common secondary structure in proteins.β oxidation:（β氧化）Oxidative degradation of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA by successive oxidations at the β-carbon atom.β-turn:（β轉(zhuǎn)角）A type of secondary structure in polypeptides consisting of four amino acid residues arranged in a tight turn so that the polypeptide turns back on itself.Bilayer:（雙分子層）A double layer of oriented amphipathic lipid molecules, forming the basic structure of biological membranes.The hydrocarbon tails face inward to form a continuous nonpolar phase.Bile salts:（膽酸鹽）Amphipathic steroid derivatives with detergent properties, participating in digestion and absorption of lipids.Binding energy:（吸附能）The energy derived from noncovalent interactions between enzyme and substrate or receptor and ligand.Binding site:（結(jié)合部位）The crevice or pocket on a protein in which a ligand binds.Biocytin:（生物胞素）The conjugate amino acid residue arising from covalent attachment of biotin, through an amide linkage, to a Lys residue.Biomolecule:（生物分子）An organic compound normally present as an essential component of living organisms.Biopterin:（生物喋呤）An enzymatic cofactor derived from pterin and involved in certain oxidation-reduction reactions.Biosphere:（生物圈）All the living matter on or in the earth, the seas, and the atmosphere.Biotin:（生物素）A vitamin;an enzymatic cofactor involved in carboxylation reactions.Bond energy:（鍵能）The energy required to break a bond.Branch migration:（分支遷移）Movement of the branch point in branched DNA formed from two DNA molecules with identical sequences.See also Holliday intermediate.Buffer:（緩沖液）A system capable of resisting changes in pH, consisting of a conjugate acid-base pair in which the ratio of proton acceptor to proton donor is near unity.C Calorie:（卡）The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1.0 g of water from 14.5 to 15.5 °C.One calorie(cal)equals 4.18 joules(J).Calvin cycle:（Calvin循環(huán)）The cyclic pathway used by plants to fix carbon dioxide and produce triose phosphates.cAMP: See cyclic AMP.cAMP receptor protein(CRP):（cAMP受體蛋白）A specific regulatory protein that controls initiation of transcription of the genes producing the enzymes required for a bacterial cell to use some other nutrient when glucose is lacking.Also called catabolite gene activator protein(CAP)，降解物基因活化蛋白.CAP: See catabolite gene activator protein.Capsid:（衣殼）The protein coat of a virion or virus particle.Carbanion:（碳負(fù)離子）A negatively charged carbon atom.Carbocation:（碳正離子）A positively charged carbon atom;also called a carbonium ion.Carbon-assimilation reactions:（碳同化反應(yīng)）Reaction sequences in which atmospheric CO2 is converted into organic compounds.Carbon-fixation reaction:（固碳反應(yīng)）The reaction catalyzed by rubisco during photosynthesis, or by other carboxylases, in which atmospheric CO2 is initially incorporated into an organic compound.Carboxyl-terminal residue:（羧基末端殘基）The only amino acid residue in a polypeptide chain with a free a-carboxyl group;defines the carboxyl terminus of the polypeptide.Carotenoids:（類葫羅卜素）Lipid-soluble photosynthetic pigments made up of isoprene units.Catabolism:（分解代謝）The phase of intermediary metabolism concerned with the energy-yielding degradation of nutrient molecules.Catabolite gene activator protein(CAP): See cAMP receptor protein.Catalytic site:（催化部位）See active site.Catecholamines:（兒茶酚胺類）Hormones, such as epinephrine, that are amino derivatives of catechol.Catenane:（連環(huán)體）Circular polymeric molecules with a noncovalent topological link resembling the links of a chain.Cation-exchange resin:（陽離子交換樹脂）An insoluble polymer with fixed negative charges;used in the chromatographic separation of cationic substances.cDNA: See complementary DNA.Central dogma:（中心法則）The organizing principle of molecular biology: genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.Centromere:（著絲粒）A specialized site within a chromosome, serving as the attachment point for the mitotic or meiotic spindle.Cerebroside(腦苷酯)Sphingolipid containing one sugar residue as a head group.Channeling:（生物合成途徑限制作用)The direct transfer of a reaction product(common intermediate)from the active site of one enzyme to the active site of a different enzyme catalyzing the next step in a sequential pathway.Chemiosmotic coupling:（化學(xué)滲透偶聯(lián)）Coupling of ATP synthesis to electron transfer via an electrochemical H+ gradient across a membrane.Chemotaxis（向化性）: A cell's sensing of and movement toward, or away from, a specific chemical agent.Chemotroph:（化能生物）An organism that obtains energy by metabolizing organic compounds derived from other organisms.Chiral center:（手性中心）An atom with substituents arranged so that the molecule is not superimposable on its mirror image.Chiral compound:（手性化合物）A compound that contains an asymmetric center(chiral atom or chiral center)and thus can occur in two nonsuperimposable mirror-image forms(enantiomers).Chlorophylls:（葉綠素）A family of green pigments functioning as receptors of light energy in photosynthesis;magnesium-porphyrin complexes.Chloroplasts:（葉綠體）Chlorophyll-containing photosynthetic organelles in some eukaryotic cells.Chromatin:（染色質(zhì)）A filamentous complex of DNA, histones, and other proteins, constituting the eukaryotic chromosome.Chromatography:（層析）A process in which complex mixtures of molecules are separated by many repeated partitionings between a flowing(mobile)phase and a stationary phase.Chromosome:（染色體）A single large DNA molecule and its associated proteins, containing many genes;stores and transmits genetic information.Chylomicron:（乳糜微粒）A plasma lipoprotein consisting of a large droplet of triacylglycerols stabilized by a coat of protein and phospholipid;carries lipids from the intestine to the tissues.cis and trans isomers:（順反異構(gòu)體）See geometric isomers.Cistron:（順反子）A unit of DNA or RNA corresponding to one gene.Citric acid cycle:（檸檬酸循環(huán)）A cyclic system of enzymatic.reactions for the oxidation of acetyl residues to carbon dioxide, in which formation of citrate is the first step;also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle.Clones:（克隆）The descendants of a single cell.Cloning: The production of large numbers of identical DNA molecules, cells, or organisms, from a single ancestral DNA molecule, cell, or organism.Closed system:（封閉系統(tǒng)）A system that exchanges neither matter nor energy with the surroundings.See also system.Cobalamin:（鈷胺素）See cocnzyme B12.Codon:（密碼子）A sequence of three adjacent nucleotides in a nucleic acid that codes for a specific amino acid.Coenzyme:（輔酶）An organic cofactor required for the action of certain enzymes;often contains a vitamin as a component.Coenzyme A:（輔酶A）A pantothenic acid-containing coenzyme serving as an acyl group carrier in certain enzymatic reactions.Coenzyme B12: An enzymatic cofactor derived from the vitamin cobalamin, involved in certain types of carbon skeletal rearrangements.Cofactor(輔助因子)An inorganic ion or a coenzyme required for enzyme activity.Cognate:（相關(guān)的）Describing two biomolecules that normally interact;for example, an enzyme and its normal substrate, or a receptor and its normal ligand.Cohesive ends:（粘性末端）See sticky ends.Cointegrate:（共整合）An intermediate in the migration of certain DNA transposons in which the donor DNA and target DNA are covalently attached.Colligative properties:（依數(shù)性）Properties of solutions that depend on the number of solute particles per unit volume;for example, freezing-point depression.Common intermediate:（共同中間產(chǎn)物）A chemical compound common to two chemical reactions, as a product of one and a reactant in the other.Competitive inhibition:（競爭性抑制作用）A type of enzyme inhibition reversed by increasing the substrate concentration;a competitive inhibitor generally competes with the normal substrate or ligand for a protein's binding site.Complementary:（互補(bǔ)）Having a molecular surface with chemical groups arranged to interact specifically with chemical groups on another molecule.Complementary DNA(cDNA): A DNA used in DNA cloning, usually made by reverse transcriptase;complementary to a given mRNA.Configuration:（構(gòu)型）The spatial arrangement of an organic molecule that is conferred by the presence of either(1)double bonds, about which there is no freedom of rotation, or(2)chiral centers, around which substituent groups are arranged in a specific sequence.Configurational isomers cannot be interconverted without breaking one or more covalent bonds.Conformation:（構(gòu)象）The spatial arrangement, of substituent groups that are free to assume different positions in space, without breaking any bonds, because of the freedom of bond rotation.Conjugate acid-base pair:（共扼酸堿對(duì)）A proton donor and its corresponding deprotonated species;for example, acetic acid(donor)and acetate(acceptor).Conjugate redox pair:（共扼氧還對(duì)）An electron donor and its corresponding electron acceptor form;for example, Cu+(donor)and Cu2+(acceptor), or NADH(donor)and NAD+(acceptor).Conjugated protein:（結(jié)合蛋白質(zhì)）A protein containing one or more prosthetic groups.Consensus sequence:（一致序列）A DNA or amino acid sequence consisting of the residues that occur most commonly at each position within a set of similar sequences.Conservative substitution:（保守性置換）Replacement of an amino acid residue in a polypeptide by another residue with similar properties;for example, substitution of Glu by Asp.Constitutive enzymes:（組成酶）Enzymes required at all times by a cell and present at some constant level;for example, many enzymes of the central metabolic pathways.Sometimes called house-keeping enzymes.Contour length(外形長度): The length of a helical polymeric molecule as measured along the molecule's helical axis.Corticosteroids（皮質(zhì)類固醇激素）Steroid hormones formed by the adrenal cortex.Cotransport:（共轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)）The simultaneous transport, by a single transporter, of two solutes across a membrane.See antiport, symport.Coupled reactions:（偶聯(lián)反應(yīng)）Two chemical reactions that have a common intermediate and thus a means of energy transfer from one to the other.Covalent bond:（共價(jià)鍵）A chemical bond that involves sharing of electron pairs.Cristae:（嵴）Infoldings of the inner mitochondrial membrane.CRP（cAMP受體蛋白）See cAMP receptor protein.Cyclic AMP(cAMP): A second messenger within cells;its formation by adenylyl cyclase is stimulated by certain hormones or other molecular signals.Cyclic electron flow:（循環(huán)電子流）In chloroplasts, the light-induced flow of electrons originating from and returning to photosystem I.Cyclic photophosphorylation:（循環(huán)光合磷酸化）ATP synthesis driven by cyclic electron flow through photosystem I.Cyclin:（細(xì)胞周期蛋白）One of a family of proteins that activate cyclin-dependent protein kinases and thereby regulate the cell cycle.Cytochromes:（細(xì)胞色素）Heme proteins serving as electron carriers in respiration, photosynthesis, and other oxidation-reduction reactions.Cytokine:（細(xì)胞因子）One of a family of small secreted proteins(such as interleukins or interferons)that activate cell division or differentiation by binding to plasma membrane receptors in sensitive cells.Cytokinesis:（胞質(zhì)分裂）The final separation of daughter cells following mitosis.Cytoplasm:（細(xì)胞質(zhì)）The portion of a cell's contents outside the nucleus but within the plasma membrane;includes organelles such as mitochondria.Cytoskeleton:（細(xì)胞骨架）The filamentous network providing structure and organization to the cytoplasm;includes actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments.Cytosol:（細(xì)胞漿）The continuous aqueous phase of the cytoplasm, with its dissolved solutes;excludes the organelles such as mitochondria.D Dalton:（道爾頓）The weight of a single hydrogen atom(1.66 x I0-24 g).Dark reactions:（暗反應(yīng)）See carbon-assimilation reactions.De novo pathway:（從頭合成）Pathway for synthesis of a biomolecule, such as a nucleotide, from simple precursors;as distinct from a salvage pathway.Deamination:（脫氨基作用）The enzymatic removal of amino groups from biomolecules such as amino acids or nucleotides.Degenerate code:（兼并密碼）A code in which a single element in one language is specified by more than one element in a second language.Dehydrogenases:（脫氫酶類）Enzymes catalyzing the removal of pairs of hydrogen atoms from their substrates.Deletion mutation:（刪除突變）A mutation resulting from the deletion of one or more nucleotides from a gene or chromosome.Denaturation:（變性）Partial or complete unfolding of the specific native conformation of a polypeptide chain, protein, or nucleic acid.Denatured protein:（變性蛋白）A protein that has lost its native conformation by exposure to a destabilizing agent such as heat or detergent.Deoxyribonucleic acid;See DNA.Deoxyribonucleotides:（脫氧核糖核苷酸）Nucleotides containing 2-deoxyribose as the pentose component.Desaturases:（去飽和酶）Enzymes that catalyze the introduction of double bonds into the hydrocarbon portion of fatty acids.Desolvation:（脫水）In aqueous solution, the release of bound water surrounding a solute.Dextrorotatory isomer:9右旋異構(gòu)體）A stercoisomer that rotates the plane of plane-polarized light clockwise.Diabetes mellitus:（糖尿?。〢 metabolic disease resulting from insulin deficiency;characterized by a failure in glucose transport from the blood into cells at normal glucose concentrations.Dialysis:（透析）Removal of small molecules from a solution of a macromolecule, by allowing them to diffuse through a semipermeable membrane into water.Differential centrifugation:（差速離心）Separation of cell organelles or other particles of different size by their different rates of sedimentation in a centrifugal field.Differentiation:（分化）Specialization of cell structure and function during embryonic growth and development.Diffusion:（擴(kuò)散）The net movement, of molecules in the direction of lower concentration.Digestion:（消化）Enzymatic hydrolysis of major nutrients in the gastrointestinal system to yield their simpler components.Diploid:（二倍體）Having two sets of genetic information;describing a cell with two chromosomes of each type.Dipole;（雙極分子）A molecule having both positive and negative charges.Diprotic acid: An acid having two dissociable protons.Disaccharide:（二糖）A carbohydrate consisting of two covalently joined monosaccharide units.Dissociation constant:（解離常數(shù)）(1)An equilibrium constant(Kd)for the dissociation of a complex of two or more biomolecules into its components;for example, dissociation of a substrate from an enzyme.(2)The dissociation constant(Ka)of an acid, describing its dissociation into its conjugate base and a proton.Disulfide bridge:(二硫橋)A covalent cross link between two polypeptide chains formed by a cystine residue(two Cys residues).0 DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid)： A polynucleotide having a specific sequence of deoxyribonucleotide units covalently joined through 3', 5'-phosphodiester bonds;serves as the carrier of genetic information.DNA chimera:（DNA嵌合）A DNA containing genetic information derived from two different species.DNA cloning: Sec cloning.DNA library:（DNA文庫）A collection of cloned DNA fragments.DNA ligase：（DNA連接酶）An enzyme that creates a phosphodiester bond between the 3' end of one DNA segment, and the 5' end of another.DNA looping:（DNA出環(huán)）The interaction of proteins bound at distant sites on a DNA molecule so that the intervening DNA forms a loop.DNA microarray:（DNA微陣列）A collection of DNA sequences immobilized on a solid surface, with individual sequences laid out in patterned arrays that can be probed by hybridization.DNA polymerase:（DNA聚合酶）An enzyme that catalyzes template-dependent synthesis of DNA from its deoxyribonucleoside 5'-triphosphate precursors.DNA replicase system：（DNA復(fù)制酶系統(tǒng)）The entire complex of enzymeH and specialized proteins required in biological DNA replication.DNA supercoiling:（DNA超螺旋化）The coiling of DNA upon itself, generally as a result of bending, underwinding, or overwinding of the DNA helix.DNA transposition:（DNA轉(zhuǎn)座）See transposition.domain:（結(jié)構(gòu)域）A distinct structural unit of a polypeptide;domains may have separate functions and may fold as independent, compact units.Double helix:（雙螺旋）The natural coiled conformation of two complementary, antiparallel DNA chains.Double-reciprocal plot:（雙倒數(shù)作圖）A plot, of 1/Vo versus 1/[S], which allows a more accurate determination of Vmax and Km than a plot of V versus [S];also called the Lineweaver-Burk plot, E E'°: 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)還原電位 See standard reduction potential.E.coli(Escherichia coli):（大腸桿菌）A common bacterium found in the small intestine of vertebrates;the most well-studied organism.Electrochemical gradient:（電化學(xué)梯度）The sum of the gradients of concentration and of electric charge of an ion across a membrane;the driving force for oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation.Electrochemical potential:（電化學(xué)勢）

The energy required to maintain a separation of charge and of concentration across a membrane.Electrogenic:（生電的）Contributing to an electrical potential across a membrane.1 1

Electron acceptor:（電子受體）A substance that receives electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction.Electron carrier:（電子載體）A protein, such as a flavoprotein or a cytochrome, that can reversibly gain and lose electrons;functions in the transfer of electrons from organic nutrients to oxygen or some other terminal acceptor.Electron donor:（電子供體）A substance that donates electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction.Electron transfer:（電子轉(zhuǎn)移）Movement of electrons from substrates to oxygen via the carriers of the respiratory(electron transfer)chain.Electrophile:（親電劑）An electron-deficient group with a strong tendency to accept electrons from an electron-rich group(nucleophile).Electrophoresis（電泳）: Movement of charged solutes in response to an electrical field;often used to separate mixtures of ions, proteins, or nucleic acids.Electroporation:（電穿孔法）Introduction of macromolecules into cells after rendering the cells transiently permeable by the application of a high-voltage pulse.Elongation factors:（延長因子）Specific proteins required in the elongation of polypeptide chains by ribosomes.Eluate:（流出液）The effluent from a chromatographic column.Enantiomers:（對(duì)映異構(gòu)體）Stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other.End-product inhibition: See feedback inhibition.Endergonic reaction(耗能反應(yīng)): A chemical reaction that consumes energy(that is, for which ΔG is positive).Endocrine glands:（內(nèi)分泌腺）Groups of cells specialized to synthesize hormones and secrete them into the blood to regulate other types of cells.Endocytosis:（內(nèi)吞體）The uptake of extracellular material by its inclusion within a vesicle formed by an invagination of the plasma membrane.Endonuclease:（內(nèi)切核酸酶）An enzyme that hydrolyzes the interior phosphodiester bonds of a nucleic acid;that is, it acts at points other than the terminal bonds.Endoplasmic reticulum:（內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)）An extensive system of double membranes in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells;it encloses secretory channels and is often studded with ribosomes(rough endoplasmic reticulum).Endothermic reaction:（吸熱反應(yīng)）A chemical reaction that takes up heat(that is, for which ΔH is positive).Energy charge:（能荷）The fractional degree to which the ATP/ADP/AMP system is filled with high-energy phosphate groups.Energy coupling:（能量偶聯(lián)）The transfer of energy from one process to anotlier.Enhancers:（增強(qiáng)子）DNA sequences that facilitate the expression of a given gene;2 1

may be located a few hundred, or even thousand, base pairs away from the gene.Enthalpy(H):（焓）The heat.content of a system.Enthalpy change(ΔH):（焓變）For a reaction, is approximately equal to the difference between the energy used to break bonds and the energy gained by the formation of new ones.Entropy(S):（熵）The extent of randomness or disorder in a system.Enzyme：（酶）A biomolecule, either protein or RNA, that catalyzes a specific chemical reaction.It does not affect the equilibrium of the catalyzed reaction;it enhances the rate of a reaction by providing a reaction path with a lower activation energy.Enzyme cascade:（酶級(jí)聯(lián)）A series of reactions, often involved in regulatory events, in which one enzyme activates another(often by phosphorylation), which activates a third, and so on.The effect, of a catalyst activating a catalyst is a large amplification of the signal that initiated the cascade.Epimerases:（表異構(gòu)酶）Enzymes that catalyze the reversible interconveraion of two epimers.Epimers:（表異構(gòu)體）Two stereoisomers differing in configuration at one asymmetric center, in a compound having two or more asymmetric centers.Epithelial cell:（上皮細(xì)胞）Any cell that forms part of the outer covering of an organism or organ.Epitope:（抗原決定族）An antigenic determinant;the particular chemical group or groups within a macromolecule(antigen)to which a given antibody binds.Equilibrium:（平衡）The state of a system in which no further net change is occurring;the free energy is at a minimum.Equilibrium constant(K'eq)（平衡常數(shù)）A constant, characteristic for each chemical reaction;relates the specific concentrations of all reactants and products at equilibrium at a given temperature and pressure.Erythrocyte:（紅細(xì)胞）A cell containing large amounts of hemoglobin and specialized for oxygen transport;a red blood cell.Escherichia coli: See E.coli.Essential amino acids:（必需氨基酸）Amino acids that cannot be synthesized by humans(and other vertebrates)and must be obtained from the diet.Essential fatty acids:（必需脂肪酸）The group of polyunsaturated fatty acids produced by plants, but not by humans;required in the human diet.Ethanol fermentation:（乙醇發(fā)酵）See alcohol fermentation.Eukaryote:（真核生物）A unicellular or multicellular organism with cells having a membrane-bounded nucleus, multiple chromosomes, and internal organelles.Excited state:（激發(fā)態(tài)）An energy-rich state of an atom or molecule;produced by the absorption of light energy.Exergonic reaction:（放能反應(yīng)）A chemical reaction that proceeds with the release of 3 1

free energy(that is, for which ΔG is negative).Exocytosis:（胞泌作用）The fusion of an intracellular vesicle with the plasma membrane, releasing the vesicle contents to the extracellular space.Exon:（外顯子）The segment of a eukaryotic gene that encodes a portion of the final product of the gene;a portion that remains after posttranscriptional processing and is transcribed into a protein or incorporated into the structure of an RNA.See intron.Exonuclease:（外切核酸酶）An enzyme that hydrolyzes only those phosphodiester bonds that are in the terminal positions of a nucleic acid.Exothermic reaction:（放熱反應(yīng)）A chemical reaction that releases heat(that is, for which A// is negative).Expression vector:（表達(dá)載體）See vector.F Facilitated diffusion:（協(xié)助擴(kuò)散）Diffusion of a polar substance across a biological membrane through a protein transporter;also called passive diffusion or passive transport.Facultative cells:（兼性需樣氧細(xì)胞）Cells that can live in the presence or absence of oxygen.FAD(flavin adenine dinucleotide)：（黃素腺嘌呤二核苷酸）The coenzyme of some oxidation-reduction enzymes;it contains riboflavin.Fatty acid:（脂肪酸）A long-chain aliphatic carboxylic acid found in natural fats and oils;also a component of membrane phospholipids arid glycolipids.Feedback inhibition:（反饋抑制）Inhibition of an allosteric enzyme at the beginning of a metabolic sequence by the end product of the sequence;also known as end-product inhibition.Fermentation:（發(fā)酵）Knergy-yielding anaerobic breakdown of a nutrient molecule, such as glucose, without net oxidation;yields lactate, ethanol, or some other simple product.Fibroblast（成纖維細(xì)胞）A cell of the connective tissue that secretes connective tissue proteins such as collagen.Fibrous proteins:（纖維狀蛋白質(zhì)）Insoluble proteins that serve in a protective or structural role;contain polypeptide chains tliat generally share a common secondary structure.Fingerprinting:（指紋作圖）See peptide mapping.First law of thermodynamics: The law staling that in all processes, the total energy of the universe remains constant.Fischer projection formulas:（Fischer投影式）See projection formulas.5' end: The end of a nucleic acid that lacks a nucleotide bound at the 5' position of the terminal residue.4 1

Flagellum:(鞭毛)A cell appendage used in propulsion.Bacterial flagella have a much simpler structure than eukaryotic flagella, which are similar to cilia.Flavin-linked dehydrogenases:(黃素脫氫酶)Dehydrogenases requiring one of the riboflavins.coenzymes, FMN or FAD.Flavin nucleotides:（黃素核苷酸）Nucleotide coenzymes(FMN and FAD)containing riboflavin.Flavoprotein(黃素蛋白)An enzyme containing a flavin nucleotide as a tightly bound prosthetic group.Fluid mosaic model:（流動(dòng)鑲嵌模型）A model describing biological membranes as a fluid lipid bilayer with embedded proteins;the bilayer exhibits both structural and functional asymmetry.Fluorescence:（熒光）Emission of light by excited molecules as they revert to the ground state, FMN(flavin mononucleotide):（黃素單核苷酸）Riboflavin phosphate, a coenzyme of certain oxidation-reduction enzymes.Footprinting(足跡法)A technique for identifying the nucleic acid sequence bound by a DNA-or RNA-binding protein.Fractionation:（分級(jí)分離）The process of separating the proteins or other components of a complex molecular mixture into fractions based on differences in their physical properties, such as size, net charge, and solubility.Frame shift:（移碼）A mutation caused by insertion or deletion of one or more paired nucleotides, changing the reading frame of codons during protein synthesis;the polypeptide product has a garbled amino acid sequence beginning at the mutated codon.Free energy(G):（自由能）The component of the total energy of a system that can do work at constant temperature and pressure.Free energy of activation ΔG?(活化自由能);See activation energy.Free-energy change ΔG(自由能變化): The amount of free energy released(negative ΔG)or absorbed(positive ΔG)in a reaction at constant temperature and pressure.Free radical:（自由基）See radical.Functional group:（功能團(tuán)）The specific atom or group of atoms that confers a particular chemical property on a biomolccule.Furanose:（呋喃糖）A simple sugar containing the five-membered furan ring.Fusion protein:（融合蛋白）(1)A family of proteins that facilitate membrane fusion.(2)The protein product of a gene created by the fusion of two distinct genes or portions of genes.Futile cycle:（無效循環(huán)）A set of enzyme-catalyzed cyclic reactions that results in release of thermal energy by the hydrolysis of ATP.5 1

G G proteins:（G蛋白）A family of heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins that act in intracellular signaling pathways.Commonly, ligand binding to a serpentine receptor induces the exchange of GTP for bound GDP, enabling the G protein to activate a downstream enzyme in a signaling pathway.G proteins have intrinsic GTPase activity, and therefore self-inactivate.ΔG’°:(標(biāo)準(zhǔn)自由能變化)See standard free-energy change.Gametes:（配子）Reproductive cells with a haploid gene content;sperm or egg cells.Gangliosides:（神經(jīng)節(jié)苷脂）Sphingolipids, containing complex oligosaccharides as head groups;especially common in nervous tissue.Gel filtration:（凝膠過濾）See size-exclusion chromatography.（分子排阻層析）Gene:（基因）A chromosomal segment, that codes for a single functional polypeptide chain or RNA molecule.Gene expression:（基因表達(dá)）Transcription, and in the case of proteins, translation, to yield the product of a gene;a gene is expressed when its biological product is present and active.Gene splicing:（基因拼接）The enzymatic attachment of one gene, or part.of a gene, to another.General acid-base catalysis:（廣義酸堿催化）Catalysis involving proton transfer(s)to or from a molecule other than water.Genetic code:（遺傳密碼）The set of triplet code words in UNA(or mRNA)coding for the amino acids of proteins.Genetic information:（遺傳信息）The hereditary information contained in a sequence of nucleotide bases in chromosomal DNA or RNA.Genetic map:（遺傳圖譜）A diagram showing the relative sequence and position of specific genes along a chromosome.Genome:（基因組）All the genetic information encoded in a cell or virus.Genomic library:（基因組文庫）A DNA library containing DNA segments representing all(or most)of the sequences in an organism's genome.Genotype:（基因性或遺傳型）The genetic constitution of an organism, as distinct from ils physical characteristics, or phenotype.Geometric isomers:（幾何異構(gòu)體）Isomers related by rotation about a double bond;also called cis and trans isomers.Germ-line cell(生殖系細(xì)胞)A type of animal cell that is formed early in embryogenesis and may multiply by mitosis or may produce, by meiosis, cells that develop into gametes(egg or sperm cells).Globular proteins：（球蛋白）Soluble proteins with a globular(somewhat rounded)shape.Glucogenic amino acids:（生糖氨基酸）Amino acids with carbon chains that can be 6 1

metabolically converted into glucose or glycogen via gluconeogenesis.Gluconeogenesis:(糖異生)The biosynthesis of a carbohydrate from simpler, noncarbohydrate precursors such as oxaloacetate（草酰乙酸）or pyruvate（丙酮酸）.Glycan:（聚糖）Another term for polysaccharide;a polymer-of monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds, Glycerophospholipid:（甘油磷脂）An amphipathic lipid with a glycerol backbone;fatty acids are ester-linked to C-l and C-2 of glycerol, and a polar alcohol is attached through a phosphodiester linkage to C-3.Glycoconjugate:(復(fù)合糖)A compound containing a carbohydrate component bound covalently to a protein or lipid, forming a glycoprotein or glycolipids.Glycolipid:（糖脂）A lipid containing a carbohydrate group, Glycolysis:（糖酵解）The catabolic pathway by which a molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate.Glycoprotein(糖蛋白)A protein containing a carbohydrate group.Glycosaminoglycan:（糖胺聚糖）A heteropolysaccharide of two alternating units: one is either N-acetylglucosamine or N-acetylgalactosamine;the other is a uronic acid(usually glucuronic acid).Formerly called mucopolysaccharide.(粘多糖)Glycosidic bonds:（糖苷鍵）Bonds between a sugar and another molecule(typically an alcohol, purine, pyrimidine, or sugar)through an intervening oxygen.Glyoxylate cycle:(乙醛酸循環(huán))A variant of the citric acid cycle, for the net conversion of acetate into succinate and, eventually, new carbohydrate;present in bacteria and some plant cells.Glyoxysome:（乙醛酸體）A specialized peroxisome containing the enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle;found in cells of germinating seeds.Golgi complex:（高爾基復(fù)合體）A complex membranous organelle of eukaryotic cells;functions in the posttranslational modification of proteins and their secretion from the cell or incorporation into the plasma membrane or organellar membranes.Gram molecular weight:（克分子重量）The weight in grams of a compound that is numerically equal to its molecular weight;the weight of 1 mole.Grana:（基粒）Stacks of thylakoids（類囊體）, flattened membranous sacs or disks, in chloroplasts.Ground state:（基態(tài)）The normal, stable form of an atom or molecule;as distinct from the excited state.Group transfer potential:（基團(tuán)轉(zhuǎn)移力）A measure of the ability of a compound to donate an activated group(such as a phosphate or acyl group);generally expressed as the standard free energy of hydrolysis.H Half-life:（半衰期）The time required for the disappearance or decay of one-half of a 7 1

given component in a system.Haploid:（單倍體）Having a single set of genetic information;describing a cell with one chromosome of each type.Hapten:（半抗原）A small molecule which, when linked to a larger molecule, elicits an immune response.Haworth perspective formulas:（Haworth透視式）A method for representing cyclic chemical structures so as to define the configuration of each substituent group;the method commonly used for representing sugars.Helicase(解螺旋酶)An enzyme that, catalyzes the separation of strands in a DNA molecule before replication.Heme:（血紅素）The iron-porphyrin prosthetic group of heme proteins.Heme protein:（血紅素蛋白）A protein containing a heme as a prosthetic group.Hemoglobin:（血紅蛋白）A heme protein in erythrocytes;functions in oxygen transport.Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: An equation relating the pH, the pKa, and the ratio of the concentrations of the proton-acceptor(A+)and proton-donor(HA)species in a solution.Hepatocyte(肝細(xì)胞)The major cell type of liver tissue.Heteroduplex DNA(異源雙鏈DNA)Duplex DNA containing complementary strands derived from two different DNA molecules with similar sequences, often as a product of genetic recombination.Heteropolysaccharide:（雜多糖）A polysaccharide containing more than one type of sugar.Heterotroph:（異養(yǎng)生物）An organism that requires complex nutrient molecules, such as glucose, as a source of energy and carbon.Heterotropic:（異促的）Describes an allosteric modulator that is distinct from the normal ligand.Heterotropic enzyme:（異促酶）An allosteric enzyme requiring a modulator other than its substrate.Hexose:（己糖）A simple sugar with a backbone containing six carbon atoms.High-energy compound:（高能化合物）A compound that on hydrolysis undergoes a large decrease in free energy under standard conditions.High-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC)：（高效液相色譜）Chromatographic procedure, often conducted at relatively high pressures, using automated equipment that permits refined and highly reproducible profiles, Hill reaction:（希爾反應(yīng)）The evolution of oxygen and the photoreduction of an artificial electron acceptor by a chloroplast preparation in the absence of carbon dioxide.Histones:（組蛋白）The family of five basic proteins that associate tightly with DNA in the chromosomes of all eukaryotic cells, 8 1

Holliday intermediate（赫利地中間物）An intermediate in genetic recombination in which two double-stranded DNA molecules are joined by virtue of a reciprocal crossover involving one strand of each molecule.Holoenzyme:（全酶）A catalytically active enzyme including all necessary subunits, prosthetic groups, and cofactors.Homeobox:（同源框）A conserved DNA sequence of 180 base pairs encoding a protein domain found in many proteins that play a regulatory role in development.Homeodomain:（發(fā)育同源結(jié)構(gòu)域）The protein domain encoded by the homeobox.Homeostasis:（內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)）The maintenance of a dynamic steady state by regulatory mechanisms that compensate for changes in external circumstances.Homeotic genes:（同源框基因）Genes that regulate the development of the pattern of segments in the Drosophila body plan;similar genes are found in most vertebrates.Homologous genetic recombination:（同源遺傳重組）Recombination between two DNA molecules of similar sequence, occurring in all cells;occurs during meiosis and mitosis in eukaryotes.Homologous proteins:（同源蛋白）Proteins having sequences and functions similar in different species;for example, the hemoglobins.Homopolysaccharide:（同多糖）A polysaccharide made up of only one type of monosaccharide unit.Homotropic:(同促的）Describes an allosteric modulator that is identical to the normal ligand.Homotropic enzyme:（同促酶）An allosteric enzyme that uses its substrate as a modulator.Hormone:（激素）A chemical substance synthesized in small amounts by an endocrine tissue and carried in the blood to another tissue, where it acts as a messenger to regulate the function of the target tissue or organ.Hormone receptor:(激素受體)A protein in, or on the surface of, target cells that binds a specific hormone and initiates the cellular response, Hormone response element(HRE):（激素響應(yīng)元件）A short(12 to 20 bp)DNA sequence to which receptors for steroid, retinoid, thyroid, and vitamin D hormones bind, altering the expression of the contiguous genes.For each hormone, there is a consensus sequence preferred by the cognate receptor.Hyaluronic acid:（透明質(zhì)酸）A high molecular weight, acidic polysaccharide typically composed of the alternating disaccharide GlcUA(β1→3)GlcNAc, Hyaluronic acid is a major component of the extracellular matrix, and forms larger complexes(proteoglycans)with proteins and other acidic polysaccharides.Hydrogen bond:（氫鍵）A weak electrostatic attraction between one electronegative atom(such as oxygen or nitrogen)and a hydrogen atom covalently linked to a second electronegative atom.9 1

Hydrolases:（水解酶）Enzymes(proteases, lipases, phosphatases, nucleases, for example)that catalyze hydrolysis reactions.Hydrolysis:（水解）Cleavage of a bond, such as an anhydride or peptide bond, by the addition of the elements of water, yielding two or more products, Hydronium ion:（水合氫離子）The hydrated hydrogen ion(H3O+).Hydropathy index:（親水指數(shù)）A scale that expresses the relative hydrophobia and hydrophilic tendencies of a chemical group.Hydrophilic：（親水的）Polar or charged;describing molecules or groups that associate with(dissolve easily in)water.Hydrophobic:（疏水的）Nonpolar;describing molecules or groups that are insoluble in water.hydrophobic interactions（疏水相互作用）The association of nonpolar groups, or compounds, with each other in aqueous systems, driven by the tendency of the surrounding water molecules to seek their most stable(disordered)state.Hyperchromic effect(增色效應(yīng))The large increase in light absorption at 260 nm occurring as a double-helical DNA is melted(unwound).Hypoxia:（低氧）The metabolic condition in which the supply of oxygen is severely limited.I Immune response:（免疫反應(yīng)）The capacity of a vertebrate to generate antibodies to an antigen, a macromolecule foreign to the organism.Immunoglobulin(免疫球蛋白)An antibody protein generated against, and capable of binding specifically to an antigen.in vitro:（體外）“In glass”;that is, in the test tube.in vivo:（體內(nèi)）“In life”;that is, in the living cell or organism.Induced fit:（誘導(dǎo)契合）A change in the conformation of an enzyme in response to substrate binding that renders the enzyme catalytically active;also used to denote changes in the conformation of any macromolecule in response to ligand binding such that the binding site of the macromolecule better conforms to the shape of the ligand.Indncer:（誘導(dǎo)物）A signal molecule that, when bound to a regulatory protein, produces an increase in the expression of a given gene.Induction:（誘導(dǎo)）An increase in the expression of a gene in response to a change in the activity of a regulatory protein.Informational macromolecules:（信息大分子）Biomolecules containing information in the form of specific sequences of different monomers;for example, many proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids.Initiation codon（起始密碼）AUG(sometimes GUG in prokaryotes);codes for the first amino acid in a polypeptide sequence: N-formylmethionine in prokaryotes, and methionine in eukaryotes.0 Initiation complex:（起始復(fù)合物）A complex of a ribosome with an mRNA and the initiating Met-tRNAMet or fMet-tRNAMet, ready for the elongation steps.Inorganic pyrophosphatase(無機(jī)焦磷酸酶)An enzyme that hydrolyzes a molecule of inorganic pyrophosphate to yield two molecules of(ortho)phosphate;also known as pyrophosphatase.Insertion mutation:（插入突變）A mutation caused by insertion of one or more extra bases, or a mutagen, between successive bases in DNA.Insertion sequence:（插入序列）Specific base sequences at either end of a transposable segment of DNA.Integral proteins:（膜整體蛋白）Proteins firmly bound to a membrane by hydrophobic interactions;as distinct from peripheral proteins.Integrin:（整連蛋白）One of a large family of heterodimeric transmembrane proteins that mediate adhesion of cells to other cells or to the extracellular matrix.Intercalating mutagen:（嵌入突變）A mutagen that inserts itself between successive bases in a nucleic acid, causing a frame-shift mutation.Intercalation:（嵌入）Insertion between stacked aromatic or planar rings;for example, the insertion of a planar molecule between two successive bases in a nucleic acid.Iinterferons:（干擾素）A class of glycoproteins with antiviral activities.Intermediary metabolism:（中間代謝）In cells, the enzyme-catalyzed reactions that extract chemical energy from nutrient molecules and utilize it to synthesize and assemble cell components.Intron(intervening sequence)（內(nèi)含子，間隔序列）A sequence of nucleotides in a.gene that is transcribed but excised before the gene is translated.Ion channel:（離子通道）An integral protein that provides for the regulated transport of a specific ion, or ions, across a membrane.Ion-exchange resin:（離子交換樹脂）A polymeric resin that contains fixed charged groups;used in chromatographic columns to separate ionic compounds.Ion product of water(Kw)（水的離子積）The product of the concentrations of H+and OH-in pure water: kw = [H+] X [OH-] = 10-14 at 25 °C.Ionizing radiation（電離輻射）A type of radiation, such as x rays, that causes loss of electrons from some organic molecules, thus making them more reactive.Ionophore:（離子載體）A compound that binds one or more metal ions and is capable of diffusing across a membrane, carrying the bound ion.Iron-sulfur center:（鐵硫中心）A prosthetic group of certain redox proteins involved in electron transfers;Fe2+ or Fe3+ is bound to inorganic sulfur and to Cys groups in the protein.Isoelectric focusing（等電聚焦）An electrophoretic method for separating macromolccules on the basis of their isoelectric pH.1 2

Isoelectric pH(isoelectric point)(等電點(diǎn))The pH at which a solute has no net electric charge and thus does not move in an electric field, Isoenzymes:（同工酶）See isozymes.Isomerases:（異構(gòu)酶類）Enzymes that catalyze the transformation of compounds into their positional isomers.Isomers:（異構(gòu)體）Any two molecules with the same molecular formula, but a different arrangement of molecular groups.Isoprene:（異戊二烯）The hydrocarbon 2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene, a recurring structural unit of the terpenoid biomolecules.Isoprenoid:（類異戊二烯）Any of a large number of natural products synthesized by enzymatic polymerization of two or more isoprene units;also called terpenoids.Isothermal:（等溫的）Occurring at constant temperature.Isotopes:（同位素）Stable or radioactive forms of an element that differ in atomic weight but are otherwise chemically identical to the naturally abundant form of the clement;used as tracers.Isozymes:（同工酶）Multiple forms of an enzyme that catalyze the same reaction but differ from each other in their amino acid sequence, substrate affinity, Vm, and / or regulatory properties;also called isoenzymes.K Keratins;(角蛋白)Insoluble protective or structural proteins consisting of parallel polypeptide chains in α-helical or β conformations.Ketogenic amino acids（生酮氨基酸）Amino acids with carbon skeletons that can serve as precursors of the ketone bodies.Ketone bodies:（酮體）Acetoacetate, D-β-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone;water-soluble fuels normally exported by the liver but overproduced during fasting or in untreated diabetes mellitus.Ketose:（酮糖）A simple monosaccharide in which the carbonyl group is a ketone.Ketosis:（酮尿癥）A condition in which the concentration of ketone bodies in the blood, tissues, and urine is abnormally high.Kinases:（激酶）Enzymes that catalyze the phosphorylation of certain molecules by ATP.Kinetics:（動(dòng)力學(xué)）The study of reaction rates.Krebs cycle:（Krebs 循環(huán)）See citric acid cycle.L Lagging strand（滯后鏈）The DNA strand that, during replication, must be synthesized in the direction opposite to that in which the replication fork moves.Law of mass action:（質(zhì)量作用定律）The law stating that the rate of any given chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the activities(or concentrations)of the reactants.2 2

Leader:（前導(dǎo)序列）A short sequence near the amino terminus of a protein or the 5' end of an RNA that has a specialized targeting or regulatory function.Leading strand:（領(lǐng)頭鏈）The DNA strand that, during replication, is synthesized in the same direction in which the replication fork moves.Leaky mutant:（滲漏突變）A mutant gene that gives rise to a product with a detectable level of biological activity, Leaving group:（離去基團(tuán)）The departing or displaced molecular group in a unimolecular elimination or a bimolecular substitution reaction.Lectin（凝集素）A protein that binds a carbohydrate, commonly an oligosaccharide, with very high affinity and specificity, mediating cell-cell interactions.Lethal mutation:（致死突變）A mutation that inactivates a biological function essential to the life of the cell or organism.Leucine zipper:（亮氨酸拉鏈）A protein structural motif involved in protein-protein interactions in many eukaryotic regulatory proteins;consists of two interacting a helices in which Leu residues in every seventh position are a prominent, feature of the interacting surfaces.Leukotrienes:（白三烯）A family of molecules derived from arachidonate;muscle contractants that constrict air passages in the lungs and are involved in asthma.Levorotatory isomer:（左旋異構(gòu)體）A stercoisomer that rotates the plane of plane-polarized light counterclockwise.Ligand: A small molecule that binds specifically to a larger one;for example, a hormone is the ligand for its specific protein receptor.Ligases:（連接酶）Enzymes that.catalyze condensation reactions in which two atoms are joined using the energy of ATP or another energy-rich compound.Light-dependent reactions:（光反應(yīng)）The reactions of photosynthesis that require light and cannot, occur in the dark;also known as the light reactions.Lineweaver-Burk equation: An algebraic transform of the Michaells-Menten equation, allowing determination of Vmax and Km by extrapolation of [S] to infinity.Linking number:(連接數(shù))The number of times one closed circular DNA strand is wound about another;the number of topological links holding the circles together.Lipases:（脂酶）Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols.Lipid:（脂）A small water-insoluble biomolecule generally containing fatty acids, st.erols, or isoprenoid compounds.Lipoate(lipoic acid)（硫辛酸）A vitamin for some microorganisms;an intermediate carrier of hydrogen atoms and acyi groups hi a-keto acid dehydrogenases.Lipoprotein（脂蛋白）A lipid-protein aggregate that serves to carry water-insoluble lipids in the blood.The protein component alone is an apolipoprotein.Liposome:（脂質(zhì)體）A small, spherical vesicle composed of a phospholipid bilayer, which forms spontaneously when phospholipids are suspended in an aqueous buffer.3 2

Low-energy phosphate compound:（低能化合物）A phosphorylated compound with a relatively small standard free energy of hydrolysis.Lyases:（裂解裂合酶類）Enzymes that catalyze the removal of a group from a molecule to form a double bond, or the addition of a group to a double bond.Lymphocytes:（淋巴細(xì)胞）A subclass of leukocytes involved in the immune response.B lymphocytes synthesize and secrete antibodies;T lymphocytes either play a regulatory role in immunity or kill foreign and virus-infected cells.Lysis:（裂解）Destruction of a cell's plasma membrane or of a bacterial cell wall, releasing the cellular contents and killing the cell.Lysosome:（溶酶體）A membrane-bounded organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells;it contains many hydrolytic enzymes and serves as a degrading and recycling center for unneeded components.M Macromolecule:（大分子）A molecule having a molecular weight in the range of a few thousand to many millions.Matrix:（基質(zhì)）The aqueous contents of a cell or organelle(the mitochondrion, for example)with dissolved solutes.Meiosis:（減數(shù)分裂）A type of cell division in which diploid cells give rise to haploid cells destined to become gametes.Membrane potential(Vm):（膜電位）The difference in electrical potential across a biological membrane, commonly measured by the insertion of a microelectrode.Typical membrane potentials vary from —25 mV(by convention, the negative sign indicates that the inside is negative relative to the outside)to greater than —100 mV across some plant vacuole membranes.Membrane transport:（膜轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)）Movement of a polar solute across a membrane via a specific membrane protein(a transporter).Messenger RNA(mRNA):（信使RNA）A class of RNA molecules, each of which is complementary to one strand of DNA;carries the genetic message from the chromosome to the ribosomes, Metabolism(新陳代謝)The entire set of enzyme-catalyzed transformations of organic molecules in living cells;the sum of anabolism and catabolism.Metabolite:（代謝物）A chemical intermediate in the enzyme-catalyzed reactions of metabolism.Metalloprotein:（金屬蛋白）A protein having a metal ion as its prosthetic group.Metamerism:（分節(jié)）Division of the body into segments;in insects, for example.Micelle:（微團(tuán)）An aggregate of amphipathic molecules in water, with the nonpolar portions in the interior and the polar portions at the exterior surface, exposed to water.Michaelis constant(Km)（米氏常數(shù)）The substrate concentration at which an enzyme-catalyzed reaction proceeds at one-Iialf its maximum velocity.4 2

Michaelis-Menten equation（米氏方程）The equation describing the hyperbolic dependence of the initial reaction velocity, V, on substrate concentration, [S], in many enzyme-catalyzed reactions.Michaelis-Menten kinetics:（米氏動(dòng)力學(xué)）A kinetic pattern in which the initial rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction exhibits a hyperbolic dependence on substrate concentration.Microbodies:（微體）Cytoplasmic, membrane-bounded vesicles containing peroxide-forming and peroxide-destroying enzymes;include lysosomes, peroxisomes, and glyoxysomes.Microfilaments:（微絲）Thin filaments composed of actin, found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells;serve in structure and movement.Microtubules:（微管）Thin tubules assembled from two types of globular tubulin subunits;present, in cilia, flagella, centrosomes, and other contractile or motile structures.Mismatch(堿基錯(cuò)配)a base pair in a nucleic acid that cannot form normal Watson-Crick pairs.Mismatch repair:(錯(cuò)配修復(fù))an enzymatic system for repairing base mismatches in DNA.Mitochondrion:（線粒體）Membrane-bounded organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotes;contains the enzyme systems required for the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, electron transfer, and oxidative phosphorylation.Mitosis:（有絲分裂）The multistep process in eukaryotic cells that results in the replication of chromosomes and cell division, Mixed-function oxidases:（混合功能氧化酶）Enzymes(a inonooxygenase, for example)that catalyze reactions in which two reductants, one of which is generally NADPH, the other the substrate, are oxidized.One oxygen atom is incorporated into the product, the other is reduced to H^O.These enzymes often employ cylochrome P-450 to cany electrons from NADPH to 0^.Mixed inhibition:（混合抑制）The reversible inhibition pattern resulting when an inhibitor molecule can bind to either the free enzyme or to the enzyme-substrate complex(not necessarily with the same affinity).Modulator:（調(diào)節(jié)物）A Metabolite that, when bound to the allosteric site of an enzyme, alters its kinetic characteristics.Molar solution:（摩爾溶液）One mole of solute dissolved in water to give a total volume of 1000 mL.Mole:（摩爾）One gram molecular weight of a compound.See Avogadro's number.Monoclonal antibodies:（單克隆抗體）Antibodies produced by a cloned hybridoma cell, which therefore are identical and directed against the same epitope of the antigen.Monolayer:（單分子層）A single layer of oriented lipid molecules.Monoprotic acid: An acid having only one dissociable proton-5 2

Monosaccharide:（單糖）A carbohydrate consisting of I single sugar unit.mRNA: See messenger RNA.Mucopolysaccharide:（粘多糖）An older name for a glycosaminoglycan.Multienzyme system:（多酶系統(tǒng)）A group of related enzyme;participating in a given metabolic pathway.Mutarotation:（變旋現(xiàn)象）The change in specific rotation o a pyranose or furanose sugar or glycoside accompanying tlie equilibration of its a-and j8-anomcric forms.Mutases（變位酶）: Enzymes that catalyze the transposition of functional groups.Mutation: An inheritable change in the nucleotide sequence of a chromosome.Myofibril:（肌原纖維）A unit of thick and thin filaments of muscle fibers.Myosin:（肌球蛋白）A contractile protein;the major component of the thick filaments of muscle and other actin-myosin systems.N NAD, NADP(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate): Nicotinaniide-containing coenzyme: functioning as carriers of hydrogen atoms and electrons in some oxidation-reduction reactions.Native conformation:（天然構(gòu)象）Ttie biologically active conformation of a macromolecule.Negative cooperativity:（負(fù)協(xié)同性）A phenomenon of some inultisubunit enzymes or proteins in which binding of a ligand or substrate to one subunit impairs binding to another subunit.Negative feedback:（負(fù)反饋）Regulation of a biochemical pathway achieved when a reaction product.inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.Neuron:（神經(jīng)元）A cell of nervous tissue specialized for transmission of a nerve impulse.Neurotransmitter:（神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)）A low molecular weight compound(usually containing nitrogen)secreted from the terminal of a neuron and bound by a specific receptor in the next neuron;serves to transmit a nerve impulse.Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate: See NAD,NADP.Ninhydrin reaction（茚三酮反應(yīng)）A color reaction given by amino acida and peptides on heating with ninhydrin;widely used for their detection and estimation.Nitrogen cycle:（氮循環(huán)）The cycling of various forms of biologically available nitrogen through the plant, animal, and microbial worlds, and through the atmosphere and geosphere.Nitrogen fixation:（固氮作用）Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen(N3)into a reduced, biologically available form by nitrogen-fixing organisms.Nitrogenase complex:（固氮復(fù)合物）A system of enzymes capable of reducing atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia in the presence of ATP.6 2

Noncyclic electron flow:（非環(huán)式電子流）The light-induced tlow of electrons from water to NADP^ in oxygen-evolving photosynthesis;it involves both photosystems I and II.Nonessential amino acids:（非必需氨基酸）Amino acids tliat can be made by humans and other vertebrates from simpler precursors, and are thus not required in the diet.Nonheme iron proteins:（非血紅素鐵蛋白）Proteins, usually acting in oxidation-reduction reactions, containing iron but no porphyrin groups.Nonpolar:（非極性的）Hydrophobic;describing molecules or groups that are poorly soluble in water.Nonsense codon:（無義密碼）A codon that docs not specify an amino acid, but signals the termination of a polypeptide chain.Nonsense mutation:（無義突變）A mutation that results in the premature termination of a polypeptide chain.Nonsense suppressor（無義抑制）A mutation, usually in the gene for a tRNA, that, causes an amino acid to be inserted into a polypeptide in response to a termination codon.Nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR)spectroscopy（核磁共振譜）A technique that utilizes certain quantum mechanical properties of atomic nuclei to study the structure and dynamics of the molecules of which they are a part.Nucleases:（核酸酶）Knzymes that hydrolyze the internucicotidc(phosphodiester)linkages of nucleic acids.Nucleic acids:（核酸）Biologically occurring polynucleotides in which the nucleotide residues are linked in a specific sequence by phosphodiester bonds;DNA and RNA.Nucleoid:（擬核）In bacteria, the nuclear zone that contains the chromosome but has no surrounding membranc-Nucleolus:（核仁）A densely staining structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells;involved in rRNA synthesis and ribosome formation.Nucleophile:（親核劑）An electron-rich group with a strong tendency to donate electrons tu an electron-deficient nucleus(electrophilc);the entering reactant in a bimolecular substitution reaction.Nucleoplasm:（核質(zhì)）The portion of a cell's contents enclosed by the nuclear membrane;also called the nuclear matrix.Nucleoside:（核苷）A compound consisting of a purinc or pyrimidine base cuvalently linked to a pentose.Nucleoside diphosphate kinase:（核苷二磷酸激酶）An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of the terminal phosphate of a nucleoside 5'-triphosphate to a nucleoside 5'-diphosphate.7 2

Nucleoside diphosphate sugar:（核苷二磷酸糖）A coenzymelike carrier of a sugar molecule, functioning in the enzymatic synthesis of polysaccharides and sugar derivatives.Nucleoside monophosphate kinase:（核苷一磷酸激酶）An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of the termi-nal phosphate of ATP to a nucleoside 5'-monophosphate.Nucleosome:（核小體）Structural unit for packaging chromatin;consists of a UNA strand wound around a histone core.Nucleotide:（核苷酸）A nucleoside phosphorylated at one of its pentose hydroxyl groups.Nucleus:（細(xì)胞核）In cukaryotes, a membrane-bounded organellc that contains chromosomes.O Oligomer:(寡聚體)A short polymer, usually of amino acids, sugars, or nucleotides;the definition of “short” is somewhat arbitrary, but usually less than 50 subunits.Oligomeric protein:(寡聚蛋白)A multisubunit protein having two or more identical polypeptide chains.Oligonucleotide（寡核苷酸）: A short polymer of nucleotides(usually less than 50).Oligopeptide:（寡肽）A few amino acids joined by peptide bonds.Oligosaccharide:（寡糖）Several monosaccharide groups joined by glycosidic bonds.Oncogene:（致癌基因）A cancer-causing gene;any of several mutant genes that, cause cells to exhibit, rapid, uncontrolled proliferation.See also proto-oncogene.Open reading frame:（開放閱讀框）A group of contiguous nonoverlapping nucleotide codons in a DNA or RNA molecule that do not include a termination codon.Open system:（開放系統(tǒng)）A system that exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings.See also system.Operator(操縱基因)A region of DNA that interacts with a represser protein to control the expression of a gene or group of genes.Operon:（操縱子）A unit, of genetic expression consisting of one or more related genes and the operator and promoter sequences that regulate their transcription.optical activity:（光學(xué)活性）The capacity of a substance to rotate the plane of plane-polarized light.Optimum pH:（最適pH）The characteristic pH at which an enzyme has maximal catalytic activity.Organelles(細(xì)胞器)Membrane-bounded structures found in eukaryotic cells;contain enzymes and other components required for specialized cell functions.Origin:（起始位點(diǎn)）The nucleotide sequence or site in DNA where DNA replication is 8 2

initiated.Osmosis;（滲透作用）Bulk flow of water through a semi-permeable membrane into another aqueous compartment containing solute at a higher concentration.Osmotic pressure（滲透壓）: Pressure generated by the osmotic flow of water through a semipermeable membrane into an aqueous compartment containing solute at a higher concentration.Oxidases:（氧化酶）Enzymes that catalyse oxidation reactions in which molecular oxygen serves as the electron acceptor, but neither of the oxygen atoms is incorporated into the product.Compare oxygenases.Oxidation:（氧化作用）The loss of electrons from a compound.Oxidation-reduction reaction:（氧化還原反應(yīng)）A reaction in which electrons are transferred from a donor to an acceptor molecule;also called a redox reaction.Oxidative phosphorylation（氧化磷酸化）The enzymatic phosphorylation of ADP to ATP coupled to electron transfer from a substrate to molecular oxygen.Oxidizing agent(oxidant)（氧化劑）The acceptor of electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction.Oxygen debt:（氧債）The extra oxygen(above the normal resting level)consumed in the recovery period after strenuous physical exertion.Oxygenases:（加氧酶）Enzymes that catalyze reactions in which oxygen atoms are directly incorporated into tile product, forming a hydroxyl or carboxyl group.In reactions catalyzed by a monooxygenase, only one of the two 0 atoms is incorporated;the other is reduced to rLO;in reactions catalyzed by a dioxygenase, both 0 atoms are incorporated into the product.Compare oxidases.P

Palindrome（回文結(jié)構(gòu)）: A segment of duplex DNA in which the base sequences of the two strands exhibit twofold rotational symmetry about an axis.Partition coefficient（分配系數(shù)）: A constant that expresses the ratio in which a given solute will be partitioned or distributed between two given immiscible liquids at equilibrium.Pathogenic:（病原性的）Disease-causing.Pentose:（戊糖）A simple sugar with a backbone containing five carbon atoms.Pentose phosphate pathway（磷酸戊糖途徑）: A pathway that serves to interconvert hexoses and pentoses and is a source of reducing equivalents and pentoses for biosynthetic processes;present, in most organisms.Also called the phosphogluconate pathway.Peptidases:（肽酶）Enzymes that hydrolyze peptide bonds.Peptide:（肽）Two or more ammo acids covaleiitly joined by peptide bonds.Peptide bond（肽鍵）A substituted amide linkage between the a-amino group of one amino acid and the a-carboxyl group of another, with the elimination of the elements of 9 2

water, Peptide mapping:（肽指紋圖）The characteristic two-dimensional pattern(on paper or gel)formed by the separation of a mixture of peptides resulting from partial hydrolysis of a protein;also known as peptide fingerprinting.Peptidoglycan:（肽聚糖）A major component of bacterial cell walls;generally consists of parallel heteropolysaccharides cross-linked by short peptides.Peripheral proteins:（外周蛋白）Proteins that are loosely or reversibly bound to a membrane by hydrogen bonds or electrostatic forces;generally water-soluble once released from the membrane.Permeases:（透過酶）See transporters.Peroxisome:（過氧化物酶體）Membrane-bounded organelle in the cytoplasm of cukaryotic cells;contains peroxide-forming and peroxide-destroying enzymes.pH: The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration of an aqueous solution.Phage: See bacteriophage.Phenotype:（表型）The observable characteristics of an organism.Phosphatases:（磷酸酶）Enzymes that hydrolyze a phosphate ester or anhydride, releasing inorganic phosphate, Pi.Phosphodiester linkage:（磷酸二酯鍵）A chemical grouping that contains two alcohols esterified to one molecule of phosphoric acid, winch thus serves as a bridge between them.Phosphogluconate pathway:（磷酸己糖途徑）An oxidative pathway beginning with glucose 6-phosphate and leading, via 6-phosphogluconate, to pentose phosphates and yielding NADPH.Also called the pentose phosphate pathway.Phospholipid:（磷脂）A lipid containing one or more phosphate groups.Phosphorolysis:（磷酸解）Cleavage of a compound with phosphate as the attacking group;analogous to hydrolysis.Phosphorylases;Enzymes that catalyze phosphorolysis(defined above).Phosphorylation（磷酸化作用）Formation of a phosphate derivative of a biomolecule, usually by enzymatic transfer of a phosphoryl group from ATP.Phosphorylation potential(ΔGp)（磷酸化能力）: The actual free-energy change of ATP hydrolysis under the nonstandard conditions prevailing within a cell.Photochemical reaction center（光化學(xué)反應(yīng)中心）The part of a photosynthetic complex where the energy of an absorbed photon causes charge separation, initiating electron transfer.Photon:（光子）The ultimate unit(a quantum)of light energy.Photophosphorylation（光合磷酸化）The enzymatic formation of ATP from ADP coupled to the light-dependent transfer of electrons in photosynthetic cells.Photoreduction（光還原）The light-induced reduction of an electron acceptor in phot.osynthetic cells.0 Photorespiration（光呼吸）Oxygen consumption occurring in illuminated temperate-zone plants, largely due to oxidation ofphosphoglycolate.Photosynthesis（光合作用）The use of light energy to produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and a reducing agent sucli as water.Photosynthetic phosphorylation（光合磷酸化）See photophosphorylation.Photosystem（光系統(tǒng)）In photosynthetic cells, a functional set of light-absorbing pigments and its reaction center.Phototroph（光能生物）An organism that.can use the energy of light to synthesize its own fuels from simple molecules such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water;as distinct from a chemotroph.pKa: The negative logarithm of an equilibrium constant.Plasma membrane(質(zhì)膜)The exterior membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell.Plasma proteins（血漿蛋白）The proteins present in blood plasma.Plasmalogen A phospholipid with an alkenyl ether substituent on the C-l of glyccrol.Plasmid（質(zhì)粒）An extrachromosomal, independently replicating, small circular DNA molecule;commonly employed in genetic engineering.Plastid（質(zhì)體）In plants, a self-replicating organelle;may differentiate into a chloroplast.Platelets（血小板）Small, enucleated cells that initiate blood clotting;they arise from cells called megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.Also known as thrombocytes.Pleated sheet（折疊片）The side-by-side, hydrogen-bonded arrangement of polypeptide chains in the extended 0 conformation.Plectonemic: A structure in a molecular polymer in which there is a net twisting of strands about each other in some simple and regular way.Polar（極性的)Hydrophilic, or “water-loving”;describing molecules or groups that are soluble in water.Polarity:（極性）(1)In chemistry, the nonuniform distribution of electrons in a molecule;polar molecules are usually soluble in water.(2)In molecular biology, the distinction between the 5' and 3' ends of nucleic acids.Poly(A)tail: A length of adenosine residues added to the 3' ends of many mRNAs in eukaryotes(and sometimes in bacteria).Polycistronic mRNA（多順反子mRNA）A contiguous mRNA with more than two genes that can be translated into proteins.Polyclonal antibodies(多克隆抗體)A heterogeneous pool of antibodies produced in an animal by a number of different.B lymphocytes in response to an antigen.Different antibodies in the pool recognize different parts of the antigen.Polylinker（多連接物）A short, often synthetic, fragment of DNA containing recognition sequences for several restriction endomicleases.1 3

Polymerase chain reaction(PCR)（聚合酶鏈?zhǔn)椒磻?yīng)）A repetitive procedure that results in a geometric amplification of a specific DNA sequence.Polymorphic（多態(tài)性的）Describing a protein for which amino acid sequence variants exist in a population of organisms, but the variations do not destroy the protein's function.Polynucleotide（多核苷酸）A covalently linked sequence of nucieotides in which the 3' hydroxyl of the pentose of one nucleotide residue is joined by a phosphodiester bond to the 5' hydroxyl of the pentose of the next residue.Polypeptide（多肽）A long chain of amino acids linked by pcptide bonds;the molecular weight, is generally less than 10,000.Polyribosome（多核糖體）See polysome.Polysaccharide（多糖）A linear or branched polymer of monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds.Polysome(polyribosome): A complex of an inRNA molecule and two or more ribosomes.P/0 ratio（磷/氧比）The number of moles of ATP formed in oxidative phosphorylation per gO^ reduced(thus, per pair of electrons passed to Oa).Experimental values used in this text are 2.5 for passage of electrons from NADH to(X, and 1.5 for passage of electrons from FADH to 0^, Some textbooks use the integral values of 3.0 and 2.0.Porphyria（卟啉癥）Genetic condition resulting from the lack of one or more enzymes required to synthesize porphyrins.Porphyrin:（卟啉）Complex nitrogenous compound containing four substituted pyrroles covalently joined into a ring;often complexed with a central metal atom.Positive cooperativity（正協(xié)同性）A phenomenon of some multisubunit enzymes or proteins in which binding of a ligand or substrate to one subunit.facilitates binding to another subunit.Posttranscriptional processing（轉(zhuǎn)錄后加工）The enzymatic processing of the primary RNA transcript, producing functional mRNA, tRNA, and/or rRNA molecules.Posttranslational modification（翻譯后修飾）Enzymatic processing of a polypeptide chain after translation from its mRNA.Primary structure（一級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)）A description of the covalent backbone of a polymer(macromolecule), including the sequence of monomeric subunits and any interchain and intrachain covalent bonds.Primary transcript（原初轉(zhuǎn)錄本）The immediate RNA product of transcription before any posttranscriptional processing reactions.Primase（引物酶）: An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA oligonucleotides used as primers by DNA polymerascs.Primer（引物）A short oligomer(of sugars or nucieotides, for example)to which an enzyme adds additional monomeric subunits.2 3

Primer terminus（引物末端）The end of the primer to which monomeric suhunits are added.Primosome（引發(fā)體）An enzyme complex that synthesizes the primers required for lagging strand DNA synthesis.Probe（探針）A labeled fragment of nucleic acid containing a nucleotide sequence complementary to a gene or genomic sequence that one wishes to detect in a hybridization experiment, Processivity（持續(xù)合成能力）For any enzyme tliat catalyzes the synthesis of a biological polymer, the property of adding multiple subunits to the polymer without dissociating from the substrate.Prochiral molecule（原手性化合物）A symmetric molecule that can react asymmetrically with an enzyme having an asymmetric active site, generating a chiral product.Projection formulas（透視式）A method for representing molecules to show the configuration of groups around chiral centers;also known as Fischer projection formulas.Prokaryote（原核生物）A bacterium;a unicellular organism with a single chromosome, no nuclear envelope, and no membrane-bounded organelles.Promoter（啟動(dòng)子）A DNA sequence at.which RNA polymerase may bind, leading to initiation of transcription.Proofreading（校對(duì)）The correction of errors in the synthesis of an information-containing biopolymer by removing incorrect monomeric subunits after they have been covalent.ly added to the growing polymer.Prostaglandins（前列腺素）A class of lipid-soluble, hormonelike regulatory molecules derived from arachidonate and other polyunsaturated fatty acids.Prosthetic group（輔基）A metal ion or an organic compound(other than an amino acid)that is covalently bound to a protein and is essential to its activity.Proteasome（蛋白酶體）Supramolecular assembly of enzymatic complexes that.function in the degradation of damaged or unneeded cellular proteins.Protein（蛋白質(zhì)）A macromolecule composed of one or more polypeptide chains, each with a characteristic sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, Protein kinases（蛋白激酶）Enzymes that transfer the terminal phosphoryl group of ATP or another nucleoside tnphosphate to a Ser, Thr, Tyr, Asp, or His side chain in a target protein, thereby regulating the activity or other properties of that protein.Protein targeting（蛋白質(zhì)分送）The process by which newly synthesized proteins are sorted and transported to their proper locations in the cell.Proteoglycan（蛋白聚糖）A hybrid macromolecule consisting of a heteropolysaccharidc joined to a polypeptide;the polysaccharide is the major component.3 3

Proto-oncogene（原癌基因）A cellular gene, usually encoding a regulatory protein, that can be converted into an oncogene by mutation.Proton acceptor（質(zhì)子受體）An anionic compound capable of accepting a proton from a proton donor;that is, a base.Proton donor（質(zhì)子供體）The donor of a proton in an acid-base reaction;that is, an acid.Proton-motive force（質(zhì)子推動(dòng)力）The electrochemical potential inherent in a transmcmbrane gradient of H'1' concentration;used in oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation to drive ATF synthesis.Protoplasm（原生質(zhì)）A general term referring to the entire contents of a living cell.Purine（嘌呤）A nitrogenous heterocyclic base found in nucleotides and nucleic acids;containing fused pyrimidine and imidazole rings.Puromycin（嘌呤霉素）An antibiotic that inhibits polypeptide synthesis by being incorporated into a growing polypeptide chain, causing its premature termination.Pyranose（吡喃糖）A simple sugar containing the six-membered pyran ring.Pyridine nucleotide（嘧啶核苷酸）A nucleotide coenzyme containing the pyridine derivative nicotinamide;NAD or NADP.Pyridoxal phosphate（磷酸吡哆醛）A coenzyme containing the vitamin pyridoxine(vitamin B(;);functions in reactions involving amino group transfer.Pyrimidine（嘧啶）A nitrogenous heterocyclic base found in nucleotides and nucleic acids.Pyrimidine dimer（嘧啶二聚體）A covalently joined dimer of two adjacent pyrimidine residues in DNA, induced by absorption of LIV light;most commonly derived from two adjacent thymines(a thymine dimer).Pyrophosphatase（焦磷酸酶）See inorganic pyrophosphatase.Q Quantum（量子）The ultimate unit of energy.Quaternary structure（四級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)）The three-dimensional structure of a multisubunit protein;particularly the manner in which the subunits fit together.R R group:(1)Formally, an abbreviation denoting any alkyi group.(2)Occasionally, used in a more general sense to denote virtually any organic substituent(the R groups of amino acids, for example).Racemic mixture(racemate)（外消旋化合物）An equimolar mixture of the u and L stereoisomers of an optically active compound.Radical（自由基）An atom or group of atoms possessing an unpaired electron;also called a free radical.Radioactive isotope（放射性同位素）An isotopic form of an element with an unstable nucleus that stabilizes itself by emitting ionizing radiation.4 3

Radioimmunoassay（放射免疫實(shí)驗(yàn)）A sensitive and quantitative method for detecting trace amounts of a biomolecule, based on its capacity to displace a radioactive form of the molecule from combination with its specific antibody.Rate constant（速度常數(shù)）The proportionality constant that relates the velocity of a chemical reaction to the concentration(s)of the reactant(s).Rate-limiting step（限速步驟）(1)Generally, the step in an enzymatic reaction with the greatest activation energy or the transition state of highest free energy.(2)The slowest step in a metabolic pathway.Reaction intermediate（反應(yīng)中間產(chǎn)物）Any chemical species in a reaction pathway that has a finite chemical lifetime.Reading frame（閱讀框）A contiguous and nonoverlapping set of three-nucleotide codons in DNA or RNA.Recombinant DNA（重組DNA）DNA formed by the joining of genes into new combinations.Recombination(重組)Any enzymatic process by which the linear arrangement of nucleic acid sequences in a chromosome is altered by cleavage and rejoining.Recombinational DNA repair（重組DNA修復(fù)）: recombinational processes that are directed at the repair of DNA strand breaks or cross-links, especially at inactivated replication forks.Redox pair（氧還對(duì)）An electron donor and its corresponding oxidized form;for example, NADH and NAD"".Redox reaction（氧還反應(yīng)）: See oxidation-reduction reaction.Reducing agent(reductant)（還原劑）The electron donor in an oxidation-reduction reaction.Reducing end（還原端）The end of a polysaccharide having a terminal sugar with a free anomeric carbon;the terminal residue can act aa a reducing sugar.Reducing equivalent: A general or neutral term for an electron or an electron equivalent in the form of a hydrogen atom or a hydride ion.Reducing sugar（還原糖）A sugar in which the carbonyl Canomeric)carbon is not involved in a glycosidic bond and can therefore undergo oxidation.Reduction（還原）Tlie gain of electrons by a compound or ion.Regulatory enzyme（調(diào)節(jié)酶）An enzyme having a regulatory function through its capacity to undergo a change in catalytic activity by allosteric mechanisms or by covalent modification.Regulatory gene（調(diào)節(jié)基因）A gene that gives rise to a product involved in the regulation of the expression of another gene;for example, a gene coding for a represser protein.Regulatory sequence（調(diào)節(jié)序列）A DNA sequence involved in regulating the expression of a gene;for example, a promoter or operator.5 3

Regulon（調(diào)節(jié)子）A group of genes or operons that are coordinately regulated even though some, or all, may be spatially distant within the chromosome or genome.Relaxed DNA（松弛DNA）Any DNA that exists in its most stable and unstrained structure, typically B form under most cellular conditions.Release factors（終止釋放因子）See termination factors.Releasing factors: Hypothalamic hormones lhat stimulate release of other hormones by the pituitary gland, Renaturation（復(fù)性）Refolding of an unfolded(denatured)globular protein so as to restore native structure and protein function.Replication（復(fù)制）Synthesis of daughter nucleic acid molecules identical to the parental nucleic acids.Replication fork（復(fù)制叉）The Y-shaped structure generally found at the point where DNA is being synthesized.Replicative form（復(fù)制形式）Any of the full-length structural forms of a viral chromosome that serve as distinct replication intermediates.Replisome（復(fù)制體）The multiprotein complex that promotes DNA synthesis at the replication fork.Repressible enzyme（阻遏酶）In bacteria, an enzyme whose synthesis is inhibited when its reaction product is readily available to the cell.Repression:（阻遏）A decrease in the expression of a gene in response to a change in the activity of a regulatory protein.Represser（阻遏蛋白）The protein that binds to the regulatory sequence or operator for a gene, blocking its transcription.Residue（殘基）A single unit within a polymer;for example, an amino acid within a polypeptide chain.The term reflects the fact that sugars, nucleotides, and amino acids lose a few atoms(generallytne elements of water)when incorporated in their respective polymers.Respiration（呼吸）Any metabolic process that leads to the uptake of oxygen and tlie release of COg.Respiration-linked phosphorylation（呼吸鏈磷酸化）ATP formation from ADP and Pp driven by electron flow through a series of membrane-bound carriers, with a proton gradient as the direct source of energy driving rotational catalysis by ATPsynthase, Respiratory chain（呼吸鏈）The electron transfer chain;a sequence of electron-carrying proteins that transfer electrons from substrates to molecular oxygen in aerobic cells.Restriction endonucleases（限制性內(nèi)切酶）Site-specific endodeoxyribonucleases causing cleavage of both strands of DNA at points within or near the specific site recognized by the enzyme;important tools in genetic engineering.Restriction fragment（限制片段）A segment of double-stranded UNA produced by the 6 3

action of a restriction endonuclease on a larger DNA.Restriction fragment length polymorphisms(RFLPs)（限制片段長度多態(tài)性）: Variations, among individuals in a population, in the length of certain restriction fragments within which certain genomic sequences occur.These variations result from rare sequence changes that create or destroy restriction sites in the genome.Retrovirus（反轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒）An RNA virus containing a reverse transcriptase.Reverse transcriptase（反轉(zhuǎn)錄酶）: An RNA-directed DNA polymerase in retroviruses;capable of making DNA complementary to an RNA.Ribonuclease（核糖核酸酶）A nuclease that.catalyzes the hydrolysis of certain internucleotide linkages of RNA.Ribonucleic acid:（核糖核酸）See RNA.Ribonucleotide（核糖核苷酸）A nucleotide containing D-ribose as its pentose component.Ribosomal RNA（rRNA）（核糖體RNA）A class of RNA molecules serving as components of ribosomes.Ribosome（核糖體）A supramolecular complex of rRNAs and proteins, approximately 18 to 22 imi in diameter;the site of protein synthesis.Ribozymes(核酶)Ribonucleic acid molecules with catalytic activities;RNA enzymes.Rieske iron-sulfur protein（Rieske鐵硫蛋白）A type of iron-sulfur protein in which two of the ligands to the central iron ion are His side chains.These proteins act in many electron-transfer sequences, including oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation.RNA(ribonucleic acid): A polyribunucleotide of a specific sequence linked by successive 3', 5'-phosphodiester bonds.RNA polymerase（RNA聚合酶）An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA from ribonucleoside S'-triphosphates, using a strand of DNA or RNA as a template.RNA splicing（RNA拼接）Removal of introns and joining of exons in a primary transcript.rRNA: See ribosomal RNA.S S-adenosylmethionine(adoMet)（S-腺苷蛋氨酸或活化蛋氨酸）An enzymatic cofactor involved in methyl group transfers.Salvage pathway（補(bǔ)救途徑）Synthesis of a biomolecule, such as a nucleotide, from intermediates in the degradative pathway for the biomolecule;a recycling pathway, as distinct from a de novo pathway.Saponification（皂化作用）Alkaline hydrolysis of triacylglycerols to yield fatty acids as soaps.Sarcomere（肌節(jié)）A functional and structural unit of the muscle contractile system.7 3

Satellite DNA（衛(wèi)星DNA）Highly repeated, nontranslated segments of DNA in eukaryotic chromosomes;most often associated with the centromeric region.Its function is not clear.Saturated fatty acid(飽合脂肪酸)A fatty acid containing a fully saturated alkyl chain.Second law of thermodynamics（熱力學(xué)第二定律）The law stating that in any chemical or physical process, the entropy(熵)of the universe tends to increase.Second messenger（第二信使）An effector molecule synthesized within a cell in response to an external signal(first messenger)such as a hormone.Secondary metabolism（次生代謝）Pathways that lead to specialized products not found in every living cell.Secondary structure（二級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)）The residue-by-residue conformation of the backbone of a polymer.Sedimentation coefficient（沉降系數(shù)）A physical constant, specifying the rate of sedimentation of a particle in a centrifugal field under specified conditions.Selectins（選擇蛋白）A large family of membrane proteins, lectins(凝集素)that bind oligosaccharides on other cells tightly and specifically, and serve to carry signals across the plasma membrane.SELEX;A method for rapid experimental identification of nucleic acid sequences(usually RNA)that have particular catalytic or ligand-binding properties.Serpentine receptors（蜿蜒受體）A large family of membrane receptor proteins with seven trans-membrane helical segments.These receptors often associate with G proteins to transduce an extracellular signal into a change in cellular metabolism.Shine-Dalgarno sequence（SD序列）A sequence in an mRNA required for binding prokaiyotic ribosomes.SH2 domain;A protein domain that binds tightly to a phosphotyrosine residue in certain proteins such as the receptor tyrosine kinases, initiating the formation of a multiprotein complex that acts in a signaling pathway.Shuttle vector（穿梭載體）A recombinant DNA vector that can be replicated in two or more different host species.See also vector.Sickle-cell anemia（鐮刀型貧血?。〢 human disease characterized by defective hemoglobin molecules;caused by a homozygous allele coding for the β chain of hemoglobin.Sickle-cell trait（鐮刀性狀）A human condition recognized by the sickling of erythrocytes when exposed to low oxygen tension;occurs in individuals heterozygous for the allele responsible for sickle-cell anemia.Signal sequence（信號(hào)序列）An amino acid sequence, often at the amino terminus, that signals the cellular fate or destination of a newly synthesized protein.Signal transduction（信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)）The process by which an extracellular signal(chemical, mechanical, or electrical)is amplified and converted to a cellular response.8 3

Silent mutation（沉默突變）A mutation in a gene that causes no detectable change in the biological characteristics of the gene product.Simple diffusion（簡單擴(kuò)散）The movement of solute molecules across a membrane to a region of lower concentration, unassisted by a protein transporter.Simple protein（簡單蛋白）A protein yielding only amino acids on hydrolysis, Site-directed mutagenesis（定點(diǎn)突變）A set of methods used to create specific alterations in the sequence of a gene.Site-specific recombination（定點(diǎn)重組）A type of genetic recombination that occurs only at specific sequences.Size-exclusion chromatography（分子排阻層析）A procedure for the separation of a mixture of molecules on the basis of size, based on the capacity of porous polymers to exclude solutes above a certain size.Also called gel filtration(凝膠過濾).Small nuclear RNA(snRNA)（小核RNA）Any of several small RNA molecules in the nucleus;most have a role in the splicing reactions that remove introns from mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules.Somatic cells(體細(xì)胞)All body cells except the germ-line cells（生殖細(xì)胞）.SOS response（應(yīng)急反應(yīng)）In bacteria, a coordinated induction of a variety of genes as a response to high levels of DNA damage.Southern blot（Southern印跡法）A DNA hybridization procedure in which one or more specific DNA fragments are detected in a larger population by means of hybridization to a complementary, labeled nucleic acid probe.Specific acid-base catalysis（狹義酸堿催化）Acid or base catalysis involving the constituents of water(hydroxide or hydronium ions).Specific activity（比活力）The number of micromoles(μmol)of a substrate transformed by an enzyme preparation per minute per milligram of protein at 25 °C;a measure of enzyme purity.Specific heat（比熱）The amount of energy(in joules焦耳 or calories)needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a pure substance by 1 oC.Specific rotation（比旋光度）The rotation, in degrees, of the plane of plane-polarized light（平面偏振光）(D-line of sodium，鈉的D線)by an optically active compound at 5 °C, with a specified concentration and light path.Specificity（特異性，專一性）The ability of an enzyme or receptor o discriminate among competing substrates or ligands, Sphingolipid（神經(jīng)鞘磷脂）An amphipathic lipid with a sphingosine（鞘氨醇）backbone to which are attached a long-chain fatty acid and a polar alcohol.Spliceosome（拼接體）A complex of RNAs and proteins involved in the splicing of mRNAs in eukaryotic cells.Splicing(拼接)See gene splicing;RNA splicing.Standard free-energy change(ΔG?°)（標(biāo)準(zhǔn)自由能變化）The free-energy change for 9 3

a reaction occurring under a set of standard conditions: temperature, 298 K;pressure, 1 atm or 101.3 kPa;and all solutes at 1 M concentration.ΔG?° denotes the standard free-energy change at pH 7.0.Standard reduction potential(?’°): The electromotive force exhibited at an electrode by 1 M concentrations of a reducing agent and its oxidized form at 25 °C and pH 7.0;a measure of the relative tendency of the reducing agent to lose electrons.Steady state（穩(wěn)態(tài)）A nonequilibrium state of a system through which matter is flowing and in which all components remain at, a constant concentration.Stem cells（干細(xì)胞）The common, self-regenerating cells in bone marrow(骨髓)that give rise to differentiated blood cells such as erythrocytes and lymphocytes.Stereoisomers（立體異構(gòu)體）Compounds that have the same composition and the same order of atomic connections, but different molecular arrangements.Sterols（固醇類）A class of lipids containing the steroid nucleus.sticky ends（粘性末端）Two DNA ends in the same DNA molecule, or in different molecules, with short overhanging single-stranded segments that are complementary to one another, facilitating ligation of the ends;also known as cohesive ends.Stop codons（終止密碼）See termination codons.Stroma（葉綠體基質(zhì)）The space and aqueous solution enclosed within the inner membrane of a chloroplast, not including the contents within the thylakoid membranes.Structural gene（結(jié)構(gòu)基因）A gene coding for a protein or RNA molecule;as distinct, from a regulatory gene.Substitution mutation（堿基替換突變）A mutation caused by the replacement of one base by another.Substrate（底物）The specific compound acted upon by an enzyme.Substrate-level phosphorylation（底物水平磷酸化）Phoyphorylation of ADP or some other nucleoside 5'-diphosphate coupled to the dehydrogenation of an organic substrate;independent of the electron-transfer chain（電子傳遞鏈）.Suicide inhibitor（自殺性抑制劑）A relatively inert molecule that is transformed by an enzyme, at its active site, into a reactive substance that irreversibly inactivates the enzyme.Supercoil（超螺旋）The twisting of a helical(coiled)molecule on itself;a coiled coil.Supercoiled DNA（超螺旋DNA）DNA that twists upon itself because it is under-or overwound(and thereby strained)relative to B-form DNA.Superhelical density（超螺旋密度）: In a helical molecule such as DNA, the number of supercoils(superhelical turns)relative to the number of coils(turns)in the relaxed molecule.Suppressor mutation（抑制基因突變）A mutation that totally or partially restores a function lost by a primary mutation;located at a site different, from the site of the primary mutation, 0 Svedberg(S):(沉降系數(shù))A unit of measure of the rate at which a particle sediments in a centrifugal field.Symbionts（共生體）Two or more organisms that are mutually interdependent;usually living in physical association.Symport（共轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)）Cotransport of solutes across a membrane in the same direction.Synthases（合酶）Enzymes that.catalyze condensation reactions in which no nucleoside triphosphate is required as an energy source.Synthetases（合成酶）Enzymes that catalyze condensation reactions using ATP or another nucleoside triphosphate as an energy source.System（系統(tǒng)）An isolated collection of matter;all other matter in the universe apart from the system is called the surroundings（環(huán)境）.T Telomere（端粒）Specialized nucleic acid structure found at the ends of linear eukaryotic chromosomes.Template（模板）A macromolecular mold or pattern for the synthesis of an informational macromolecule.template strand（模板鏈）A strand of nucleic acid used by a polymerase as a template to synthesize a complementary strand.terminal transferase（末端轉(zhuǎn)移酶）An enzyme that catalyzes the addition of nucleotide residues of a single kind to the 3' end of DNA chains.termination codons（終止密碼）UAA, UAG, and UGA;in protein synthesis, signal the termination of a polypeptide chain.Also known as stop codons.termination factors（終止因子）Protein factors of the cytosol required in releasing a completed polypeptide chain from a ribosome;also known as release factors.termination sequence（終止序列）A DNA sequence that appears at the end of a transcriptional unit and signals the end of transcription.Terpenes（萜類）Organic hydrocarbons or hydrocarbon derivatives constructed from recurring isoprene units.They produce some of the scents and tastes of plant products.tertiary structure（三級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)）The three-dimensional conformation of a polymer in its native folded state.Tetrahydrobiopterin（四氫生物喋呤）The reduced coenzyme form of biopterin（生物喋呤）.Tetrahydrofolate（四氫葉酸）The reduced, active coenzyme form of the vitamin folate(葉酸).thiamine pyrophosphate（焦磷酸硫胺素）The active coenzyme form of vitamin B1;involved in aldehyde transfer reactions.Thioester（硫酯）An ester of a carboxylic acid with a thiol or mercaptan.3' end:（3'端）The end of a nucleic acid that lacks a nucleotide bound at the 3' position of the terminal residue.1 4

Thromboxanes（凝血惡烷類）A class of molecules derived from arachidonate（花生四烯酸）and involved in platelet aggregation during blood clotting.Thylakoid（類囊體）Closed cisterna(囊), or disk, formed by the pigment-bearing internal membranes of chloroplasts.thymine dimer（胸腺嘧啶二聚體）See pyrimidine dimer.tissue culture（組織培養(yǎng)）Method by which cells derived from multicellular organisms are grown in liquid media.titration curve(滴定曲線)A plot of the pH versus the equivalents of base added during titration of an acid.Tocopherols（生育酚）Forms of vitamin E.topoisomerases（拓?fù)洚悩?gòu)酶）Enzymes that introduce positive or negative supercoils in closed, circular duplex DNA.Topoisomers（拓?fù)洚悩?gòu)體）Different forms of a covalently closed, circular DNA molecule that differ only in their linking number.Topology（拓?fù)鋵W(xué)）The study of the properties of an object that do not change under continuous deformations such as twisting or bending.Toxins（毒素蛋白）Proteins produced by some organisms and toxic to certain other species.trace element（痕量元素）A chemical element required by an organism in only trace amounts.Transaminases（轉(zhuǎn)氨酶）See aminotransferases（氨基轉(zhuǎn)移酶）.Transamination（轉(zhuǎn)氨作用）Enzymatic transfer of an amino group from an α-amino acid to an α-keto acid.Transcription（轉(zhuǎn)錄）The enzymatic process whereby the genetic information contained in one strand of DNA is used to specify a complementary sequence of bases in an mRNA chain.transcriptional control（轉(zhuǎn)錄控制）The regulation of a protein's synthesis by regulation of the formation of its mRNA.Transduction[（能量）轉(zhuǎn)換、（信息）傳導(dǎo)](1)Generally, the conversion of energy or information from one form to another.(2)The transfer of genetic information from one cell to another by means of a viral vector.transfer RNA(tRNA)（轉(zhuǎn)移RNA）A class of RNA molecules(M,.25,000 to 30,000), each of which combines covalently with a specific amino acid as the first step in protein synthesis.Transformation(轉(zhuǎn)化)Introduction of an exogenous DNA into a cell, causing the cell to acquire a new phenotype.Transgenic（轉(zhuǎn)基因的）Describing an organism that has genes from another organism incorporated within its genome as a result of recombinant DNA procedures.transition state（過渡態(tài)）An activated form of a molecule in which the molecule has 2 undergone a partial chemical reaction;the highest point on the reaction coordinate(反應(yīng)進(jìn)程圖).Translation（翻譯）The process in which the genetic information present in an mRNA molecule specifies the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis.translational control（翻譯控制）The regulation of a protein's synthesis by regulation of the rate of its translation on the ribosome.translational represser（翻譯阻遏物）A represser that binds to an mRNA, blocking translation.Translocase（轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)酶、移位酶）(1)An enzyme that catalyzes membrane transport.(2)An enzyme that causes a movement, such as the movement of a ribosome along an mRNA.Transpiration（蒸騰作用）Passage of water from the roots of a plant to the atmosphere via the vascular system（脈管系統(tǒng)）and the stomata（氣孔）of the leaves.Transporters（轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)體）Proteins that span a membrane and transport specific nutrients, metabolites, ions, or proteins across the membrane;sometimes called permeases.(透過酶)Transposition（轉(zhuǎn)座）The movement of a gene or set of genes from one site in the genome to another.transposon(transposable element)（轉(zhuǎn)座子）A segment of DNA that can move from one position in the genome to another.Triacylglycerol（三酰甘油）An ester of glycerol with three molecules of fatty acid;also called a triglyceride(三酰甘油酯)or neutral fat（中性酯）.tricarboxylic acid cycle（三羧酸循環(huán)）See citric acid cycle, triose（丙糖）A simple sugar with a backbone containing three carbon atoms.tRNA: See transfer RNA.tropic hormone(tropin)（促激素）A peptide hormone that stimulates a specific target gland to secrete its hormone;for example, thyrotropin(促甲狀腺素)produced by the pituitary stimulates secretion of thyroxine（甲狀腺素）by the thyroid（甲狀腺）.turnover number（周轉(zhuǎn)數(shù)）The number of times an enzyme molecule transforms a substrate molecule per unit time, under conditions giving maximal activity at substrate concentrations that are saturating.U Ubiquitin（泛蛋白）A small, highly conserved protein that targets an intracellular protein for degradation by proteasomes.Several ubiquitin molecules are covalently attached in tandem to a Lys residue in the target protein by a specific ubiquitinating enzyme.ultraviolet(UV)radiation（紫外輻射）Electromagnetic radiation in the region of 200 to 400 nm.uncompetitive inhibition（反競爭性抑制）The reversible inhibition pattern resulting 3 when an inhibitor molecule can bind to the enzyme-substrate complex but not to the free enzyme.uncoupling agent（解偶聯(lián)劑）A substance that uncouples phosphorylation of ADP from electron transfer;for example, 2,4-dinitrophenol（2，4-二硝基苯酚）.Uniport（單向轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)）A transport system that carries only one solute, as distinct from cotransport, unsaturated fatty acid（不飽合脂肪酸）A fatty acid containing one or more double bonds.urea cycle（尿素循環(huán)）A metabolic pathway in vertebrates, for the synthesis of urea from amino groups and carbon dioxide;occurs in the liver.Ureotelic（排尿素的）Excreting excess nitrogen in the form of urea.Uricotelic（排尿酸的）Excreting excess nitrogen in the form of urate(uric acid).V Vmax（最大反應(yīng)速度）The maximum velocity of an enzymatic reaction when the binding site is saturated with substrate, Vector（載體）A DNA molecule known to replicate autonomously in a host cell, to which a segment of DNA may be spliced to allow its replication;for example, a plasmid or an artificial chromosome.Vectorial metabolism（方向性代謝）Metabolic transformations in which the location(not the chemical composition)of a substrate changes relative to a cellular membrane dividing two compartments.Transporters catalyze vectorial reactions, as do the proton pumps of oxidative and photophosphorylation.viral vector（病毒載體）A viral DNA altered so that it can act as a vector for recombinant DNA.Virion（病毒粒）A virus particle.Virus（病毒）A self-replicating, infectious, nucleic acid-protein complex that requires an intact host cell for its replication;its genome is either DNA or RNA.Vitamin（維生素）An organic substance required in small quantities in the diet of some species;generally functions as a component of a coenzyme.W wild type（野生型）The normal(unmutated)phenotype.Wobble（擺動(dòng)、變偶）The relatively loose base pairing between the base at the 3' end of a codon and the complementary base at the 5' end of the anticodon.X x-ray crystallography（X-射線晶體學(xué)）The analysis of x-ray diffraction patterns of a crystalline compound, used to determine the molecule's three-dimensional structure.Z zinc finger(鋅指)A specialized protein motif(基序)involved in DNA recognition by 4 4

some DNA-binding proteins, characterized by a single atom of zinc coordinated(配位)to four Lys residues or to two His and two Lys residues.Zwitterion（兼性離子）A dipolar ion, with spatially separated positive and negative charges.Zymogen（酶原）An inactive precursor of an enzyme;for example, pepsinogen(胃蛋白酶原), the precursor of pepsin（胃蛋白酶）.5 4

第五篇：生物化學(xué)教學(xué)大綱(雙語)

《生物化學(xué)》課程大綱

（本方案由黃霄編寫）

一、課程水平

四年制本科二年級(jí)的學(xué)生適用

二、課程介紹

生物化學(xué)作為園林專業(yè)的一門專業(yè)基礎(chǔ)課。它的任務(wù)主要是介紹生物化學(xué)的基本知識(shí)，以及本學(xué)科領(lǐng)域相關(guān)的生物化學(xué)研究進(jìn)展。使學(xué)生了解生物體化學(xué)組成成分的分子結(jié)構(gòu)及其性質(zhì)，生命活動(dòng)中發(fā)生的化學(xué)變化和調(diào)控規(guī)律，從而掌握生物化學(xué)的基礎(chǔ)理論、基本知識(shí)和基本技能，為學(xué)習(xí)其它專業(yè)基礎(chǔ)課和專業(yè)課程奠定必要的基礎(chǔ)。

三、課程模式

課堂講解，研討課和課堂作業(yè)相結(jié)合。

四、教學(xué)方法

啟發(fā)式，討論式。

五、每周課時(shí)

二學(xué)時(shí)（一個(gè)學(xué)時(shí)的課堂講解，一個(gè)學(xué)時(shí)的講練結(jié)合課）

六、必讀和選讀材料

1、教師

? Horton H.R.Principles of Biochemistry(Third Edition).Prentice-Hall Inc.2002 ?B.D.Hames & N.M.Hooper.Instant notes in biochemistry.科學(xué)出版社，2003

? Peter R.Bergethon.The physical basis of biochemistry.世界圖書出版公司，2005 ?H.Robert Horton.生物化學(xué)原理.科學(xué)出版社，2003 ?Markus R Wenk and Aaron Zefrin Fernandis.A Manual for Biochemistry Protocols.A World Science Publishing Co.2007 ?Engelbert Buxbaum.Fundamentals of Protein Structure and Function.Springer Science_Business MediaLLC,2007 ?CR Calladine, HR Drew, BF Luisi, and AA Trqvers.Understanding DNA: The molecule & How it works.Elsevier Academic Press, 2004 ?Jan Koolman and Klaus-Heinrich Roehm.Color Atlas of Biochemistry.revised and enlarged, Thieme Stuttgart New York , 2005 ?Gary C.Howard and William E.Brown.Modern Protein Chemistry.Practical Aspects CRC PRESS ,2002

?Protein Biochemistry and Proteomics(Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 2006, Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved 2

2、學(xué)生

B.D.Hames(2002)和其他讀物被列在每節(jié)課的書單里面。

七、設(shè)備

我們強(qiáng)烈推薦使用電腦上網(wǎng)。

八、教學(xué)日程安排 第一周

課程簡介。討論書單和其他的專業(yè)。

第二周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionA Amino acids and proteins(氨基酸與蛋白質(zhì))第二周

講授：A1-Amino acids(氨基酸)。教師將使用B.D.Hames(2002)作為教材。講練結(jié)合課: A2-Protein structure（蛋白質(zhì)結(jié)構(gòu)）.第三周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)Section A Amino acids and proteins(氨基酸與蛋白質(zhì))第三周

講授：A3-Protein purification（蛋白質(zhì)的純化）。

講練結(jié)合課：A4-Protein sequencing and peptide synthesis（蛋白質(zhì)測序和肽的合成）。

第四周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)Section B： Enzymes（酶）。第四周

講授： B1-Introduction to enzymes（酶概述）；B2-Enzymes kinetics（酶動(dòng)力學(xué)）講練結(jié)合課： B3-Enzyme Specificity and Regulation（酶的影響因素與調(diào)控）第五周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionC：Membranes（膜）第五周

講授：C1-Moity of Membranes（膜組分）；C2-Membranes transport（膜轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)）。講練結(jié)合課 ： C3-Signal transduction（信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)）。

第六周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionD：DNA structure and replication（DNA結(jié)構(gòu)與復(fù)制）

第六周

講授：D1-DNA structure（DNA 結(jié)構(gòu)）。

講練結(jié)合課：D2-DNA replication（DNA 復(fù)制）。

第六周課前討論：老師要把班級(jí)分成幾個(gè)小組。這些小組要在四天之內(nèi)閱讀RNA合成和加工的相關(guān)資料。第七周

講授：E1-RNA synthesis（RNA轉(zhuǎn)錄）

研討課：E2-RNA processing（RNA加工）。

第七周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionF：Protein synthesis.第八周

講授：F1-the genetic code（遺傳密碼）；F2-Translation in prokaryotes（原核生物翻譯）講練結(jié)合課： F3-Translation in enkaryotes（真核生物翻譯）。第八周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionG：Recombinant DNA technology

第九周

講授：G-Recombinant DNA technology（重組DNA技術(shù)）

講練結(jié)合課：聚合酶鏈?zhǔn)椒磻?yīng)。

第九周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionH：Carbohydrate metabolism

第十周

講授： H1-Glycolysis（糖酵解）

講練結(jié)合課：H2-Gluconeogenesis（糖異生）

第十一周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionH：Carbohydrate metabolism.第十一周

。講授：H3-Pentose phosphate pathway（磷酸戊糖途徑）。講練結(jié)合課： H3-Pentose phosphate pathway（磷酸戊糖途徑）。第十二周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionI：Lipid metabolism.第十二周

講授： I1-Fatty acid breakdown（脂肪酸分解）；I2-Fatty acid synthesis（脂肪酸合成）。講練結(jié)合課：Lipid metabolism（脂類代謝）。

第十三周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionJ：Respiration and energy.第十三周

講授： J1-Citric acid cycle（TCA）；J2-Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation（電子傳遞和氧化磷酸化）。

講練結(jié)合課： J3-Photosynthesis（光合作用）。

第十四周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)SectionK：Nitrogen metabolism.第十四周

講授：K1-Nitrogen fixation and assimilation（固氮作用和同化作用）；K2-Amino acid metabolism（氨基酸代謝）。講練結(jié)合課：；K3-The urea cycle（尿素循環(huán)）。

第十四周課前閱讀：B.D.Hames(2002)Section L：Metabolism regulation.第十五周

講授：L：Metabolism regulation.講練結(jié)合課：討論物質(zhì)代謝之間的關(guān)系及調(diào)控。

九、課程評(píng)價(jià)辦法： 出勤和課堂作業(yè)：20% 一次期中考試：20% 小論文：30% 期末考試：30%

十、備注：

此課程大綱適用于本科教學(xué)階段。